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A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


FRACTURES  AND  DISLOCATIONS. 


BY 

LEWIS  A.  STIMSON,  B.A.,  M.D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  SURGERY  IN  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY  MEDICAL  COLLEGE,  NEW    YORK  ;  SURGEON  TO 

THE  NEW  YORK  AND  HUDSON  ST.   HOSPITALS  ;  CONSULTING  SURGEON  TO  BELLEVUE, 

ST.  JOHNS,  AND  CHRIST  HOSPITALS  ;     CORRESPONDING  MEMBER  OF  THE 

SOCIETE  DE  CHIRURGIE  OF  PARIS. 


A 


WITH   326   ILLUSTRATIONS   AND   20    PLATES   IN    MONOTINT. 


LEA  BROTHERS  &  CO., 
NEW   YOEK   AND   PHILADELPHIA. 

1  899. 


Entered  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1899,  by 

LEA    BROTHERS    &   CO., 

in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  "Washington.     All  rights  reserved. 


7-  ^-^30 


DORNAN,     PKINTEE, 
PHILADELPHIA. 


PREFACE. 


Although  this  work  is,  in  one  sense,  a  second  edition  of  the 
volumes  published  in  1883  and  1888,  it  has  been  so  largely  rewritten 
that  it  is  practically  new.  The  wider  experience  gained  through 
eleven  years  of  service  in  charge  of  the  House  of  Relief  (Hudson 
Street  Hospital),  where  traumatic  cases  are  very  numerous,  and  where 
I  have  seen  examples  of  most  of  the  rarer' forms  of  injury,  and  some 
which  have  not  heretofore  been  described,  gave  the  opportunity  and 
seemed  to  justify  a  recasting  of  the  work  in  a  more  personal  form, 
with  a  corresponding  reduction  in  the  number  of  quotations  of 
histories  and  of  opinions  based  on  single  cases.  This  has  enabled 
me  not  only  to  introduce  such  additions  as  have  been  made  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  subject  in  the  interval,  but  also  to  adapt  the  work 
more  specifically  to  the  needs  of  the  practitioner,  especially  in  respect 
to  diagnosis  and  treatment,  while  those  of  the  student  of  special 
subjects  have  been  heeded  in  the  bibliographical  references,  which 
have  been  largely  added  to. 

The  portion  treating  of  Fractures  has  been  almost  wholly  rewritten, 
the  most  marked  change  in  classification  and  arrangement  being  that 
made  in  the  chapter  on  fractures  of  the  skull,  in  which  for  the  former 
classification — as  fractures  of  the  base  and  vault — that  of  circum- 
scribed fractures  of  the  vault  and  fissured  fractures  with  injury  of 
the  brain  has  been  substituted. 

In  the  portion  treating  of  Dislocations  the  most  notable  changes, 
perhaps,  in  addition  to  those  above  referred  to,  are  those  dealing 
with  operative  reduction  of  both  old  and  recent  injuries. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  historical  fulness  of  the  first  edition,  which  has 
been  so  freely  and  pleasantly  recognized,  has  not  been  seriously 
impaired,  and  that  the  reader  will  still  find  within  the  covers  the 
material  by  which  to  estimate  the  correctness  of  the  views  expressed. 


vi  PREFACE. 

It  is  believed  that  a  full  equivalent  for  any  eliminations  of  history 
will  be  found  in  the  greater  compactness,  the  reduction  in  size,  and 
the  substitution  of  opinions  which  are  at  least  temporarily  settled 
for  former  discussions  of  divergent  views. 

Shortly  after  the  discovery  of  the  X-rays  an  apparatus  for  their 
utilization  was  set  up  in  the  Hospital,  and  some  of  the  results  are 
shown  in  the  skiagrams  introduced  as  plates.  In  studying  these 
photographs  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  are  the  reproductions 
of  shadows,  not,  like  ordinary  photographs,  of  the  appearance  of 
illuminated  surfaces,  and  that  the  apparent  modelling  of  the  bones  is 
inexact  because  it  is  due  to  differences  in  thickness  and  opacity  to 
the  rays.  While  the  X-rays  have  been  of  interest  and  value  in 
showing  details  of  certain  fractures,  especially  at  the  wrist,  elbow, 
and  ankle,  yet  it  cannot  fairly  be  said  that  they  have  yielded  much 
information  of  practical  value  which  could  not  have  been  obtained 
by  palpation.  Probably  their  usefulness  will  be  increased  by 
improvements  in  methods  and  apparatus,  but  at  present  the  infor- 
mation which  they  give  needs  to  be  sifted  with  great  care  from  among 
many  misleading  appearances. 

Lewis  A.  Stimson. 

34  East  Thirty-third  Street,  New  York, 
January,  1899. 


CONTENTS. 


FHACTURES. 


CHAPTER    I. 

INTRODUCTION. 
Definitions,  statistics,  influences  of  sex,  age,  and  season 

CHAPTER    II. 

PATHOLOGY. 

A.  The  bone  ;  varieties  of  fracture     ..... 

1.  Incomplete  fractures        ...... 

(a)  Fissures  ....... 

(6)  True  incomplete,  green-stick  ;  infraction 

(c)  Depressions    ....... 

(d)  Separation  of  a  splinter  or  apophysis 

2.  Complete  fractures ;  subdivided  according  to   . 

(a)  Direction  and  character  of  the  line  of  fracture 

(b)  The  seat  of  fracture 

(c)  Intraarticular 

3.  Multiple  fractures    . 

4.  Compound  fractures 

5.  Gunshot  fractures    . 
Displacements 

B.  The  soft  parts 


PAGE 

19 


22 
22 
23 
23 

24 
24 
25 
25 
28 
29 
30 
30 
32 
34 
36 


CHAPTER    III. 

ETIOLOGY. 

Predisposing  causes     ............  38 

External,  normal,  interstitial  atrophy,  inherited  liability     ....  38 

Determining  causes     ............  39 

External  violence,  direct  or  indirect     ........  39 

Muscular  action   ............  40 

Spontaneous  and  pathological  fractures        ........  43 

General  diseases  ............  43 

Disease  of  nerve  centres       ..........  45 

Rhachitis,  syphilis,  rheumatism  .........  45 

Cancer  and  sarcoma      ...........  46 

Cysts,  osteomyelitis       ...........  47 

Intra-uterine,  and  during  delivery       .........  47 

CHAPTER    IV. 

EARLY   SYMPTOMS   AND    DIAGNOSIS. 

Objective  signs   .............  49 

Deformity  (normal  asymmetry)   .........  49 

Abnormal  mobility       ...........  50 

Crepitus        .............  51 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


Subjective  or  rational  symptoms 
Loss  of  function  ;  pain 
History         .         .         .  . 


CHAPTEE    V. 

REPAIR   OF    FRACTURES   AND   CLINICAL   COURSE 


Anato mo- pathological  processes. 
In  compound  fracture  . 
In  short  and  flat  bones 
At  the  epiphyseal  line 

Clinical  course     .         .         .         . 


The  callus 


PAGE 

52 
52 
53 


CHAPTER    VI. 

COMPLICATIONS   AND   REMOTE   CONSEQUENCES. 


Early  local  complications   . 

Skin.     Bloodvessels 

Gangrene.     Degeneration  of  muscles 

Suppuration 
Early  general  complications 

Septicaemia  . 

Fat  embolism 

Delirium  tremens,  tetanus,  pneumonia 
Late  local  complications 

Excessive  or  painful  callu 

Development  of  a  tumor 

Injury  of  a  nerve 

Weakness  of  callus 

Arrest  or  exaggeration  of  growth 

Stiffness  of  the  joints  . 

Atrophy.     Thrombosis  a:nd  embolism 


CHAPTER    VII. 

TREATMENT. 


Reduction  ...... 

Retention  ...... 

Temporary  and  removable  dressings 
Wooden  and  wire  splints 
Anterior  suspended  splints     . 
Moulded  splints    . 
Permanent  or  final  dressings 
Encasement  in  plaster  . 
Traction,  Buck's  extension     . 
Hodgen's  splint,  vertical  suspension 
Direct  fixation 
Massage 

Ambulatory  treatment 
Management  of  the  joints 
Compound  fractures    . 
By  indirect  violence 
By  direct  violence 
Gunshot  fractures 
Amputation 

Compound  articular  fractur( 
General  treatment 


Pathology 
Etiology 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

DELAYED  UNION,  FAILURE  OF  UNION,  FADLTY  UNION. 


108 
109 


CONTENTS. 


Symptoms  . 
Faulty  union 


PAGE 

111 
11 :{ 


CHAPTEK    IX. 

GENERAL   PROGNOSIS 


IIG 


CHAPTER    X. 

FRACTURES   OF   THE   SKULL. 


Mechanism  and  pathology  ..... 

Exceptional  forms         ..... 

Internal  table        ..... 
Pathological  and  reparative  processes 
Symptoms,  diagnosis,  and  treatment    . 

Circumscribed  fractures  of  the  vault 

Fissured  fractures  with  generalized  brain  injury 

Internal  table        ...... 

Rupture  of  the  middle  meningeal  artery 

Perfoi-ating  fractures  of  the  base  . 
Summary    ........ 


12U 

r_>5 

1^6 
128 
129 
121) 
132 
134 
134 
135 
136 


CHAPTER    XI. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE  VERTEBRA. 


Pathology  ...... 

Etiology      ...... 

Symptoms  and  diagnosis 

Atlas  and  axis       .... 

Lower  five  cervical  and  first  two  dorsal 

Lower  dorsal  and  first  two  lumbar 

Lower  three  lumbar 
Course  and  termination 
Treatment  ...... 


1.39 
1-12 
143 
144 
145 
147 
148 
148 
151 


CHAPTER    XII. 

FRACTURES   OF   THE   BONES   OF   THE   FACE. 


1.  Nose       .         .         .         . 

2.  Malar  bone  and  zygoma 

3.  Superior  maxilla    . 

4.  Inferior  maxilla 


154 
157 
158 
161 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE  HYOID  BONE 


168 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE  LARYNX  AND  TRACHEA  . 


170 


CHAPTER    XV. 

FRACTURES   OF   THE   STERNUM 


172 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

FRACTURES   OF   THE   RIBS   AND   THEIR   CARTILAGES 


177 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEE    XVII. 

FKACTURES   OF   THE   CLAVICLE. 

PAGE 

Pathology 186 

1.  Middle  third 187 

2.  Outer  third 188 

3.  Inner  third      .         .        _. 189 

Multiple  fractures.     Complications       ........  190 

Etiology 192 

Simultaneous  fractures  of  both  clavicles      ........  193 

Symptoms  and  course ............  194 

Treatment 195 


CHAPTEE    XVIII. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE  SCAPULA. 


1.  Of  the  body  of  the  scapula 

2.  Of  the  inferior  angle 

3.  Of  the  upper  angle 

4.  Of  the  spine  . 

5.  Of  the  acromion    . 

6.  Of  the  coracoid  process 

7.  Of  the  neck    . 

8.  Of  the  glenoid  cavity 


202 
204 
205 
205 
206 
207 
208 
209 


CHAPTEE    XIX. 

FRACTURES   OF   THE   HUMERUS. 


1.  Fi'actures  of  the  upper  end  of  the  humerus     . 
A.   Fractures  of  the  head    .... 
Fractures  of  the  anatomical  neck  and  fractur 
Fractures  of  the  tuberosities  . 
Separation  of  the  epiphysis    . 
Fracture  of  the  surgical  neck 
Symptoms,  diagnosis,  prognosis,  treatment   . 
Fractures  of  the  shaft  of  the  humerus    . 
Fractures  of  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus     . 

A.  Fractures  above  the  condyles — supracondyloid 

B.  Fractures  of  the  internal  epicondyle 
Fractures  of  the  external  epicondyle 
Fractures  of  the  internal  condyle  . 
Fractures  of  the  external  condyle  . 
Intercondyloid,  T-shaped  fractures 

G.    Separation  of  the  epiphysis    . 

H.  Fractures  of  the  articular  process  . 

Of  the  capitellum.     Of  the  trochlea 
Diagnosis      ....... 

Treatment    ....... 


B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 


C. 
D. 
E. 
F. 


thi'ough  the  tuberosities 


211 
212 
212 
217 
219 
222 
225 
229 
232 
234 
239 
240 
241 
243 
245 
247 
249 
250 
251 
252 


CHAPTEE    XX. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OP  THE  FOREARM. 


1.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  elbow-joint   . 

A.  Olecranon       ..... 

B.  Coronoid  process     .... 

C.  Of  the  head  and  neck  of  the  radius 

2.  Fractures  of  the  shaft     .... 

A.  Fractures  of  the  shafts  of  both  bones 

B.  Of  the  shaft  of  the  ulna 

C.  Of  the  shaft  of  the  radius 

3.  Fractures  in  the  vicinity  of  the  wrist 


253 
253 

260 
262 
264 
264 
270 
271 
273 


CONTENTS. 

xi 

I'AGE 

A.  Fractures  of  the  radius.     Colles's  fracture       .... 

Cause       .......... 

Symptoms         ......... 

Treatment 

B.  Fractures  at  the  wrist  other  than  Colles's        .... 

.     273 

.     277 
.     279 
.     281 
.     283 

CHAPTER    XXI 


FRACTURES   OF   THK   CARPUS   AND   HAND. 


1 .  Fractures  of  the  carpus  . 

2.  Fractures  of  the  metacarpal  bones  . 

3.  Fractures  of  the  phalanges     . 


286 
286 

288 


CHAPTER    XXII, 


FRACTURES    OF   THE    PELVIS. 


1.  Fractures  of  the  ring  of  the  pelvis 

Separation  of  the  symphysis  pubis 
Separation  in  front  and  behind 
Separation  of  the  sacro-iliac  synchondrosis 
Separation  of  all  three  joints 
Fracture  of  the  pubic  portion  of  the  pelvic 
Fracture  of  the  lateral  portion     . 
Course,  diagnosis,  treatment 

2.  Transverse  fracture  of  the  sacrum  . 

3.  Fracture  of  the  coccyx  .... 

4.  Fracture  of  the  ilium     .... 

5.  Fracture  of  the  ischium 

6.  Fracture  of  the  pubis     .... 

7.  Fracture  of  the  rim  of  the  acetabulum  . 


ring 


290 
291 
292 
292 
292 
293 
293 
296 
297 
298 
299 
301 
301 
301 


CHAPTER    XXIII, 


FRACTURES   OF   THE   FEMUR. 

Fractures  at  the  upper  end  of  the  femur 

A.  Fractures  of  the  head  of  the  femur 

B.  Fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur 

Causes  ..... 

Pathology     .... 

(a)  Fractures  through  the  neck 
[h]  Separation  of  the  epiphysis 
(c)   Fractures  at  the  base  of  the  neck 

Repair  ....... 

Symptoms  and  diagnosis 

Prognosis       ...... 

Treatment     ...... 

C.  Fractures  through  the  trochanter  and  neck 

D.  Fracture  of  the  great  trochanter 

E.  Fracture  of  the  trochanter  minor    . 
Fractures  of  the  shaft  of  the  femur 
Fractures  of  the  lower  end  of  the  femur 

A.  Intercondyloid  fractures . 

B.  Separation  of  the  epiphysis     . 

C.  Fracture  of  either  condyle 


303 
303 
304 
307 
308 
308 
310 
310 
313 
318 
324 
327 
331 
332 
333 
333 
341 
341 
344 
346 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE  PATELLA. 


Cause  . 
Pathology 


349 
350 


CONTENTS. 


Symptoms  .         .         .         . 
Treatment  .         .         .         . 

Non-operative 

Operative     . 

For  relief  of  disability 

For  refracture 


352 
355 
356 
359 
36a 
364 


CHAPTER    XXV. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEG. 

Fractures  of  the  upper  end     . 

Separation  of  the  epiphysis 

Avulsion  of  the  spine  of  the  tibia 

Avulsion  of  the  tubercle  of  the  tibia 
Fractures  of  the  shaft     . 

3.   Fractures  at  the  lower  end  of  the  leg 

A.  Comminuted  fracture  of  the  tibia 

B.  Supramalleolar  fracture   . 

C.  Separation  of  the  epiphysis  of  the  tibia  . 

D.  Fractures  by  eversion  and  abduction,  Pott's 

E.  Fractures  of  the  malleoli  by  inversion 

F.  Of  the  posterior  portion  of  articular  surface 
Fractures  of  the  fibula 

A.  Of  the  upper  end    ...... 

B.  Of  the  shaft    . 


365 
367 
367 
367 
368 
372 
372 
373 
373 
374 
381 
382 
382 
383 
383 


CHAPTER    XXVI 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOOT. 


1.  Of  the  astragalus    . 

2.  Of  the  calcaneum  . 

Of  the  sustentaculum     . 
By  muscular  action 

3.  Fractures  of  the  metatarsal  bones 

4.  Fractures  of  the  phalanges     . 


384 
384 
386 

387 
388 
38& 


DISLOCATIONS 


CHAPTER    XXVII. 

GENERALITIES. 


Definitions 
Statistics 


393 

395 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

ETIOLOGY   AND   MECHANISM. 

A.  Predisposing  causes        ...........     398 

B.  Immediate  or  determining  causes  .........     398 

Recurrent  or  habitual  dislocations       .........     400 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 

PATHOLOGICAL   ANATOMY   IN   RECENT   DISLOCATIONS;    COMPLICATIONS; 
PROCESS   OF    REPAIR   AFTER   REDUCTION. 


Complications 

Bones  . 

Bloodvessels 

Nerves 

Viscera 

Soft  parts  and  integument 
Repair        .... 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

PATHOLOGY  OF  UNREDUCED  (ANCIENT)  DISLOCATIONS 

CHAPTER    XXXI. 

SYMPTOMS   AND    DIAGNOSIS. 


Objective  signs   . 

Deformity    . 

Loss  of  mobility 

Crepitus 
Subjective  symptoms 

Pain    . 

Loss  of  function  ;  history 


PAGE 

403 
403 
404 
406 
409 
409 
410 


413 


418 
418 
420 
421 
421 
421 
421 


423 


CHAPTER    XXXII. 

COURSE   AND   PROGNOSIS      .... 

CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

TREATMENT. 

Spontaneous  reduction         ...........  425 

Obstacles  to  reduction  ...........  425 

Ansesthesia  .............  427 

Methods  of  reduction  .....         ......  428 

Old  dislocations  .............  433 

After-treatment  .............  435 

Habitual  dislocation 435 


CHAPTER    XXXIV 


ACCIDENTS   THAT   MAY  BE   CAUSED   BY  ATTEMPTS   TO   REDUCE   A  DISLOCATION. 

438 
438 
438 


Integument         .... 

Emphysema  of  the  cellular  tissue 

Rupture  of  the  muscles 

Avulsion  of  a  portion  of  a  limb 

Injuries  of  the  main  bloodvessels 

Injuries  to  nerves 

Fracture     ..... 

Inflammation,  suppuration,  gangrene . 

Persistent  oedema 

Syncope  and  sudden  or  early  death  ;  fat  embolism 


CHAPTER    XXXV 


439 
439 
445 
447 
448 
449 
449 


CONGENITAL   DISLOCATIONS. 

Statistics 451 

Etiology 452 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


Pathology  (hip) 
Symptoms  and  diagnosis 
Prognosis   .         .         . 
Treatment  . 


456 
459 
461 
461 


CHAPTEE   XXXVI. 

SPONTANEOUS   DISLOCATIONS 


By  distention 

Paralytic  .... 
Voluntary  .... 
By  destruction ;  by  deformity 


464 
465 
465 
465 


CHAPTER    XXXVII. 


DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   LOWER   JAW. 


Backward  with  fracture 

Upward 

Outward 

Forward 

Pathology 

Symptoms 

Prognosis 

Treatment 
Pathological 
Congenital  . 


467 
467 
468 
468 
468 
469 
471 
471 
473. 
474 


CHAPTER    XXXVIII, 


DISLOCATIONS    OF    THE   VERTEBRA    AND   OF   THE    OCCIPUT    FROM    THE    ATLAS. 


Classification  and  pathology 

Secondary  changes 

Etiology 

Symptoms  and  diagnosis 

Prognosis    . 

Treatment  . 

Dislocations  of  the  occiput 

Dislocations  of  the  atlas 

Dislocations  of  the  lower  six  cervical 

Dislocations  of  the  dorsal  vertebrse 

Dislocations  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae 


vertebrie 


476 

481 
481 
482 
484 
485 
486 
487 
491 
497 
499 


CHAPTER    XXXIX, 


DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   STERNUM. 


Of  the  body  from  the  manubrium 
Of  the  ensiform  process 


501 
505 


CHAPTER   XL. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   RIBS   AND    COSTAL   CARTILAGES. 

Of  the  head  of  the  rib         .         .         .         .         .         . 

Of  the  ribs  from  the  costal  cartilages  ....... 

Of  the  costal  cartilages  from  the  sternum 


506 
507 
508 


Of  one  cartilage  from  another     ..........     509 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    XLI. 


DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   CLAVICLE. 


Of  the  sternal  end . 

Forward 

Backward     . 

Upward 
Of  the  acromial  end 

Supra-acromial     . 

Subacronaial 

Subcoracoid 
Simultaneous  of  both  ends 


511 
512 
515 
517 
519 
520 
524 
526 
527 


CHAPTER    XLII. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF  THE   SHOULDER. 

Anatomy    ..............  529 

Statistics 5.33 

Classification       .............  534 

Anterior  (and  downward)  dislocations         ........  539 

1.  Subcoracoid 539 

Pathology 542 

Symptoms  and  diagnosis        .........  545 

2.  Intracoracoid 547 

Treatment  of  anterior  dislocations        ........  549 

Direct  reposition  ;  traction  downward  and  outward        ....  551 

Traction  upward   ...........  552 

Traction  with  leverage  .........  553 

Heel  in  the  axilla 553 

Forcible  traction   . 554 

Manipulation 554 

After-treatment   ............  558 


CHAPTER    XLIII. 
DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER — Continued. 


Downward  dislocations        ..... 

1.  Subglenoid       ...... 

Symptoms  ;  treatment  .... 

2.  Luxatio  erecta         ..... 

3.  Subtricipital  dislocation  .... 
Posterior  dislocations  (subacromial,  subspinous) 

Symptoms    ....... 

Diagnosis  and  treatment        .... 

Upward  dislocations  (supraglenoid,  supracoracoid ) 


560 
060 
563 
563 
564 
565 
569 
570 
571 


CHAPTER    XLIV. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   SHOULDER — Cuutinved. 


Associated  injuries  and  complications 

Laceration  of  muscles . 

Fractures     .... 

Nerves         .... 

Vessels.     Chest.     Compound 

Simultaneous  of  both  shoulders 
Prognosis  and  after-treatment 
Habitual  dislocation    . 
Treatment  of  old  dislocations 

Subcutaneous  section    . 

Arthrotomy 

Excision  of  the  head  of  the  humerus 

Fracture  of  the  surgical  neck 


576 
576 
577 
580 
581 
581 
582 
584 
587 
587 
588 
589 
589 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


Congenital  dislocations        ... 
Pathological  dislocations  and  subluxations  . 
Dislocations  due  to  paralysis 


594 
595 


CHAPTEE    XLV. 


DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   ELBOW. 


Anatomy    ....... 

Frequency.     Classification .... 

Dislocations  of  the  forearm  backward 

Mechanism ...... 

Pathology    ...... 

Complications      ..... 

Symptoms    ...... 

Diagnosis     ...... 

Prognosis     ...... 

Treatment    .         .         .         .         .         . 

Lateral  dislocations     ..... 

Incomplete  lateral        .... 

A.  Inward    ..... 

B.  Outward 

Complete  outward         .... 

Forward  dislocations  ..... 
Divergent  dislocations  of  the  radius  and  ulna 

A.  Antero-posterior     .... 

B.  Transverse      ..... 


597 
599 
600 
600 
602 
603 
604 
605 
606 
607 
610 
611 
612 
613 
617 
621 
625 
626 
627 


CHAPTER  XL VI. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ^\.^ovf  —  Continued . 

Dislocation  of  the  ulna  alone 

1.  Backward 

2.  Inward    . 

3.  Forward . 
Dislocation  of  the  radius  alone 

1.  Backward 
'2.   Outward  . 

3.  Forward 

4.  By  elongation,  or  subluxation  in  children 
Dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  radius  with  fracture  of  the  ulna 


629 
630 
633 
633 
633 
634 
637 
639 
643 
647 


CHAPTER    XLVII. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW — Continued. 

Treatment  of  old  dislocations 

Congenital  and  pathological  dislocations 


650 
655 


CHAPTER    XLVIII. 

DISLOCATIONS   AT   THE   WRIST. 


Dislocations  of  the  lower  radio-ulnar 

Backward     .... 

Forward       .... 

Inward  and  downward 
Dislocations  of  the  radio-carpal  joint 

Backward     .... 

Forward       .... 

Outward       .... 

Pathological 

Congenital  .... 


omt 


658 
658 
659 
o60 
660 
662 
664 
666 
066 
670 


CONTENTS. 


xvu 


Dislocations  of  the  carpal  bones  . 

Medio-carpal        .... 

Scaphoid      ..... 

Semilunar   ..... 

Unciform  ;  pisiform  ;  os  magnum 

Trapezoid  ;  trapezium 

Os  magnum  and  trapezoid    . 
Carpo-metacarpal  dislocations 


PAGE 

671 
671 
673 
673 
674 
675 
676 
676 


CHAPTER    XLIX. 

DISLOCATIONS   OP   THE   THUMB   AND   FINGERS. 


Proximal  phalanx  of  thumb 

Anatomy      .... 

Backward     .... 

Forward       .... 

Lateral  .... 
Metacarpo  phalangeal  of  the  fingers 

Backward     .... 

Forward  .... 
Dislocations  of  the  middle  phalanges 

Backward     .... 

Forawrd       .... 

Lateral  .... 

Dislocations  of  the  distal  phalanges 

Backward     .... 

Forward       .... 

Lateral         .... 


681 
681 
682 
685 
686 
687 
687 
688 
688 
688 
689 
689 
689 
689 
690 
690 


CHAPTER    L. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  PELVIS  AND  OF  THE  COCCYX. 

Dislocations  of  the  pelvis 691 

Dislocations  of  the  coccyx  ...........  691 

Forward 692 

Backward 693 

Lateral 693 


CHAPTER    LI. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   HIP. 

Anatomy 694 

Statistics 696 

Simultaneous  dislocation  of  both  hips         ........  698 

Compound  dislocations        ...........  698 

Classification       .............  700 

Backward  dislocations         ...........  704 

1.  Dorsal  dislocations  ...........  704 

Causes  .............  705 

Pathology 706 

Symptoms     ............  709 

Diagnosis      ............  711 

2.  Everted  dorsal  dislocations       .........  711 

Pathology      ............  713 

Anterior  oblique 714 

Symptoms    .............  715 

Treatment    ..........-••  715 

B 


XVIU 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    LII. 
DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP — Continued. 


Dislocations  downward  and  inward 
Obturator  or  thyroid  dislocations 
Cause    .... 
Pathology 
Symptoms 
Treatment     . 
Perineal  dislocations    . 
Dislocations  upward  and  forward,  and  inward  and  forward  (suprapubic) 
Pathology    .... 
Symptoms    .... 
Treatment    .... 
Dislocations  directly  upward.     (Subspinous.     Supracotyloid ) 
Dislocations  directly  downward  (infracotyloid)    . 


CHAPTEE    LIII. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP — Continued. 


Complications     ..... 

Muscles.     Bloodvessels 

Nerves.     Fractures 
Simultaneous  dislocation  of  both  hips 
Accidents  caused  by  attempts  to  reduce 
Prognosis  and  after-treatment 
Habitual  dislocations  .... 
Treatment  of  old  unreduced  dislocations 
Congenital  dislocations 
Spontaneous  or  pathological  dislocations 


CHAPTER    LIV 


DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   KNEE. 


Anatomy    . 
Statistics     . 
Dislocations  forward  . 
Dislocations  backward 
Lateral  dislocations    . 

1.  Outward  dislocations 

2.  Inward  dislocations 
Antero-lateral  dislocations  . 
Dislocations  by  rotation 

Outward 

Inward 

Dislocation  of  the  semilunar  cartilages 
Congenital  dislocations 
Spontaneous  or  pathological  dislocations 


CHAPTER    LV. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   PATELLA. 


General  considerations 

^Outward  dislocations  .         .         .         . 

1.  Complete         .         .         .         . 

2.  Incomplete      .         .         .         . 

3.  Outward  edgewise,  or  vertical 
Inward  dislocations     .         .         .         . 
Complete  reversal        ... 
Congenital  dislocations 

Habitual  or  pathological  dislocations  . 


CONTENTS. 


XIX 


CHAPTER    LVI. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   FIBULA. 


Dislocationa  of  the  upper  end 

.     783 

1.  Forward 

.     783 

2.  Backward        . 

.     784 

3.   Upward 

.     784 

Dislocations  of  the  lower  end 

.     785 

Spontaneous  or  pathological  dislocations     .... 

.     785 

CHAPTER    LVII. 

DISLOCATIONS   AT   OR   NEAR   THE   ANKLE. 

Anatomy    ......... 

Dislocations  of  the  foot.     Tibio-tarsal  dislocations 

1.  Dislocations  backward 

2.  Dislocations  forward 

3.  Dislocations  inward  .... 

4.  Dislocations  outward 

5.  Compound  and  complicated  dislocations 
Subastragaloid  dislocations 

1.  Dislocations  inward  or  inward  and  backward 

2.  Dislocations  outward 

3.  Dislocations  backward 

4.  Dislocations  forward 
Diagnosis       .... 
Treatment     .... 

Total  dislocations  of  the  astragalus 

1.  Forward  .... 

2.  Outward  and  forward 

3.  Inward  and  forward 

4.  Inward 

5.  Backward 

6.  By  rotation 
Treatment     . 

Medio-tarsal  dislocations 

Congenital  dislocations  of  the  ankle-joint 


787 
788 
788 
790 
791 
792 
793 
793 
794 
795 
796 
797 
798 
798 
799 
800 
800 
801 
801 
801 
802 
805 
807 
808 


CHAPTER    LVIII. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   TARSAL   AND   METATARSAL   BONES   AND   OF   THE   TOES. 

Calcaneum ...... 

Scaphoid     ...... 

Cuboid         ...  .         . 

Cuneiform  bones  .... 

Of  the  metatarsal  bones  from  the  tarsus  and  from  one 
Subluxation  of  the  head  of  a  metatarsal  bone     . 
Dislocations  of  the  toes 

1.  Metatarso-phalangeal  dislocations 

Of  the  great  toe    . 
Of  the  other  toes  . 

2.  Dislocations  of  the  phalanges  . 


another 


809 
809 
810 
SIC 

812 
812 
812 
812 
813 
813 


FRACTURES 


A  TREATISE 


ON 


FRACTURES  AND  DISLOCATIONS 


CHAPTEE    I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

By  Fracture,  in  the  surgical  sense  of  the  term,  is  meant  the 
breaking  of  a  bone  or  cartilage. 

The  liability  to  fracture  of  the  different  bones  of  the  body  varies 
greatly,  in  consequence  of  their  differences  in  size,  shape,  and  degree  of 
exposure  to  external  violence  or  extreme  muscular  action.  Hospital 
records  covering  periods  varying  in  length  from  five  to  eighty-seven 
years  have  been  tabulated  by  different  writers,  with  the  object  of  deter- 
mining the  relative  degree  of  this  liability;  but  it  is  evident  that  such 
statistics  cannot  contain  all  the  needed  facts,  for  the  reason  that  patients 
with  fractures  which  do  not  necessitate  confinement  to  the  bed  do  not  so 
generally  seek  hospital  care  as  those  with  fractures  which  do.  Com- 
bined hospital  and  dispensary  statistics  are  more  nearly  correct,  but 
even  they  differ  considerably  from  one  another  in  their  percentages, 
possibly  because  of  differences  in  the  occupations  and  mode  of  life  of 
the  communities  which  furnished  them.  During  the  past  three  years  I 
have  had  the  records  of  the  House  of  Relief  {"  Hudson  Street  Hos- 
pital"), of  which  I  am  the  attending  surgeon,  kept  with  a  view  to 
this  tabulation,  and  the  results  are  given  in  the  following  table.  The 
hospital  is  the  only  one  in  New  York  City  below  Canal  Street,  a  region 
largely  given  over  to  trade,  transportation,  and  manufacturing,  with 
frequent  construction  of  large  buildings,  and  in  which  there  is  only  a 
laboring  resident  population.  The  ambulance  cases  number  about 
3500  yearly,  the  surgical  dispensary  cases  about  30,000. 

HuDsoisr  Street  Hospital,  New  York  :  Statistics  of  Fractures  Treated 
IN  Hospital  and  Dispensary,  1894-1897. 


Cases. 

Cases. 

Per  cent 

Cranium     . 

.     262       Head  . 

.       262 

5.77 

Malar  bone 

6  1 
.     234 

Nasal  bones 

Superior  maxilla 

.       14 

-  Face    . 

.       371 

8.17 

Inferior  maxilla 

.     109 

Zygoma 

•         8J 

20 


FRACTURES. 

Cases. 

Spine 
Pelvis 

23  1 
14 

Coccyx 
Sternum     . 

3 

2 

■  Trunk  . 

Eibs  .... 

482  , 

"  Upper  extremity  "  . 
Clavicle 

132  1 

200 

Scapula 

Humerus,  shaft  and  neck 

16 
103 

internal  condyle  . 

32 

external  condyle . 

24 

internal  epicondyle 
Eadius  and  ulna 
Eadius,  shaft 

1 
73 

128 

-  Upper  extremity 

Colles's 

352 

Ulna,  shaft 

97 

olecranon 

26 

Carpus 
Metacarpus 
Phalanges  . 

3 

304 

873 

Femur 

154  1 

Patella 

49 

Tibia,  or  tibia  and  fibula 

281 

Abduction    and    adductior 

1 

fractures  at  ankle     . 

292 

Fibula 

43 

'  Lower  extremity 

External  malleolus     . 

9 

Internal  malleolus 

4 

Tarsus 

26 

Metatarsus 

90 

Toes  . 

. 

70 

Cases. 


.       524 


Per  cent. 


11.55 


52.08 


1018 


22.40 


Total 


.  4539 


During  the  same  period  421  dislocations  were  treated. 

Sex.  Fractures  are  more  numerous  in  men  than  in  women,  in  the 
proportion  of  about  three  to  one  ;  but  this  proportion  varies  greatly  at 
different  ages.  In  infancy  the  difference  is  slight;  in  middle  life  frac- 
tures are  ten  times  as  frequent  in  men  as  in  women;  between  the  ages 
of  fifty  and  seventy  years  the  difference  again  becomes  slight,  and  after 
the  age  of  seventy  years  fractures  are  much  more  common  in  women 
than  in  men,  a  reversal  of  conditions  due  to  a  disproportionate  increase 
in  the  number  of  fractures  of  the  neck  of  the  femur. 

Age.  Gurlt'^  tabulated  1383  cases  (hospital  and  dispensary)  with  ref- 
erence to  the  ages  of  the  patients,  and  found  in  the  first  decade,  265; 
in  the  second,  193;  in  the  third,  274;  in  the  fourth,  224;  in  the  fifth, 
154;  in  the  sixth,  155;  in  the  seventh,  72;  in  the  eighth,  38,  and  in 
the  ninth,  8.  Combining  these  Avith  statistics  showing  the  relative 
number  of  people  living  at  the  different  ages,  he  found  the  highest 
proportion  of  fractures  in  the  period  above  the  age  of  sixty  years. 
Malgaigne^  made  a  similar  tabulation,  using  only  hospital  cases,  and 
grouj)ing  in  periods  of  five  years  he  found  that  the  periods  between 
fifty-five  and  eighty  were  practically  equal  to  one  another,  and  gave  the 
highest  proportion  according  to  population. 

Season  affects  the  frequency  of  fracture  only  by  increasing  or  dimin- 


1  Gurlt :  Handbuch  der  Lehre  von  den  Knoclienbriichen,  1862. 
-  Malgaigne :  Traite  des  Fractures  et  des  Luxations,  1847. 


INTRO  D  UCTION.  2 1 

ishing  the  exposure  to  the  accidents  which  occasion  them.  Falls  due 
to  ice  and  snow  in  winter  are  more  than  offset  as  a  cause  by  the  more 
varied  and  active  occupations  of  the  milder  months,  and  fractures  are, 
therefore,  less  frequent  in  winter  than  in  summer.  This  is  shown  by 
the  following  tabulation  of  the  fractures  treated  in  the  Hudson  Street 
Hospital,  according  to  months  : 

Hudson  Street  Hospital  :  Fractures  ix  1896,  Wards  and  Dispensary. 


January, 

February, 

December, 

77 

88 

119 

March, 

April, 

May, 

130 

103 

97 

June, 
July, 
August, 

82 
148 
150 

September, 

October, 

November, 

105 
107 

116 

mitting  hand 
and  toes. 

284 

330 
84 

380 
104 

328 
92 

227  246  276  236 

The  maximum  is  found  in  the  summer  mouths,  the  minimum  in  the 
winter.  It  is  only  in  fractures  of  the  leg  that  the  winter  season  heads 
the  list,  and  yet  even  in  these,  as  the  following  table  shows,  a  decided 
monthly  maximum  is  found  in  March,  a  month  in  which  there  is  but 
little  snow  and  ice  in  New  York  : 

Fractures  of  the  Leg,  op  either  Bone,  and  Pott's  Fracture. 


January, 

19 

March, 

29 

June, 

9 

September, 

8 

February, 

20 

April, 

9 

July, 

11 

October, 

6 

December, 

21 

May, 

12 

August, 

25 

November 

20 

60  50  45  34 

Fractures  of  the  femur  (shaft  and  neck)  give  the  following  totals  : 
Winter  16,  spring  17,  summer  8,  autumn  12;  those  of  the  upper  ex- 
tremity (clavicle,  humerus,  and  either  or  both  bones  of  the  forearm) 
give:  Winter  67,  spring  63,  summer  107,  autumn  72. 

Note. — For  other  statistics  see  Malgaigne,  Gurlt,  and  the  first  edi- 
tion of  this  work;  also  Wallace,  Ameriean  Journal  of  the  Ifedical 
Sciences,  1839;Norris,  Ibid.,  1841;  Lente,  New  York  MedicalJourval, 
1851,  and  Lonsdale,  Fracture.^,  1838. 


CHAPTEE    II. 

PATHOLOGY. 

(A)  THE  BONE— VARIETIES  OF  FRACTURE. 

The  varieties  of  fracture  are  numerous  and  are  constituted  by 
differences  in  the  extent  of  the  injury  to  the  bone  or  to  the  surrounding 
soft  parts,  in  the  seat,  shape,  and  direction  of  the  fracture,  in  the  rela- 
tion of  the  fragments  to  each  other,  and  in  the  number  of  bones 
involved.  These  varieties  may  be  grouped  in  five  divisions,  marked 
by  important  clinical  differences  and  containing  many  subdivisions,  as 
follows  : 

1 .  Incomplete  fractures, 
(a)  Fissures. 

(5)  True  incomplete,  ''  green-stick;"  bent  bone. 

(c)  Depressions. 

(d)  Separation  of  a  splinter  or  of  an  apophysis. 

2.  Complete  fractures,  subdivided,  according  to 

(a)  Direction  and  character  of  the  line  of  fracture,  into  transverse, 
oblique,  longitudinal,  spiral,  toothed  or  dentate,  V-  or  T-shaped,  and 
comminuted; 

(6)  Seat  of  the  fracture,  into  fracture  of  the  shaft,  of  the  neck,  of  the 
upper,  middle,  or  lower  third,  intercondyloid,  separation  of  epiphysis; 
and 

(c)  If  extending  into  a  joint,  intra-articular. 

3.  Multiple  fractures,  comprising  fractures  of  two  or  more  non- 
adjacent  bones  and  two  or  more  fractures  of  the  same  bone. 

4.  Compound  fractures. 

5.  Gunshot  fractures. 

The  term  simple  fracture  is  commonly  used,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  term  compound,  to  indicate  that  there  is  no  associated  wound  of  the 
soft  parts  which  establishes  communication  between  the  fracture  and 
the  exterior.  Some  writers  make  also  a  class  of  complicated  fractures 
to  include  cases  in  which  some  important  injury  coexists;  and  there  are 
still  other  terms  in  use  to  indicate  peculiarities  which  do  not  lend  them- 
selves easily  to  the  above  classification.  Such  are  :  Spontaneous  frac- 
ture, one  produced  by  the  minimum  of  violence;  pathological  fracture, 
one  favored  by  weakening  or  partial  destruction  of  the  bone  by  disease; 
direct  fracture,  one  occurring  at  the  point  where  the  causative  external 
violence  is  received;  indirect  f-acture,  one  occurring  at  a  distance  from 
that  point;  recent  and  old,  or  ununited,  fracture.  This  classification  is 
not  claimed  to  be  absolutely  correct  in  the  scientific  or  even  in  an  ana- 
tomical sense,  but  it  is  a  serviceable  and,  with  some  variations,  a  com- 
mon one. 


PATHOLOGY. 


23 


Fig.  2. 


1.  Incomplete  Fractures. 

Under  this  head  will  be  considered  fractures  in  which  the  continuity 
of  the  bone  has  not  been  completely  lost  or  a  fragment  completely 
detached. 

(a)  Fissures.  This  variety  is  characterized  by  the  existence  of  a 
split  or  crack  in  the  bone,  one  which  does  not  entirely  circumscribe  a 
fragment  and  separate  it  from  the  rest  of  the  bone.  It  is  of  common 
occurrence  in  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  and  very  rare  in  the  long  bones 
except  when  associated  with  other  varieties.  It  is  almost  unknown  in 
the  short  or  spongy  bones. 

The  examples  of  isolated  fissure  of  long  bones  are  very  rare.  Fig. 
1,  copied  by  Gurlt  from  Froriep,  represents  one  extending  from  the 
greater  tuberosity  of  the  humerus  to  the  lower  fourth  of  the  shaft,  pro- 
duced in  a  boy  by  a  fall  upon  the  elbow.  Fissures  connected  with 
complete  fracture  are  common;  are  sometimes  very  long,  and  may 
extend  into  a  neighboring  joint.  A  very  long  fissure  is  sometimes 
termed  a  longitudinal  fracture. 

The  mechanism  by  which  a  long 
isolated  fissure  is  produced  in  a  long 
bone  is  probably  the  forcible  bend- 
ing of  the  bone.  This  is  plainly 
indicated  in  a  case  reported  by  De- 
brou  in  1843,  and  quoted  by  Gurlt  as 
a  case  of  infraction.  The  patient,  a 
man  sixty-two  years  old,  fell  while 
walking,  and  injured  his  thigh.  Ery- 
sipelas set  in  and  caused  his  death. 
At  the  autopsy  a  fissure  was  found 
under  the  untorn  periosteum,  extend- 
ing six  inches  downward  from  the  tro- 
chanter minor,  and  this  fissure  could 
be  made  to  widen  by  pressure  upon 
the  ends  of  the  bone. 

The  diagnosis  cannot  be  made  with 
certainty,  except  when  the  bone  is  ex- 
posed to  direct  examination;  but  it 
be   inferred   with    much   proba- 


,<Nrp, 


can 


Fissure  of  the  hu- 
merus. (Gurlt.) 


Partial  fracture  of  the 
fibula,  a,  the  head  ;  b, 
the  malleolus. 


bility  in  some  forms  of  fracture  Avith 
which  it  is  usually  associated,  such  as 
V-shaped  fractures  of  the  tibia. 

Except  when  it  extends  into  a  joint 
the  importance  of  a  fissure  is  probably  slight,  and  is  dominated  by 
that  of  the  associated  lesions.  In  some  cases  the  injury  has  been 
promptly  or  tardily  followed  by  suppuration  beneath  the  periosteum 
or  within  the  bone. 

(b)  True  Incomplete,  "  Green-stick  Fracture" ;  Infraction ;  Bent  Bone, 
or  Curvature  Without  Fracture.  This  variety  is  characterized  by  a  frac- 
ture involving  only  a  portion  of  the  thickness  of  a  long  bone,  and 
combined  with  a  bendiug  of  the  bone  at  the  seat  of  fracture.      In  its 


24  FRACTURES. 

consideration  is  included  also  that  of  the  rare  cases  of  curvature  with- 
out recognizable  fracture,  a  variety  which  has  only  an  academical 
interest,  for  it  cannot  be  recognized  clinically.  Its  possibility  has  been 
demonstrated  experimentally  upon  young  animals  and  by  a  single 
specimen  belonging  to  Prof.  Uhde,  the  ulna  of  an  adult  much  bent  by 
a  machinery  accident,  and  showing  no  trace  of  fracture. 

The  injury  appears  ordinarily  as  a  short  transverse  fracture,  continu- 
ous with  one  or  more  longitudinal  ones  of  variable  length;  sometimes 
there  is  no  transverse  line,  but  only  oblique  ones  running  from  the 
angle  upward  or  downward.  The  appearance  can  be  closely  imitated 
by  over-bending  a  green  or  tough  stick,  a  fact  that  has  given  this  form 
of  fracture  a  name  by  which  it  is  very  commonly  known. 

A  few  instances  are  recorded  of  supposed  incomplete  fracture  of  the 
neck  of  the  femur,  but  the  conditions  are  quite  different,  because  of  the 
spongy  character  of  this  portion  of  the  bone.  The  lesion  is  on  the 
concave  side  and  is  a  crush,  not  a  crack. 

This  fracture  is  seen  most  frequently  in  the  bones  of  the  forearm, 
then  in  the  clavicle,  and  very  rarely  in  the  bones  of  the  arm,  leg,  and 
thigh.  The  great  majority  of  cases  occur  in  those  under  the  age  of 
fifteen  years.  In  the  forearm  it  may  be  found  in  only  one  bone,  the 
other  being  completely  broken.  The  usual  cause  is  a  fall,  but  I  have 
seen  several  cases  in  which  the  cause  was  the  forcible  bending  of  the 
forearm  over  a  rigid  body,  as  when  the  limb  is  caught  between  a  shaft 
and  its  belting. 

The  chief  symptoms  are  deformity,  consisting  in  an  angular  devia- 
tion of  a  portion  of  the  limb  or  bone,  and  localized  pain  on  pressure  at 
the  angle.  The  deviation  can  be  more  or  less  completely  corrected  by 
the  use  of  force,  and  the  correction  may  be  accompanied  by  crepitus 
and  followed  by  abnormal  mobility,  the  fracture  having  been  made 
complete. 

The  prognosis  is  favorable  as  regards  correction  of  the  deformity  and 
repair.  Ordinarily,  the  limb  can  be  straightened  by  the  surgeon's 
hands  alone,  aided,  perhaps,  by  the  pressure  of  his  knee  against  the 
angle;  and  the  surgeon  should  not  be  deterred,  by  the  fear  of  making 
the  fracture  complete,  from  using  all  the  force  that  is  necessary. 

(c)  Depressions.  I  limit  the  use  of  this  term  to  those  cases  in  which 
a  portion  of  the  outer  layer  of  a  flat  bone  or  the  spongy  portion  of  a 
long  bone  is  driven  inward  by  direct  violence,  usually  a  blow  with  a 
pointed  instrument.  The  injury  is  most  frequently  seen  in  the  vault 
of  the  skull,  and  is  there  generally  termed  a  fracture  of  the  outer  table. 
It  is  occasionally  seen  in  the  limbs  in  connection  with  complete  fracture. 

{d)  Separation  of  a  Splinter  or  of  an  Apophysis.  In  this  variety  are 
included  two  classes  of  fractures,  which  differ  widely  in  their  mode  of 
production,  but  have  this  in  common  :  that  the  fragment  does  not  com- 
prise the  entire  breadth  or  thickness  of  the  bone,  and  that  consequently 
the  continuity  of  the  latter  is  not  destroyed.  In  the  first  class  a 
splinter  or  fragment  of  bone  is  broken  off  by  direct  violence,  as  by  a 
cutting  instrument;  in  the  second  class  a  bony  prominence  is  torn  off 
by  the  violent  contraction  of  the  muscle  attached  to  it,  or  by  traction 
through  a  ligament. 


PATHOLOGY. 


25 


The  separation  of  a  splinter  or  scale  of  bone  by  a  sword-cut  or  bullet 
is  not  uncommon  in  the  spongy  bones  or  the  spongy  extremities  of  long 
bones,  and  has  also  been  known  to  occur  in  the  shaft  of  the  tibia.  It 
is  an  injury  which  should  be  classed  rather  among  wounds  of  bones 
than  among  fractures.  The  separation  of  a  splinter  by  direct  violence, 
unaccompanied  by  a  wound  of  the  soft  parts,  occurs  in  the  bones  of  the 
face,  at  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  and  at  exposed  points  upon  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  long  bones. 

Avulsion  of  an  apophysis,  or  of  a  scale  of  bone,  by  muscular  action 
is  a  far  more  common  accident  than  the  one  just  described.  The  lesion 
consists  in  the  fracture  of  an  apophysis  at  its  base,  or  in  the  tearing 
off  of  a  portion  of  bone  to  which  a  muscle  or  tendon  is  attached.  The 
fragment  may  consist  of  a  thin  layer  of  bone  corresponding  in  extent 
to  the  muscular  attachment  and  composed  almost  exclusively  of  the 
cortical  substance,  or  it  may  comprise  the  entire  thickness  of  an  apoph- 
ysis, as  in  fracture  of  the  olecranon  or  of  the  coracoid  process  of  the 
scapula.  The  internal  malleolus  may  be  torn  off  by  forcibly  bending 
the  foot  to  the  opposite  side,  or  the  epicondyle  at  the  elbow  by  forced 
lateral  flexion  of  the  forearm. 


Fig.  3. 


2.  Complete  Fractures. 

The  term  complete,  when  applied  to  a  fracture  of  a  long  bone,  indi- 
cates that  the  bone  is  divided  into  two  or  more  distinct  fragments  by  a 
line  of  fracture  crossing  its  long  axis. 

(a)  Subdivision  According  to  the  Direction  of  the  Line  of  Fracture. 
Such  terms  in  use  are  ii'ansverse,  oblique,  splintered,  spiral,  V-shaped^ 
T-  or  Y-shaped,  dentate,  and  longitudinal.  Appar- 
ently as  a  result  of  physical  conditions,  fractures 
by  direct  or  indirect  violence  which  bend  a  long 
bone  are  either  practically  transverse  or  markedly 
oblique,  with  or  without  splintering. 

The  line  of  a  transverse  fracture  does  not  de- 
viate more  than  about  15  or  20  degrees  from  that 
of  the  transverse  axis;  that  of  an  oblique  fracture 
lies  near  an  angle  of  50  degrees,  but  is  usually 
somewhat  curved,  so  that  its  point  is  sharper.  A 
transverse  fracture  may  be,  but  rarely  is,  exactly 
transverse  and  smooth  (Fig.  3);  clinically  such 
details  cannot  be  recognized  unless  the  fracture  is 
compound,  and  the  diagnosis  of  the  variety  is 
made  on  the  fact  that  the  end  of  the  fragment  can 
be  felt  through  the  overlying  soft  parts  to  be  ap- 
proximately square  and  smooth.  In  the  oblique 
variety  the  line  of  fracture  may  be  single  (Fig.  5) 
or  multiple  (Fig.  4),  circumscribing  in  the  latter 
case  one  or  more  detached  fragments  which  ap- 
parently are  formed  on  the  side  of  the  concavity 
created  by  the  bending  of  the  bone  {splintered). 
The  line  of  fracture  in  either  form  may  be  mark-  rv.j.^^g^Q^^Q  fracture  of  the 
edly  irregular  on  either  or  both  fragments.    When        femur.  (Gurlt.) 


28 


FJlACTURJiS.- 


this  irregularity  is  found  on  both  fragments  the  term  toothed  or  dentate 
is  applied;  when  it  is  found  only  on  one  side  the  absence  of  a  cor- 
responding line  on  the  other  is  due  to  the  crushing  of  the  bone  or  to 
the  splitting  off  of  one  or  more  large  fragments. 

-  Spiral  fractures,  which  are  rare,  are  produced  by  torsion  of  the  bone, 
and  are  found  in  the  femur,  humerus,  and  tibia.  In  the  latter  they  are 
better  known  as  V-shaped  ^^(Fig.  6),  and  can  be  readily  recognized  by 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


Oblique  fracture  by  direct  pressure. 

(KOCHER.) 


Spiral  fracture  by  outward  rotation  of  lower 
end.    (KocHEE.) 


the  sharj)  point  of  the  upper  fragment,  wliich  can  be  felt  midway 
between  the  crest  and  the  internal  border  of  the  bone.  From  the  re- 
entrant angle  corresponding  to  this  point  a  fissure  runs  down  to  the 
ankle-joint. 

Under  the  term  Longitudinal  are  included  very  oblique  fractures  run- 
ning from  one  side  of  the  bone  to  the  other,  fractures  running  from  one 
end  of  the  bone  to  or  nearly  to  the  other,  and  fractures  which  split 
lengthwise  a  long  fragment  intermediate  between  two  transverse  frac- 
tures.     The  last-named   form  is  produced  only  by  great  crushing 


PATHOLOGY. 


27 


violence,  and  tlie  prognosis  is  very  bad.    In  the  other  forms  the  violence 
is  indirect,  apparently  a  bend  or  twist  of  the  bone  or  a  blow  received 
at  one  end;    the  ill  results  which    have   so  commonly 
followed  appear  to  be  due  in  some  to  the  imj)lication  of        fig.g. 
one  or  both  joints  or  to  a  failure  to  recognize  the  injury 
and  maintain  immobility.      The  most  marked  cases  are 
one  reported  by  Kronlein/  a  fracture  of  the  humerus 
from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow-joint,  in  a  man  twenty- 
seven  years  old,  by  an  attempt  to  raise  a  heavy  ladder, 
and  one  by  Cloquet,  in  1831,  a  fracture  of  the  femur 
from  the  intercondyloid  notch  to  a  point  just  below  the 
trochanter  minor,  by  a  fall  from  a  roof. 

A  comminuted  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  a  long  bone  is 
one  in  which,  in  addition  to  the  complete  division  of  the 
bone  into  two  fragments,  there  is  also  extensive  splin- 
tering of  the  portion  of  bone  adjoining  the  fracture  or  of 
one  of  the  fragments  (Figs.  7,  8,  and  9).  In  a  comminuted 
fracture  of  a  flat  bone  the  bone  or  a  portion  thereof  is 
broken  into  several  rather  large  fragments,  with  or  with- 
out additional  small  ones;  in  this  use  of  the  term  frac- 
tures showing  only  two  or  three  fragments,  and  those 
rather  small,  are  excluded,  the  line  of  distinction  being 
of  necessity  vague  and  arbitrary.  In  the  short  bones 
and  the  spongy  ends  of  the  long  bones  comminution  is 
frequently  associated  with  crushing  of  the  spongy  tissue, 
or  the  end  of  the  diaphyseal  fragment  may  be  driven  into  v-shaped  fracture. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  S. 


Fig.  9. 


Perforating  gunshot  frac-        Comruinuted  fracture  of  the 
Comminuted  fracture  of  the  femur,     ture  of  the  lower  third  of      lower  end  of  the  radius.    Pal- 
with  splitting  of  the  condyles.  the  humerus.  mar  aspect. 


'  Kronlein  :  Deutsche  Zeitsch,  f.  Chir.,  1873,  p.  132. 


28 


FBAGTUBES. 


the  expanded,  spongy  end,  crushing  it  or  splitting  it;  if  the  two  main 
fragments  are  rather  firmly  held  together  in  their  new  relations,  the 
condition  is  termed  impaction  or  impacied  fracture  (Fig.  10).  If 
the  crushing  of  the  spongy  tissue  has  taken  place  without  much 
splintering  of  the  cortical  layer,  the  term  fracture  with  crushing  is 
used  (Fig.  11).  This  crushing  of  spongy  tissue  is  effected  by  breaking- 
down  the  innumerable  fine  lamellae  of  bone  and  forcing  out  the  fat 
within  the  meshes,  as  a  handful  of  snow  or  a  wet  sponge  is  compressed, 
and  the  result  is  equivalent  to  an  actual  loss  of  tissue;  that  is,  if  the 
main  fragments  are  replaced  in  their  original  positions  a  gap  is  left 
between  them  corresponding  to  the  position  and  extent  of  the  crush- 
ing. This  gap  is  often  too  large  to  be  filled  by  new  bone  formed 
during  repair;  consequently,  a  full  correction  of  the  displacement  is- 
inadvisable,  even  when  possible,  lest  failure  of  union  should  result, 
and  the  surgeon  must  be  content  to  obtain  union  with  some  deformity. 


Fig.  10. 


Fig.  n. 


Intra-articular  fracture  of  the  head 
of  the  tibia,  with  impaction  and  sepa- 
ration of  the  upper  fragments. 


Fracture  of  the  calcaneum,  with  crushing. 


(6)  Varieties  Dependent  Upon  the  Seat  of  the  Fracture.  A  fracture 
may  occupy  any  portion  of  the  bone  and  be  known  by  its  name;  for 
example,  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  of  the  lower  third  of  the 
tibia,  of  the  head,  of  the  shaft,  of  the  inner  condyle,  of  the  acromion; 
intercondyloid  fracture,  when  it  passes  across  the  shaft  and  also  down- 
ward between  the  condyles;  separation  of  the  epiphysis. 

Separation  of  the  Epiphysis}  This  term  is  limited  to  separation  of 
epiphyses  which  have  not  yet  become  united  by  bone  with  the  shaft. 
This  union  takes  place  in  the  different  bones  at  different  ages,  but  is 
usually  complete  in  all  in  the  female  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  years, 
and  in  the  male  at  twenty-five  years.  Bruns^  collected  81  cases,  with 
101  separations,  in  which  direct  examination  of  the  seat  of  injury  was 
possible  ;  the  points  of  greatest  frequency  were  the  lower  end  of 
the  femur  28,  lower  end  of  the  radius  25,  and  upper  end  of  the 

1  The  first  work  upon  this  subject  is  by  G.  C.  Reichel,  "  De  Epiphvsium  ab  Ossium  Diaphvsi 
Diductione,"  published  at  Leipsic  in  1794.  Manquat's  thesis,  in  1877,  and  Bruns'  article,  in  1878, 
were  the  first  in  which  any  considerable  number  of  cases  was  collected.  Later  articles  will  be 
referred  to  in  connection  with  the  different  epiphyses. 

-  Bruns :  Arch.  f.  klin.  Chir.,  1878,  vol.  xxii.  p.  343. 


PATHOLOGY.  29 

humerus  11.  Of  the  52  cases  in  which  the  age  was  given,  44  were 
between  ten  and  nineteen  years  old,  8  between  one  and  nine  years. 
Of  61  in  which  the  line  was  exactly  described,  the  line  in  23  ran  ex- 
actly along  the  face  of  the  conjugal  cartilage,  in  5  it  ran  through  the 
cartilage,  and  in  33  partly  along  the  cartilage  and  partly  through  the 
adjoining  "  chondroid  "  tissue  on  its  diaphyseal  side.  An  important 
feature  is  the  fact  that  the  periosteum  of  the  adjoining  portion  of  the 
shaft  is  freely  stripped  off,  preserving  its  continuity  to  a  large  extent 
with  the  epiphysis. 

The  mode  of  production  appears  usually  to  be  by  cross-strain,  the 
limb  being  bent  beyond  the  limit  of  normal  motion  in  the  correspond- 
ing joint  or  in  a  direction  in  which  there  is  normally  no  motion  ;  for 
example,  lateral  bending  at  the  knee. 

The  displacement  may  be  very  slight  or  so  great  as  wholly  to  sepa- 
rate the  fractured  surfaces  from  each  other.  Colles's  fracture  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  radius  in  the  young  is  not  infrequently  a  separation 
of  the  epiphysis  with  slight  displacement  (see  Plate  XI.,  fig,  2)  ; 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  humerus  the  displacement  is  usually  equal 
to  about  half  the  thickness  of  the  bone;  complete  displacement  I  have 
seen  only  at  the  lower  end  of  the  femur  twice,  and  once  each  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  fibula  and  at  the  head  of  the  femur. 

The  diagnosis  is  made  in  the  cases  of  slight  displacement  on  the 
history  of  the  injury  and  tenderness  on  pressure  limited  to  the  line  of 
junction  of  the  epiphysis  and  shaft;  in  the  others  by  recognition  of 
the  deformity  and  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  fragment.  When  the 
displacement  is  great,  reduction  may  be  seriously  opposed  by  the  in- 
terposition of  the  loosened  periosteum. 

The  prognosis  is  affected  by  the  possibility  of  arrest  of  growth  due 
to  an  uncorrected  displacement  or  to  premature  ossification  of  the 
conjugal  cartilage.  A  few  such  cases  have  been  reported.  This  de- 
ficiency of  growth  is,  of  course,  most  marked  in  those  who  receive 
their  injury  at  an  early  age,  and  secondly  in  those  cases  in  which  the 
affected  epiphysis  normally  takes  the  larger  part  in  the  growth  of  the 
bone  in  length,  namely,  the  upper  end  of  the  humerus  and  tibia  and 
the  lower  end  of  the  femur  and  radius.  I  have  seen  two  cases  in  which 
this  injury  at  the  lower  end  of  the  radius  at  the  age  of  fourteen  years 
produced  a  late  deformity  exactly  resembling  that  of  a  very  bad  Colles's 
fracture.      (See  Plate  XI.,  fig.  1.) 

(c)  Intra-articular  or  articular  fractures  are  those  in  which  the  main 
line  of  fracture,  or  a  subsidiary  one,  extends  into  a  joint.  Common 
examples  are  fractures  of  either  condyle  of  the  femur  or  humerus, 
intercondyloid  fractures  of  the  same  bones,  fractures  of  the  patella  and 
olecranon.  The  special  importance  of  the  variety  arises  partly  from 
the  implication  of  the  joint  in  the  inflammatory  reaction  following  the 
trauma,  but  mainly  from  the  change  in  the  mechanical  conditions 
produced  by  the  displacement  of  the  fragment  and  the  formation  of 
adhesions  or  of  callus.  Thus,  the  result  after  a  fracture  of  the  patella 
in  which  the  permanent  displacement  is  slight  is  usually  very  good, 
while  that  following  a  fracture  of  a  condyle  of  the  humerus  or  of  the 
head  of  the  tibia  may  be  great  limitation  of  the  motions  of  the  joint. 


30  FRACTURES, 

In  the  young  excessive  formation  of  bone  outside  of;  but  near  to,  the 
joint  as  the  result  of  the  traumatic  irritation  of  the  periosteum  may 
also  inechanically  limit  the  motions  of  the  joint.  An  important  factor 
in  producing  the  bad  result  is  found  in  the  difficulty  or  impossibility 
of  properly  reducing  the  displacement  or  maintaining  the  reduction 
because  of  the  small  size  of  the  fragment  and  the  lack  of  efficient 
means  of  acting  upon  it.  Among  other  causes  are  the  hemorrhage 
into  the  joint,  the  inflammation  of  the  synovial  membrane  and  adhe- 
sions of  its  opposing  surfaces,  and  the  inflammatory  thickening,  retrac- 
tion, and  loss  of  pliability  of  the  peri-articular  tissues.  The  degree  of 
these  changes  varies  with  that  of  the  inflammatory  reaction. 


3.  Multiple  Fractures. 

This  term  is  applied  to  the  simultaneous  fracture  of  two  or  more 
non-adjacent  bones  and  two  or  more  fractures  of  the  same  bone  whose 
lines  are  not  continuous  with  one  another.  The  term  double  is  also 
used  when  there  are  only  two  fractures.  This  definition  is  intended 
to  exclude  simultaneous  fracture  of  both  bones  of  the  leg  or  forearm 
and  fractures  which  involve  two  or  more  adjacent  bones  of  the  skull 
or  pelvis.  The  term  is  frequently  applied  to  fracture  of  tw^o  or  more 
adjacent  ribs,  and  sometimes  to  cases  of  extensive  splintering  of  the 
flat  bones. 

Multiple  fractures  of  a  single  bone  are  caused  by  violence,  usually 
great,  acting  in  part  directly  against  the  shaft,  as  the  fall  of  a  heavy 
weight  or,  as  in  one  of  my  own  cases,  by  the  striking  of  the  thigh 
against  a  tree  when  the  patient  was  thrown  from  a  carriage.  The 
condition  may  be  serious  as  to  life,  because  of  the  shock  of  the  injury, 
and  in  respect  of  restoration  of  form  and  function,  because  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  controlling  the  position  of  the  intermediate  fragment.  There 
is  also  the  chance  of  overlooking  one  of  the  fractures. 

Multiple  fractures  of  different  bones  are  also  usually  caused  by 
great  violence;  the  prognosis  is  affected  much  more  by  the  associated 
injuries  and  shock  than  by  the  multiplicity  of  the  fractures.  If  the 
patient  survives  the  primary  effects  of  the  accident  the  fractures  heal 
in  the  ordinary  manner  and,  it  has  been  claimed,  with  less  local  reac- 
tion than  single  fractures  do. 

4.  Compound  Fractures. 

A  compound  fracture  is  one  in  which  communication  between  the- 
fracture  and  the  external  air  is  established  through  a  wound  of  the 
soft  parts.  The  importance  of  this  communication  arises  through  the 
possibility  of  infection  of  the  wound  from  without,  with  all  the  risks 
involved  in  the  consequent  suppuration  of  the  bone  and  the  lacerated 
soft  parts.  In  addition,  a  large  proportion  of  compound  fractures  are 
caused  by  direct  violence,  and  the  consequent  laceration  of  the  over- 
lying soft  parts  is  such  as  to  be  a  serious  addition  to  the  fact  of  fracture. 
In  other  cases  the  external  wound  may  be  merely  a  puncture  made  by 


PATHOLOGY.  31 

the  broken  end  of  the  bone,  which,  under  suitable  treatment,  heals  in 
a  few  days,  making  the  fracture  thenceforth  a  simple  one. 

A  fracture  that  is  simple  at  first  may  be  made  compound  by  the 
sloughing  of  the  overlying  skin  in  consequence  of  its  injury  by  the 
primary  violence  or  of  pi-essure  upon  it  by  a  displaced  fragment,  or 
by  the  later  forcing  of  the  sharp  end  of  a  fragment  through  the  skin 
in  the  agitation  of  delirium  or  in  an  attempt  to  use  the  limb  while  in 
ignorance  of  the  character  of  the  injury  that  has  been  received. 

Compound  fractures  are  most  frequent  in  the  lower  limbs,  and  com- 
prise, according  to  Gurlt,  16  per  cent,  of  all  fractures  of  the  limbs. 
Excluding  those  of  the  hand  and  foot,  the  relative  frequency  of  the 
more  common  ones  is  as  follows:  Leg,  17.96  per  cent.;  forearm, 
11.68  per  cent.;  femur,  7.05  per  cent.;  humerus,  6.76  per  cent. 

In  determining  the  compound  character  of  a  fracture  it  is  sufficient 
to  establish  the  fact  that  the  wound  of  the  soft  parts  extends  through 
the  enveloping  fascia  and  to  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  seat 
of  fracture,  for  even  if  the  gross  lesion  should  not  extend  to  the 
broken  surface  of  the  bone,  yet  the  minuter  lacerations  and  the 
extra vasated  blood  create  a  path  for  the  spread  of  infection  that  brings 
the  condition  fully  within  the  definition  and  the  special  dangers. 

The  prognosis  varies  so  greatly  with  the  extent  and  character  of  the 
injury  to  the  soft  parts  that  statistics  which  take  no  account  of  these 
variations  have  but  little  value.  A  fracture  produced  by  indirect 
violence  and  made  compound  by  a  puncture  of  the  skin  by  the  end  of 
a  subcutaneous  bone,  such  as  the  ulna  or  tibia,  may  be  confidently 
expected  to  heal  under  appropriate  treatment  as  kindly  and  promptly 
as  a  simple  fracture  ;  while  one  produced  by  direct  violence  and 
accompanied  by  destruction  of  the  skin  and  muscles  can  heal  only  by 
granulation,  and  will  probably  suppurate,  notwithstanding  all  the  care 
that  may  be  given  it.  Or,  the  associated  damage  to  the  soft  parts  may 
be  such  that  the  limb  would  be  useless  even  if  the  wound  should  heal. 

The  shock  of  the  injury  is  usually  much  greater  than  that  of  simple 
fracture,  and  may  cause  death  in  a  few  hours,  and  the  probability  of 
the  existence  of  serious  associated  lesions  is  also  greater  because  of  the 
usually  greater  violence  that  has  produced  the  fracture.  This  is  shown 
by  the  following  statistics  :  During  two  years,  February,  1895,  to 
February,  1897,  there  were  received  at  the  Hudson  Street  Hospital 
70  compound  fractures  of  the  limbs,  exclusive  of  those  of  the  hand. 
Eleven  of  these  patients  died  within  twenty-four  hours  after  the  acci- 
dent, 3  of  the  11  having  also  a  fracture  of  the  base  of  the  skull;  4 
more  died  within  three  days  after  the  accident,  making  in  all  15 
deaths  (or  12,  if  the  fractures  of  the  skull  are  excluded)  directly  due 
to  the  shock  of  the  injury,  a  mortality  of  21  per  cent.  This  is  largely 
in  excess  of  that  following  simple  fractures,  although  they,  too,  may 
be  accompanied  by  other  grave  lesions  or  by  severe  shock,  or  may 
lead  to  a  fatal  pneumonia  or  attack  of  delirium  tremens.  I  cannot 
give  the  final  result  in  the  remaining  55  cases  of  my  list,  because 
many  of  them  were  transferred  to  their  homes  or  to  other  hospitals 
after  they  had  recovered  from  the  primary  effects  of  their  injuries. 
At  least  three  of  them  underwent  amputation. 


32 


FRACTURES. 


Mamford/  collating  300  cases  (excluding  those  that  died  within  the 
first  twelve  hours  and  those  treated  by  primary  amputation)  received 
at  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital  during  the  preceding  eight 
years,  found  a  mortality  of  30,  or  10  per  cent.,  the  causes  of  death 
being  sepsis,  10;  shock,  7;  delirium  tremens,  6  ;  fat  embolism,  3; 
gangrene,  3;  nephritis,  1.  The  highest  mortality  was  in  fractures  of 
the  femur — 25  cases  with  7  deaths,  28  per  cent. 

The  principles  of  treatment  are  to  transform  the  fracture  into  a 
simple  one  as  promptly  as  possible,  to  minimize  suppuration  and  keep 
it  superficial  when  it  is  inevitable,  and  to  protect  against  other  infec- 
tion while  the  wound  is  open,  meanwhile  immobilizing  the  fragments 
by  suitable  splints.  For  details,  see  chapter  on  Treatment.  Under 
the  protection  of  strict  asepsis  the  question  of  the  need  of  amputation 
may  often  be  postponed  until  after  the  case  shall  have  clearly  shown 
whether  or  not  the  limb  can  be  saved. 

5.  Gunshot  Fractures. 

The  call  for  separate  consideration  of  this  variety  of  compound  frac- 
tures comes  through  peculiarities  of  the  lesions  and  dangers  consequent 


Fig.  12. 


•Fig.  13. 


Contusion  of  side  of  femur  by  pistol-ball ;  "  symmetrical  " 
fissure  of  the  opposite  side.    (Podlet  and  Bousquet.) 


Transverse  fracture  of  the  clavicle 
by  a  spent  ball.    (Ricard.) 


upon  the  small  size  and  the  velocity  of  the  projectile.     The  subject, 
consequently,  is  rather  more  limited  than  its  title  might  suggest,  and 


1  Mumford  :  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  May  10, 1894. 


PATHOLOGY. 


33 


does  not  include  fractures  by  large  balls  or  pieces  of  shells,  in  which 
the  extensive  laceration  of  the  soft  parts  is  even  more  important  than 
the  fracture. 

The  special  features  are  the  usually  extensive  splintering  and  iis- 
suring  of  the  bone  and  the  bruising  of  the  tissues  along  the  track  of 
the  bullet,  which  may  prevent  prompt  healing  of  the  wound.  These 
features  are  found  in  varying  degrees,  corresponding  to  the  velocity  of 
the  ball  and  to  its  size.  A  ball  whose  force  is  nearly  spent  may,  on 
striking  the  shaft  of  a  long  bone,  do  no  injury  at  the  point  of  impact, 
but  may  yet  cause  a  curved  fissure  nearly  circumscribing  a  cortical  frag- 
ment on  the  opposite  side  (Delorrae,  Fig.  12);  if  its  speed  is  slightly 
greater,  and  especially  if  it  strikes  the  spongy  end  of  the  bone,  it 
causes  a  depression  of  the  surface  only;  if  the  ball  is  large  and  its 
velocity  low,  and  the  point  struck  is  near  the  centre  of  the  shaft,  the 
depression  may  be  accompanied  by  a  transverse  fracture  (Fig.  13). 
At  higher  velocities  the  bone  is  perforated,  with  more  or  less  splinter- 
ing and  Assuring  (Fig.  14),  or  the  entire  cylinder  for  a  length  of  one 
or  two  inches  is  split  into  small  fragments  which  are  driven  far  into 
the  surrounding  tissues  (Fig.  15).     With  the  latter  is  associated  ex- 


FiG.  H 


Fig.  16. 


Perforating  shot-wound  of  tibia.    A,  entrance  ;  B,  exit. 

(RiCAED.) 

tensive  laceration  of  the  soft  parts  on  the  distal 
side.  In  other  cases  the  bone  is  fissured  or  split 
into  large  fragments  on  each  side.  Occasion- 
ally the  bone  may  be  simply  perforated  or 
notched,  and  then  broken  by  the  subsequent 
use  of  the  limb.  I  have  seen  two  such  cases; 
in  one  the  patient  was  shot  by  a  policeman, 
and  as  he  ran  away  the  femur  broke  at  the 
point  where  it  had  been  perforated  ;  he  died  of  tetanus.  In  the  other, 
fracture  of  the  leg,  the  same  sequence  was  observed,  but  the  patient 
survived,  and  the  exact  character  of  the  injury  caused  by  the  bullet 
remained  unknown. 

In  fractures  by  a  charge  of  small  shot  at  close  range  the  laceration 
of  the  soft  parts  is  the  predominant  feature.  In  those  of  the  cranium, 
chest,  and  pelvis  the  associated  visceral  injuries  are  the  most  impor- 

3 


Fracture  of  femur  by  ball 
from  a  Lobel  rifle  ;  small 
calibre ;  high  velocity. 

(Chauvel  and  Nimiee.) 


34  FRACTURES. 

taut ;  thus,  one  of  my  patients  died  from  the  injury  done  to  his  brain 
by  a  single  bird-shot,  size  No.  7,  which  entered  through  a  very  thin 
part  of  the  frontal  bone  just  below  the  inner  end  of  the  eyebrow.  The 
removal  of  the  bullet,  even  from  the  brain,  is  not  essential  to  recovery, 
and  a  search  for  it  may  easily  be  harmful. 

The  great  mortality  which  formerly  characterized  these  injuries  has 
been  greatly  reduced  by  antiseptic  treatment.  There  have  been  no 
important  military  statistics  since  the  Turco-Russian  war  of  1878, 
and  possibly  the  gain  by  antisepsis  then  noted  will  be  offset  by  the 
more  destructive  qualities  of  the  missiles  of  high  velocity  since  intro- 
duced; but  in  civil  practice,  which  deals  mainly  with  pistol-shot 
wounds,  the  results  now  obtained  are  good.  A  pistol-shot  wound  is 
usually  surgically  clean,  and  if  not  officiously  treated  may  be  confi- 
dently expected  to  heal  kindly;  a  piece  of  the  clothing  is  rarely  carried 
in  by  the  bullet,  and  in  most  cases  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  clean  the 
surface  and  the  orifice  of  the  wound  and  apply  a  dressing.  The  bullet 
may  be  left  to  heal  in  unless  the  wound  is  large  and  ragged.  Late 
hemorrhages,  due  to  the  sloughing  of  bruised  vessels,  sometimes  occur. 

In  gunshot  wounds  of  the  articular  ends  of  the  bones,  especially  at 
the  shoulder  and  elbow,  early  excision  may  be  advisable  both  as  a 
precaution  against  suppuration  or  its  later  effects,  and  to  increase  the 
subsequent  usefulness  of  the  limb. 


DISPLACEMENTS. 

The  relations  of  the  two  principal  fragments  produced  by  fracture 
of  a  bone  may  be  altered  in  various  ways,  which  Malgaigne  classifies 
under  six  heads.  This  classification  has  been  generally  adopted,  with 
the  understanding,  however,  that  a  fracture  usually  presents  a  combi- 
nation of  two  or  more  of  them,  and  that  there  is  an  additional  group 
of  cases  in  which  the  peculiarities  of  the  displacement  defy  classification. 

These  six  classes  group  displacements  according  to 

1.  The  transverse  axis  of  the  bone,  transverse  or  lateral  displacement. 

2.  The  long  axis  of  the  bone,  angular  displacement. 

3.  The  circumference  of  the  bone,  rotatory  displacement. 

4.  The  length  of  the  bone,  overriding. 

5.  Penetration  of  one  fragment  by  the  other,  iinpaction  or  crushing. 

6.  Direct  longitudinal  separation. 

1.  Transverse  or  lateral  displacement  may  take  place  forward,  back- 
ward, or  toward  either  side,  and  may  be  partial  or  complete.  Pure 
transverse  displacement  is  rare;  it  is  usually  associated  with  over- 
riding or  angular  displacement,  or  both  (Plate  I.,  fig.  1). 

2.  Angular  displacement  may  vary  in  degree  from  a  slight  deviation 
to  a  right  angle,  or  even  more,  and  may  be  associated  with  so  com- 
plete and  distant  separation  of  the  broken  surfaces  that  the  fragments 
form  a  T  (Fig.  16).  It  may  be  produced  by  the  fracturing  violence, 
the  action  of  gravity,  or  the  contraction  of  the  muscles. 

3.  In  rotatory  displacement  one  fragment,  usually  the  lower,  turns 
about  its  long  axis,  while  the  other  fragment  remains  in  position. 


PLATE    T. 


Fig.  1. — Fracture   of   Forearm,   six  weeks   old,    sho-wing   Ossification 
along    Periosteal    Bridge. 


PATHOLOGY. 


35 


4.  Overriding  is  most  common  after  oblique  fracture  of  the  shaft, 
and  is  produced  by  various  causes,  such  as  the  continuation  for  a 
moment  after  the  fracture  of  the  force  that  has  produced  it,  the  tonic- 
ity of  the  muscles,  or  the  swelling  of  the  limb  due  to  inflammatory 
reaction  and  extravasation  of  blood  beneath  the  deep  fascia,  which, 
by  increasing  the  transverse  diameters,  shortens  the  longitudinal  one. 


Fracture  of  the  clavicle. 


5.  Displacement  by  penetration  or  crushing  has  been  already  men- 
tioned as  the  impacted  variety  of  fracture.  Penetration  rarely  takes 
place  without  a  change  in  the  direction  of  the  axes  of  the  fragments, 
because  of  differences  in  the  resistance  or  of  the  direction  of  the 
fracture. 


Fig.  17. 


Fig.  18. 


Fig.  19. 


Rotatory  displacement  after  frac-    Fracture  of  both  bones  of  the 
ture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur.  leg,  with  overriding. 


Fracture  of  the  lower  end  of 
the  radius.  Angular  displace- 
ment of  the  lower  fragment 
backward.    (R.  W.  Smith.) 


The  callus  found  after  consolidation  of  the  fracture  may  give  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  much  deeper  penetration  than  has  actually  taken  place; 
thus,  in  Fig.  19  the  triangular  mass  of  spongy  tissue  on  the  side  is 


36 


FRACTURES. 


not  the  penetrated  epiphysis,  bat  is  mainly  composed  of  callas  formed 
by  the  stripped-iip  periosteum. 

6.  Direct  longitudinal  separation  is  seen  most  frequently  after  fracture 
of  the  patella,  and  is  then  due  partly  to  the  retraction  of  the  quadri- 
ceps and  partly  to  the  distention  of  the  joint  by  blood  and  exudate. 

Among  the  irregular  displacements,  those  which  do  not  fall  entirely 
within  the  above  classification,  may  be  mentioned  rotation  of  one  frag- 
ment about  its  transverse  axis,  as  in  some  fractures  of  the  neck  of  the 
humerus,  crossing  of  the  fragments  in  the  form  of  an  X,  and  the  inter- 
position of  a  bone  between  two  fractured  ones,  or  of  the  end  of  the 
shaft  between  its  separated  condyles. 


(B)  THE  SOFT  PARTS. 

The  periosteum  may  be  siuiply  loosened  from  the  surface  of  bone 
adjoining  the  fracture,  or  it  may  be  torn  across  throughout  the  whole 
or  only  a  portion  of  its  extent  at  or  near  the  line  of  fracture.  The 
first  form  (excluding  fractures  of  the  flat  bones)  is  found  only  in  frac- 
tures with  slight  displacement,  and  especially  in  the  young,  in  whom 
the  periosteum  is  thick  and  resistant.  Such  fractures  are  known  as 
subperiosteal.  They  may  be  recognized  or  inferred  from  the  youth  of 
the  patient  and  the  slight  displacement  and  abnormal  mobility  of  the 
fragments.     Their  prognosis  is  exceptionally  good. 

Complete  rupture  of  the  periosteum  all  around  the  bone  is  probably 
infrequent  and  to  be  found  only  in  fractures  with  great  displacement. 
Examination  of  fresh  specimens  and  of  the  position  and  shape  of  the 
callus  in  those  that  have  united  indicates  that  in  most  cases  the  conti- 
nuity of  the  periosteum  is  preserved  on  one  side,  the  continuous  portion 
being  stripped  off  one  of  the  fragments  for  some  distance  and  forming 
a  '^  periosteal  bridge'^  (Oilier),  which  unites  the  two  fragments  and 
takes  an  important  part  in  the  subsequent  repair.  (Plate  I.,  fig. 
2,  and  Fig.  20.) 

Fig.  20. 


"  Periosteal  bridge  "  after  fracture  of  a  rib. 


The  muscles  may  escape  injury  or  may  be  extensively  torn.  The 
neighboring  connective  tissue  is  torn  and  infiltrated  with  blood  from  its 
own  vessels  or  from  those  of  the  broken  bone.  Injury  to  important 
vessels  and  nerves  is  rare;  it  will  be  described  under  Complications, 
Chapter  YI. 


PATHOLOGY.  37 

The  sJcin  may  be  torn  by  the  original  violence  or  by  the  sharp  end 
of  a  fragment,  or  it  may  be  so  bruised  by  the  original  violence  or  so 
pressed  upon  by  a  displaced  fragment  that  it  subsequently  sloughs. 
These  lesions  of  the  skin  may  communicate  with  the  seat  of  fracture 
(compound  fracture),  or  may  be  at  a  distance  therefrom  and  without 
influence  upon  its  course,  except  so  far  as  they  may  interfere  with  the 
application  of  splints.  Discoloration  of  the  skin  due  to  extra vasated 
blood  beneath  almost  invariably  appears  after  a  day  or  two,  and  may 
be  widespread.  Large  blebs  filled  with  dark,  blood-stained  serum  fre- 
quently appear  upon  the  limb  near  the  fracture  by  the  second  or  third 
day. 


CHAPTEE    III, 

ETIOLOGY. 

The  causes  of  fracture  may  be  grouped  under  two  heads:  A.  The 
predisposing  causes  ;  B.    The  immediate  or  determining  causes. 

The  Predisposing  Causes 

are  of  three  kinds:  (1)  the  external,  (2)  the  normal  or  physiological, 
and  (3)  the  pathological.  Most  of  the  latter,  which  consist  in  a  local 
or,  more  rarely,  a  general  diminution  of  the  strength  or  an  actual  de- 
struction of  the  bone  by  a  local  or  general  disease,  will  be  considered 
under  the  head  of  Spontaneous  or  Pathological  Fractures. 

The  external  predisposing  causes  are  those  incidental  to  various  occu- 
pations and  modes  of  life  which  involve  greater  exposure  to  deter- 
mining causes;  they  account  for  the  great  excess  of  fractures  in  males 
over  those  in  females  between  youth  and  old  age,  and  for  their  rarity 
in  young  children. 

The  normal  or  physiological  causes  are  those  which  have  their 
origin  in  the  position  and  functions  of  the  different  bones.  The 
bones  of  the  skull  and  chest  are  broken  when  the  violence  against 
which  they  are  designed  to  protect  the  enclosed  viscera  is  too  great  for 
their  power  of  resistance;  the  use  of  the  arms  in  many  occupations 
exposes  them  to  fracturing  violence,  and  they  and  the  lower  limbs  are 
broken  in  falls  all  the  more  easily  because  of  the  contraction  of  the 
muscles  by  which  they  are  stiffened  to  protect  the  body  against  the 
shock.  In  like  manner  the  normal  curves  in  single  or  associated  bones 
— e.g.,  the  clavicle  and  spinal  column — which  supply  an  elasticity 
that  is  protective  of  the  viscera  increase  their  liability  to  fracture. 

Interstitial  atrophy  of  the  bones,  which  is  so  common  a  senile  change, 
is  undoubtedly  the  cause  of  the  greater  relative  frequency  of  fractures 
in  the  old;  and  its  agency  becomes  all  the  more  apparent  when  the 
usual  withdrawal  of  the  aged  from  the  occupations  which  most  expose 
to  fracture  is  taken  into  account.  This  atrophy  consists  in  thinning  of 
the  cortex  of  the  shafts  and  of  the  trabeculee  of  the  spongy  portions 
and  of  the  short  bones,  not  in  a  relative  increase  of  the  lime  salts  in 
the  bone  tissue  itself,  as  was  long  supposed.  It  is  an  actual  diminution 
of  the  bone  substance  and  a  corresponding  increase  of  the  fat  and  other 
soft  parts  contained  in  it.  In  the  old,  and  when  not  extreme,  it  may 
be  classed  as  a  normal  predisposition  to  fracture,  but  when  it  appears 
prematurely  or  reaches  an  extreme  degree  it  must  be  deemed  patholog- 
ical and  classed  with  other  similar  atrophies  whose  nature  and  causes 
are  not  well  understood. 

The  inherited  or  early  developed  liability  to  fracture  which  has  been 


ETIOLOGY.  39 

observed  in  certain  individuals  and  families  who  were  in  otluT  respects 
normal  is  probably  tlic  result  of  a  similar  scantiness  of  the  l)f)ne  tissue. 
Of  this  inherited  liability  Gurlt  gives  three  examples,  extending  in 
one  over  four  generations,  in  the  others  over  three.  One  of  the  patients 
suffered  fourteen  fractures,  and  another  thirteen,  before  either  reached 
the  age  of  thirteen  years.  All  united  promptly.  He  gives  also  three 
cases  of  a  congenital  but  not  inherited  liability  to  fracture  in  families. 
One  girl  suffered  thirty-one  fractures  of  the  thigh,  leg,  and  arm  between 
the  ages  of  three  and  fourteen  years;  her  sister  had  nine  before  she  was 
six  years  old.  Not  infrequently  individuals  have  developed  in  early 
or  middle  life  a  noticeable  fragility  of  the  bones  without  any  other 
change  that  would  indicate  a  general  deterioration  or  disease. 

Immediate  or  Determining  Causes  of  Fracture. 

These  are  of  two  kinds  :  (1)  External  violence,  and  (2)  muscular 
action,  the  latter  exerted  by  muscles  connected  more  or  less  directly 
with  the  bone  that  is  broken. 

1.  Fractures  by  External  Violence.  The  division  of  these  into  two 
classes,  of  which  one  is  called  fractures  by  direct,  the  other  fractures 
by  indirect,  violence  is  based  upon  clinical  differences  often  of  ex- 
treme importance,  and  not  simply  upon  mechanical  differences  in  the 
mode  of  transmission  and  in  the  effect  of  the  applied  force.  This 
relieves  us,  therefore,  from  the  necessity  of  examining  the  latter  ques- 
tions with  their  many  obscure  factors  and  complex  relations,  and  makes 
the  definitions  simple.  A  fracture  by  direct  violence  is  one  in  which 
the  bone  is  broken  immediately  under  the  point  upon  the  surface  where 
the  fracturing  force  is  received;  and  a  fracture  by  indirect  violence  is 
one  in  which  the  fracture  takes  place  at  a  distance  from  that  point. 
The  most  important  clinical  difference  between  the  two  varieties  de- 
pends upon  the  injury  to  the  overlying  soft  parts  in  the  one  case  and 
the  absence  of  such  injury  in  the  other. 

The  skin  is  not  always  broken  in  fractures  by  direct  violence,  even 
when  the  vulnerant  force  has  been  great  and  the  injury  to  the  soft  parts 
under  the  skin  extensive,  but  it  may  have  been  so  injured,  even  if  it 
shows  no  marks  of  violence,  that  it  will  slough.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  blow  may  break  the  skin  at  the  point  where  it  is  received  and  pro- 
duce fracture  indirectly  at  a  greater  or  less  distance,  the  bone  yielding 
at  its  point  of  least  resistance  and  not  at  that  where  the  force  is  directly 
exerted. 

The  fracturing  force  may  be  ap})lied  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  bone, 
to  crush  or  break  it,  or  obliquely  to  its  long  axis,  or  as  torsion,  or  as 
avulsion.  Examples  of  the  first  are  furnished  by  falls  upon  the  feet 
with  fracture  of  the  calcaneum,  gunshot  wounds,  and  crushing  of  the 
lower  end  of  the  radius  in  a  fall  upon  the  hand;  of  the  second  by  most 
fractures  of  the  shafts  of  long  bones;  of  the  third  by  some  fractures 
of  the  leg  when  the  foot  is  fixed  and  the  body  turned  forcibly  about  it; 
and  of  the  fourth  by  some  fractures  of  the  internal  condyle  of  the 
femur  by  forced  abduction  of  the  leg,  by  some  of  the  internal  malleolus 
in  eversion  of  the  foot,  and  by  some  of  the  patella  in  forced  flexion  of  the 


40  FRACTURES. 

knee  when  its  normal  range  of  motion  has  been  limited  by  previous 
injury. 

Indirect  fractures  are  by  far  more  common  in  long  bones  than  in  the 
short  spougy  ones,  because  of  their  proportions  and  functions.  The 
principle  of  their  production  is  that  of  the  transmission  of  a  force 
along  a  bone  or  set  of  bones  made  rigid  by  ligamentary  attachments 
or  muscular  contraction  in  such  manner  that  it  is  resolved  into  forces 
acting  in  two  or  more  directions,  one  of  which  crosses  the  long  axis  of 
the  l)one  and  acts  as  if  it  had  been  applied  directly  at  the  point  of 
least  resistance  in  a  transverse  direction.  The  effect  is  greatly  modified 
by  the  anatomical  structure  and  form  of  the  bone,  the  attitude  of  the 
limb,  the  contraction  of  the  muscles,  and  the  direction  of  the  blow. 
Thus,  a  fall  upon  the  hand  may  break  the  bones  of  the  forearm,  the 
humerus,  or  the  clavicle;  a  fall  upon  the  foot  may  fracture  the  calca- 
neum  by  direct  violence,  or  the  bones  of  the  leg,  the  thigh,  or  even  the 
vertebral  column  or  skull  by  indirect  violence. 

The  best  example  of  the  fracture  of  short  bones  by  indirect  violence 
is  furnished  by  the  spinal  column,  the  bones  of  which,  considered  as  a 
group,  constitute  a  long  bone  with  several  curves,  the  forcible  exag- 
geration of  which  produces  fracture. 

2.  Fractures  by  Muscular  Action.  Under  this  head  are  included 
only  those  fractures  in  which  the  rupturing  force  is  exerted  by  the 
muscles  alone,  without  the  aid  of  any  external  violence.  It  is,  of 
course,  evident  that,  if  an  individual  breaks  his  skull  or  a  limb  by 
running  or  striking  against  a  solid  object,  the  force  that  causes  the  frac- 
ture is  developed  by  the  action  of  his  muscles;  but  the  mechanism  is 
the  same  as  if  he  had  fallen  from  a  height,  or  as  if  his  body  was  at  rest 
and  the  object  with  which  he  has  come  into  contact  was  in  motion. 
Only  those  cases  are  considered  to  be  fractures  by  muscular  action  in 
which  the  action  is  exerted  directly  by  the  muscles  upon  the  bones  to 
which  they  are  attached  (mediately  or  immediately),  either  as  direct 
traction,  as  in  fracture  of  the  patella  or  of  the  olecranon,  or  obliquely, 
or  in  torsion  against  resistance,  or  by  exaggerating  the  normal  curve 
of  the  bone,  or  by  sudden  muscular  arrest  of  the  rapidly  moving  limb, 
as  in  throwing,  or  in  striking  or  kicking  at  an  object  and  missing  it. 

Some  authors  have  expressed  the  opinion  that  no  bone  can  be  broken 
by  simple  muscular  contraction  unless  it  has  previously  undergone  some 
change  that  has  diminished  its  strength;  but  this  opinion  must  be 
looked  upon  as  an  attempt  to  explain  away  by  au  unfounded,  or  at 
least  an  unproved,  assumption  a  difficulty  which  does  not  really  exist. 
It  is  no  more  logical  to  claim  that  such  a  change  has  preceded  every 
fracture  by  muscular  action  than  it  would  be  to  make  the  same  claim 
for  fractures  by  external  violence;  it  can  rest  only  upon  the  assumption 
that  the  power  of  resistance  of  a  normal  bone  is  superior  to  any  force 
that  a  muscle  or  group  of  muscles  can  exert  upon  it,  even  under  ex- 
treme and  unusual  circumstances;  whereas,  on  the  contrary,  nature's 
precautions  and  adaptations  are,  as  a  rule,  calculated  upon  the  basis  of 
the  probable,  not  of  the  exceptional.  Such  a  position  may  be  taken 
with  propriety  concerning  all  fractures  produced  by  slight  causes  in 
the  old,  the  diseased,  the  cachectic,  or  in  those  who  have  suffered  pain 


ETIOLOGY.  41 

at  the  point  of  fracture  for  some  time  previous  to  the  accident;  but 
it  is  entirely  unsupported  by  proof  in  the  rarer,  but  still  sufficiently 
numerous,  cases  of  the  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  a  long  bone  produced 
by  a  violent  effort  in  a  healthy  athletic  man,  and  in  the  common  ones 
of  fracture  of  the  patella. 

The  effect  of  muscular  action  is  manifested  in  all  the  degrees  of 
varying  importance  between  its  relatively  unimportant  additions  to  the 
effects  of  external  violence  and  those  cases  in  which  it  is  the  sole  agent 
of  the  fracture  of  a  healthy  bone.  The  intermediate  degrees  are  pre- 
sented by  those  fractures,  usually  of  weakened  bones,  in  which  mod- 
erate muscular  action  has  acted  either  alone  or  combined  with  slight 
external  violence.  In  the  first  case,  when  the  power  of  the  muscle  is 
exerted  in  the  same  direction  as  the  external  violence,  it  increases  the 
fracturing  force  by  just  so  much;  and,  by  prolonging  its  effect  after 
the  fracture  has  been  made,  it  also  increases  the  displacement  of  the 
fragments  and  the  laceration  of  the  soft  parts.  The  principal  interest 
of  the  intermediate  cases  is  connected  with  the  cause  of  the  exceptional 
fragility  of  the  bone,  and  is  considered  in  the  following  section — Spon- 
taneous and  Pathological  Fractures. 

The  commonest  examples  of  fracture  by  muscular  action  alone  are 
furnished  by  the  patella;  other  apophyses  and  tuberosities  to  which 
powerful  muscles  are  attached — the  olecranon,  greater  tuberosity  of  the 
humerus,  coracoid,  acromion — furnish  them  much  more  rarely. 

Of  the  long  bones  the  humerus  is  the  one  most  frequently  broken  in 
this  manner;  out  of  85  cases  of  fracture  of  the  limbs  by  muscular 
action  collected  by  Gurlt,^  57  were  fractures  of  the  humerus,  15  of  the 
thigh,  8  of  the  leg,  and  5  of  the  forearm.  The  mechanism  seems  in 
most  cases  to  be  the  same  as  in  indirect  fracture;  in  some  the  fracture 
takes  place  at  the  insertion  of  the  muscle,  and  in  others  the  elements 
are  too  complex  and  too  uncertain  to  be  explained  theoretically.  In  a 
comparatively  small  number  of  cases  the  fracture  has  been  caused  by 
reflex  spasms  in  limbs  that  had  long  been  paralyzed  or  by  the  convul- 
sions of  epilepsy  or  tetanus,  but  usually  the  cause  is  a  violent  voluntary 
muscular  effort  to  avoid  a  fall,  to  throw  a  stone,  or  to  lift  a  heavy 
object.  The  following  cases  taken  from  Gurlt  illustrate  the  differ- 
ent forms  and  the  methods  by  which  they  may  be  produced.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  fractures  produced  during  convulsions  need  to  be 
closely  examined  in  order  not  to  overlook  the  possible  addition  of 
external  violence  by  a  fall  from  the  bed  or  by  a  blow. 

In  a  negro  boy,  twelve  or  thirteen  years  of  age,  affected  with  teta- 
nus, both  thigh  bones  were  broken  ''  at  the  neck,"  probably  just  below 
the  trochanter,  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles,  and  the  fragments 
forced  through  the  skin  on  the  outer  side  of  the  limb. 

An  athletic  man,  thirty-four  years  old,  accustomed  to  lift  heavy 
weights,  broke  his  humerus  with  an  audible  snap,  just  below  the  inser- 
tion of  the  deltoid,  by  the  effort  made,  on  a  wager,  to  throw  a  stone 
weighing  about  two  ounces  the  distance  of  a  hundred  yards.  Recovery 
in  six  weeks. 

1  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  i.  p.  232. 


42  FRACTURES. 

Gurlt  gives  also  eleven  cases  in  which  the  humerus  was  broken 
during  that  trial  of  strength  in  which  two  men  place  their  elbows  upon 
a  table,  clasp  hands  with  the  forearms  parallel  and  vertical,  and  strive 
to  force  each  other's  hands  backward. 

Fractures  of  the  femur  may  occur  at  any  point  on  the  shaft,  and  in 
the  recorded  cases  have  been  the  result  of  an  attempt  to  kick,  to  avoid 
a  fall,  or  to  rise  from  the  ground  on  one  foot,  or  of  cramps,  excited 
in  one  case  by  drawing  on  a  tight,  boot,  and  in  another  by  turning 
in  bed. 

A  colonel  of  cavalry,  thirty-six  to  thirty-eight  years  old,  of  middle 
size,  and  great  muscular  power,  broke  his  thigh  at  the  junction  of  its 
upper  and  middle  thirds  by  kicking  at  and  missing  his  servant. 

Van  Oven  described  before  the  Royal  Medical  and  Surgical  Society 
a  fracture  of  the  thigh  sustained  by  himself.  He  was  fifty-six  years 
old,  healthy  and  strong,  and  free  from  taint  of  cancer,  scrofula,  syph- 
ilis, etc.  He  was  awakened  by  a  sharp,  cramp-like  pain  above  the 
knee,  and  as  he  felt  the  part  with  his  hand,  and  noticed  that  the  muscle 
was  tense,  he  heard  a  snap,  followed  by  relaxation  of  the  muscle,  crepi- 
tus, and  diminution  of  the  pain.  Examination  showed  a  transverse 
fracture  of  the  femur  three  inches  above  the  knee.  Complete  recovery 
in  four  months. 

A  cavalryman,  twenty-nine  years  old,  while  trying  to  rise  from  a 
sitting  posture  on  the  ground  without  the  aid  of  his  hands,  broke  his 
right  thigh  at  its  middle. 

Gurlt' s  eight  cases  of  fracture  of  the  leg  comprise  four  of  both  bones, 
one  of  the  tibia,  and  three  of  the  fibula  alone,  the  latter  being  fractures 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  bone  by  the  contraction  of  the  biceps. 

A  small,  rather  corpulent  woman,  forty-five  years  old,  slipped  on 
the  left  foot  while  descending  some  steps,  made  a  violent  effort  with 
the  right  leg  to  avoid  a  fall,  felt  at  once  a  severe  pain  in  the  latter,  and 
fell  in  a  sitting  posture.  An  immediate  examination  showed  a  fracture 
of  both  bones  at  the  middle  of  the  leg. 

A  woman,  fifty-two  years  old,  mistook  a  door  leading  into  the  cellar 
for  one  opening  into  a  closet,  and,  recognizing  the  mistake  as  she  put 
her  right  foot  forward,  drew  herself  instinctively  backward,  and  felt 
at  the  same  moment  something  snap  in  her  left  leg,  upon  which  the 
weight  of  her  body  rested.  She  fell  and  rolled  down  the  steps.  A 
fracture  of  the  left  fibula  just  below  its  head  was  found. 

Fracture  of  either  or  both  bones  of  the  forearm  has  been  caused  by 
the  wringing  of  wet  clothes  and  in  shovelling.  A  healthy  girl,  eighteen 
years  old,  while  wringing  clothes,  felt  a  sudden  sharp  pain  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  forearm  above  the  wrist.  Three  days  afterward  a  fracture 
of  the  ulna,  two  and  one-half  inches  above  the  wrist,  was  recognized. 

A  woman,  thirty  years  old,  broke  the  radius  in  its  lower  third  with 
severe  pain  while  wringing  two  heavy  towels. 

Fractures  of  the  clavicle  have  been  caused  by  the  effort  of  raising  a 
heavy  object,  shovelling,  and  striking  backward,  or  with  a  whip. 

Fractures  of  one  or  more  ribs  are  not  infrequently  caused  by  violent 
coughing.  The  sternum  has  been  broken  in  four  recorded  cases  by  the 
violent  straining  and  bending  backward  of  the  body  during  the  expul- 


ETIOLOGY.  43 

sive  efforts  of  parturition,  and  there  are  several  cases  of  fracture  of  the 
vertebral  column  by  muscular  action  alone,  and  of  the  sca|)ula. 

Hilton  reports  the  case  of  a  man  who  had  broken  a  rib  by  muscular 
action  while  trying  to  mount  a  spirited  horse. 

A  primipara,  twenty-four  years  old,  taken  in  labor,  sought  to  hasten 
delivery  by  forcible  expulsive  efforts,  bending  backward  and  resting 
on  her  elbow  and  heels;  she  felt  a  sudden  sharp  pain  and  a  snap  in  the 
middle  of  the  breast,  and  said  at  once  that  something  had  broken  there. 
She  died  of  peritonitis,  and  at  the  autopsy  a  transverse  fracture  of  the 
sternum  was  found,  one  and  one-half  lines  above  the  junction  of  its 
body  and  the  manubrium. 

A  soldier  dived  into  a  river,  and,  not  reappearing,  was  sought  for 
and  brought  out.  His  body  showed  no  trace  of  external  violence,  but 
there  was  paralysis  of  all  the  limbs,  loss  of  sensation,  pain  at  the  pos- 
terior and  lower  parts  of  the  neck,  priapism,  frequent  desire  to  urinate. 
He  said  that  as  he  dived  he  saw  the  water  was  too  shallow,  and  in  the 
effort  to  avoid  striking  against  the  bottom  he  jerked  his  head  sharply 
backward  and  at  once  lost  consciousness.  He  died  the  same  night,  and 
the  autopsy  showed  a  transverse  fracture  of  the  body  of  the  fifth  cer- 
vical vertebra  a  little  below  its  centre. 

A  servant  engaged  in  preparing  a  lamp  raised  his  arm  quickly  to 
arrest  the  action  of  an  escaping  spring  and  felt  something  give  way  in 
it.  The  arm  fell  powerless  by  his  side,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the 
acromion  was  found  to  have  been  broken  off. 

I  have  seen  two  fractures  of  the  coracoid  process  by  forcible  con- 
traction of  the  muscles  of  the  arm. 

Spontaneous  and  Pathological  Fractures. 

The  term  spontaneous  is  used  to  indicate  that  the  violence,  external 
or  muscular,  which  has  produced  the  fracture  is  much  less  than  that 
commonly  observed  in  that  form;  and  the  terra  j9a^/jo/o^ica/ to  indi- 
cate a  preceding  abnormal  change  in  the  fractured  bone  by  which 
its  strength  has  been  diminished.  It  has  become  common  to  use  the 
terms  interchangeably,  because  the  slight  violence  indicated  by  the 
first  is  efficient  to  fracture  only  when  the  change  indicated  by  the 
second  is  present. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  pain  accompanying  or  following  the  frac- 
ture is  often  very  slight;  fractures  of  ribs,  and  even  some  of  the  limbs, 
have  passed  unrecognized  until  the  autopsy.  The  pathological  condi- 
tion known  as  general  atrophy  or  rarefaction  of  the  bone,  or  osteopo- 
rosis, and  which  has  been  referred  to  as  senile  atrophy,  may  appear 
prematurely  or  may  have  its  origin  in  other  causes  than  senility,  such 
as  paralysis,  locomotor  ataxia,  diabetes,  pregnancy,  and  osteomalacia. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  not  a  small  proportion  of  cases  union  takes 
place  promptly.  In  most  of  the  cases  which  furnish  autopsies  the  bones 
are  found  softened  and  reduced  to  a  shell  by  absorption  from  within, 
and  in  some  of  the  cases  suppuration  has  taken  place  at  the  fracture. 

It  has  been  noted  by  Bouchard  and  by  Verueuil  and  Verchere  that 
spontaneous  fracture  occasionally  happens  in  the  diabetic,  and  that  the 


44  FBACTUBES. 

urine  shows  the  presence  not  only  of  sugar  but  also  of  phosphoric  acid 
in  quantities  that  suggest  its  origin  in  a  decalcification  of  the  bones. 
These  observations  have  been  confirmed  by  Isch-Wall  (quoted  by 
Ricard),  who  also  found  the  phosphoric  acid  present  in  some  patients 
affected  with  cancer.  In  nine  cases  of  spontaneous  fracture  in  the 
diabetic  reported  by  Verchere  union  was  greatly  delayed. 

The  following  cases  represent  different  varieties  : 

A  woman,  seventy-two  years  old,  had  both  thighs  broken  by  kneel- 
ing in  church,  and  the  humerus  by  the  efforts  of  bystanders  to  lift  her 
up.  Another  broke  her  clavicle  by  putting  her  arm  about  the  nurse's 
neck  and  trying  to  turn  herself  in  bed  (Gurlt). 

A  woman,  forty-five  years  old,  the  mother  of  two  children,  suffered 
a  great  deal  of  pain  in  her  bones  after  the  birth  of  her  second  child, 
and  became  so  helpless  that  she  could  not  get  into  or  out  of  bed  with- 
out aid.  She  broke  each  thigh  belovv  the  trochanter  by  stumbling 
against  the  bedpost  in  one  case  and  by  turning  in  bed  in  the  other. 
Both  united  with  marked  angular  displacement,  and  at  the  autopsy  the 
bones  of  the  thigh  and  pelvis  were  found  to  be  so  light  that  they  floated 
in  water  and  could  be  crushed  by  pressure  with  the  finger.  The  cor- 
tical layer  of  the  femur  was  as  thin  as  an  egg-shell,  the  medullary 
canal  enlarged,  traversed  here  and  there  by  delicate  plates  of  bone,  and 
filled  with  a  grumous,  semifluid  mixture  of  blood  and  marrow  (Gurlt). 

A  man,  sixty  years  old,  broke  his  femur  in  the  middle  third  by 
stumbling,  without  falling.  He  died  a  fortnight  later,  and  I  found  an 
enormous  calculus  in  each  kidney. 

Saviard  saw  in  1690  a  woman,  about  thirty  years  old,  who  had  suf- 
fered for  four  months  with  severe  pains  throughout  the  body,  increased 
by  movements,  and  without  fever.  Three  months  later  she  had  become 
bedridden,  and  her  bones  had  become  so  friable  that  most  of  them  were 
broken,  and  she  could  not  be  moved  without  causing  a  new  fracture. 
She  lived  ten  months  in  this  condition,  and  the  autopsy  showed  frac- 
tures of  almost  every  bone  in  her  body.  Their  structure  was  so  deli- 
cate that  they  could  not  be  pressed  between  the  fingers  without  breaking 
into  small  pieces;  the  marrow  was  red,  the  muscles  pale,  the  joints  and 
cartilages  unchanged. 

In  a  case  under  my  care  the  bones  appeared  to  have  been  weakened 
by  an  osteitis  set  up  by  a  blow  and  a  wound  of  the  soft  parts.  The 
wound  healed  in  three  weeks;  a  fortnight  later  the  patient  returned 
with  a  compound  fracture  of  the  leg  at  the  scar,  caused  by  stepping 
down  a  distance  of  two  feet.  The  bone  could  be  plainly  seen  and  was 
rarefied.     Prompt  recovery. 

A  similar  friability  is  also  found  in  some  cases  of  old  nnreduced 
dislocation,  due,  it  is  supposed,  to  lack  of  use.  The  condition  was 
shown  by  direct  examination  in  a  case  of  subcoracoid  dislocation  of  six 
weeks'  standing,  in  which  Guerin^  tore  off  the  forearm  in  an  attempt 
to  reduce.  The  ends  of  the  bones  were  rarefied  and  soft,  and  the  mus- 
cles softened  and  brown.  The  autopsy  showed  no  change  in  the  other 
portions  of  the  body. 

1  Guerin  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1864,  vol.  v.  pp.  121  and  131. 


ETIOLOGY.  45 

It  seems  probable,  however,  that  in  most  cases  in  which  fracture  has 
occurred  during  an  attempt  to  reduce  a  dislocation,  and  in  Avhich  un- 
usual fragility  has  been  alleged  in  explanation,  the  force  exerted  upon 
the  bone  has  been  greater  than  the  surgeon  supposed,  because  of  the 
leverage  employed,  especially  in  rotation  of  the  limb. 

Disease  of  the  Nerve-centres.  In  1842  Davey  called  attention  to  the 
facility  with  which  fracture  sometimes  occurred  in  lunatics,  especially 
in  those  who  were  also  paralytic,  and  the  observation  has  been  abun- 
dantly confirmed,  Bruus  having  collected  more  than  sixty  reported  cases. 
Weir  MitchelP  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  frequency  of  frac- 
ture in  those  affected  with  locomotor  ataxia,  and  suggested  that  the 
cause  might  lie  in  an  impairment  of  the  nutrition,  and  consequently  of 
the  strength  of  the  bone  dependent  upon  the  disease  of  the  cord. 
Shortly  afterward  Charcot'"^  published  a  remarkable  case  of  multiple 
fractures  and  dislocations  in  an  ataxic  woman,  and  Bruns"^  followed 
with  a  paper  upon  the  subject,  based  upon  thirty  cases  reported  within 
a  few  years.  He  finds  that  the  fractures  are  usually  multiple,  from 
two  to  six  in  number,  and  are  most  common  in  the  lower  limb,  espe- 
cially in  the  femur;  the  frequency  is  equal  in  the  different  bones  of  the 
upper  extremity — clavicle,  humerus,  and  forearm.  Repair  takes  place 
in  the  usual  time. 

The  accident  seems  to  occur  more  frequently  in  the  earlier  than  in 
the  later  stages  of  the  nervous  disease,  and  the  predisposing  condition 
is  a  rarefaction  of  the  bone  marked  by  great  absorption  of  the  compact 
tissue,  increase  of  fat,  and  loss  of  inorganic  matter.  A  very  remark- 
able instance  of  the  earliness  of  this  change  is  given  by  Tillmann*  in 
the  report  of  three  cases  of  spiral  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  the  femur 
caused  by  the  effort  made  in  drawing  off  a  shoe.  The  patients  showed 
nothing  abnormal  at  the  time,  but  when  examined  three  and  half,  five, 
and  eight  years  later,  respectively,  locomotor  ataxia  existed. 

Rachitis,  Friability  due  to  rachitis  is  found  only  in  childhood,  for 
the  disease  is  one  which  involves  the  bones  only  during  their  period  of 
growth,  and  consists  essentially  in  the  prolongation  and  exaggeration 
of  the  embryonal  or  developmental  condition  of  the  shaft,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  its  strength  and  the  firmness  of  its  union  with  the 
epiphyses  are  diminished. 

Union  after  fracture  takes  place  rather  more  slowly  than  in  normal 
bone,  and  sometimes  fails  entirely.  The  callus  is  usually  large,  but, 
as  it  is  composed  of  the  same  soft  embryonal  tissue  Avhose  excess  is  the 
pathological  feature  of  the  disease,  it  is  lacking  in  firmness. 

Syphilis,  Mercurialism,  and  Rheumatism.  Syphilis  affects  the  organ- 
ism in  so  many  and  so  varied  forms,  and  causes  such  serious  bone 
lesions  in  its  later  stages,  that  it  is  not  strange  that  both  physicians  and 
patients  have  been  inclined  to  attribute  to  it  fractures  produced  by 
slight  causes  whenever  the  patient  was  or  had  been  affected  by  it. 
And  in  like  manner  those  who  saw  in  mercury  the  cause  of  the  bone 
lesions  of  syphilis  attributed  the  fractures  to  the  use  of  that  drug. 

1  Weir  Mitchell :  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Science?,  Julj%  1873,  p.  113. 

2  Charcot :  Arch,  de  Phys.,  1874,  p.  166. 

3  Bruns:  Berlin,  klin.  Wochenschrift,  1882,  p  164. 

4  Tillmann :  Berlin,  klin.  Wochenschrift,  1896,  No.  35. 


46  FRACTURES. 

When  we  remember  what  multitudes  of  people  have  contracted 
syphilis,  how  numerous  those  in  whom  it  has  caused  grave  lesions  of 
the  bones,  and  on  the  other  hand  how  few  are  the  cases,  excluding  sep- 
aration of  the  epiphyses  in  the  new-born,  in  which  it  can  even  be  sus- 
pected as  a  predisposing  cause  of  fracture,  it  is  evident  that  it  can  have 
but  little  influence  in  this  direction;  and  an  examination  of  the  alleged 
cases  shows  very  frequently  a  coexisting  constitutional  weakness  or  a 
cachexia  not  always  to  be  attributed  to  the  specific  disease,  which 
creates  a  close  resemblance  between  these  cases  and  those  in  which  the 
friability  of  the  bone  is  due  to  a  premature  or  exaggerated  senile 
atrophy.  Yet  it  seems  strange  that  the  development  of  a  gumma  in 
the  shaft  of  a  long  bone,  with  the  consequent  destruction  of  tissue, 
does  not  more  often  lead  to  fracture. 

Gurlt's  fifteen  syphilitic  cases  include  five  in  which  the  fracture  was 
preceded  by  severe  pain,  more  or  less  prolonged,  in  the  broken  bones, 
and  these  might  be  deemed  demonstrative  of  the  influence  of  syphilis 
did  we  not  possess  other  similar  cases  in  which  the  syphilitic  complica- 
tion does  not  exist.  Malgaigne,^  indeed,  speaks  of  local  inflammation 
of  the  bone  as  a  frequent  and  too  much  neglected  predisposing  cause  of 
fracture,  adding  :  ^'  1  give  this  name,  conjecturally,  to  an  affection 
which  manifests  itself  by  dull  pains  attributed  by  the  patient  to  some 
contusion  or  to  rheumatism,  rarely  suflicient  to  cause  a  general  reaction, 
and  attracting  but  little  attention  until  some  slight  cause  produces  frac- 
ture at  the  point  it  occupies."  There  is  a  striking  similarity  between 
the  cases  he  cites  and  Gurlt's  syphilitic  cases. 

There  seems  to  be  no  reason  to  suppose  that  mercury  has  any  direct 
action  upon  the  bones,  rendering  them  more  liable  to  fracture,  and  the 
most  that  can  be  claimed  is  that  its  excessive,  unskilful  use  will  cause 
a  deterioration  of  the  health,  which  may  result  in  an  atrophy  of  the 
bones  similar  to  that  found  in  old  asje. 

Cancer  and  Sarcoma.  There  are  two  ways,  apparently,  in  which  the 
development  of  a  malignant  tumor  may  lead  to  fracture:  either  the 
tumor  may  occupy  the  bone  itself,  primarily  or  secondarily,  and  destroy 
it  to  such  an  extent  that  the  slightest  force  is  sufficient  to  fracture  it, 
or  the  presence  of  the  tumor  elsewhere  may  induce  a  cachexia  which 
results  in  atrophy  of  the  bones.  The  following  two  cases  are  quoted 
in  illustration  : 

Louis^  was  called  to  see  a  nun,  sixty  years  old,  whose  arm  had  been 
broken  by  the  efforts  of  a  coachman  to  help  her  into  a  carriage.  Union 
did  not  take  place,  and  six  months  later,  while  seated  in  a  chair,  she 
broke  her  femur  by  letting  her  hand  fall  upon  it.  Louis,  seeking  the 
cause  of  this  fragility,  then  learned  that  the  patient  had  an  ulcerated 
cancer  of  the  breast. 

A  woman, ^  forty  years  old,  who  had  a  cancer  of  the  breast  for  some 
time,  with  well-marked  cachexia,  broke  her  right  femur  in  the  lower 
third  by  rising  from  a  chair.  She  was  taken  to  the  hospital,  and  there 
the  other  femur  was  broken  by  the  interne  as  he  was  preparing  to 

1  Malgaigne:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  22. 

2  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  i.  p.  14. 

3  Cruveilbier:  Anat.  Path.,  Livraison  xx,  PL  1,  Fig.  4. 


,  ETIOLOGY.  47 

apply  a  bandage  to  the  first.  She  died  the  same  night,  and  at  tlie 
autopsy  cancerous  masses  were  found  in  the  spongy  tissue  and  in  the 
medullary  canal  at  the  points  of  fracture  and  elsewhere,  also  in  the 
vertebrae  and  cranial  bones. 

Of  thirty-two  cases  collected  by  Gurlt  in  which  the  position  of  the 
primary  tumor  is  noted,  it  occupied  the  mammary  gland  twenty-six 
times  (once  in  a  man);  and  of  the  entire  thirty-eight  cases  thirty-five 
were  women.  As  a  rule,  too,  the  affection  was  of  long  standing;  in 
many  of  the  cases  the  tumor  had  returned  after  removal,  and  in  nine 
it  had  ulcerated.  The  humerus  and  femur  were  almost  exclusively 
affected,  but  very  unequally — twenty-six  fractures  of  the  femur  and 
seven  of  the  humerus.  Severe  localized  pain  in  the  bone  preceded  the 
fracture  in  a  number  of  cases. 

Reunion  took  place  in  one-fourth  of  the  cases,  and  in  at  least  three 
of  these  there  was  cancerous  degeneration  of  the  bone  at  the  seat  of 
fracture.  In  most  of  the  remaining  twenty-eight  cases  death,  due  to 
the  progress  of  the  disease,  followed  so  soon  after  the  fracture  that  the 
bones  had  not  time  to  unite,  even  if  they  were  capable  of  doing  so. 

Hydatid  and  Other  Cysts.  There  are  a  few  instances  on  record  in 
which  the  unsuspected  development  of  a  hydatid  cyst  within  a  bone 
has  resulted  in  its  fracture  by  slight  violence  at  the  point  occupied  by 
the  cyst;  and  others  in  which  a  similar  result  has  been  produced  by 
the  occurrence  of  a  cystic  degeneration  of  unspecified  character  within 
the  bone.  These  causes  act  by  direct  absorption  of  the  cortical  layer 
of  the  bone,  aud  their  action  is  purely  local. 

Osteomyelitis  favors  fracture  by  partial  destruction  of  the  bone,  but 
as  this  effect  is  accompained  by  a  rapid  and  often  very  bulky  new- 
formation  which  makes  good  the  loss,  fractures  are  but  infrequently 
observed  except  in  the  course  of  operations  undertaken  for  the  cure  of 
the  disease,  which  require  much  cutting  away  of  the  new  bone.  I 
have  seen  several  such;  their  importance  is  slight,  for  there  is  usually 
but  little  displacement,  and  repair  takes  place  within  the  usual  time. 
I  have  met  with  the  report  of  one  case  in  which  fracture  was  due  to  a 
suppurative  osteomyelitis  mistaken  for  sarcoma;  the  error,  of  course, 
was  due  to  the  enlargement  of  the  bone  and  to  the  fact  that  the  pus  had 
not  yet  reached  the  surface. 


Intra-uterine  Fractures  and  Fractures  During  Delivery. 

Fracture  of  a  limb  of  the  child  during  its  delivery  through  the  natural 
passages  of  the  mother  is  not  very  infrequent  and  is  usually  the  result 
of  manual  or  instrumental  interference.  Such  fractures  belong  to  the 
class  of  fractures  by  external  violence,  and  present  no  features  of 
special  interest;  but  there  are  others  in  which  the  fracture  is  caused 
by  the  expulsive  efforts  of  the  mother  alone.  An  arm  or  a  leg  is 
engaged  between  the  body  of  the  child  and  the  rigid  parts  of  the  mother, 
and  the  humerus  or  the  femur  is  broken,  sometimes  with  an  audible 
snap,  as  the  child  is  forced  through  the  passage. 

Fractures  within  the  uterus  have  been  caused  in  a  few  cases  by  a 


48  FRACTURES. 

bullet  or  sharp  instrument  that  has  at  the  same  time  perforated  the 
abdominal  wall  of  the  mother. 

The.  possibility  of  the  occurrence  of  fracture  within  the  uterus  as 
the  result  of  external  violence  without  perforation  of  the  abdomen  of 
the  mother,  or,  in  some  cases,  of  unknown  causes,  has  been  proved  by 
the  birth  of  children  presenting  fractures  of  different  bones  in  various 
stages  of  repair.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  say,  when  a  child  is  born 
with  a  fracture,  whether  it  was  caused  during  delivery  or  at  an  earlier 
period,  or  whether  it  was  due  to  external  violence  or  to  the  contractions 
of  the  uterus.  And,  further,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  say  whether 
an  apparent  fracture  is  actually  one  or  only  a  malformation,  a  defect 
of  ossification  or  of  development,  or  a  separation  of  the  epiphysis  due 
to  syphilis.  Gurlt  collected  eight  cases  in  which  the  causal  relation 
between  an  injury  received  by  the  mother  during  pregnancy  and  the 
fracture  observed  in  the  child  seemed  to  him  to  be  clearly  demon- 
strated, and  twenty- five  others  in  which  more  or  less  doubt  existed  as 
to  the  cause  of  the  fracture  or  the  character  of  the  lesion.  The  injury 
in  the  first  eight  cases  was  either  a  fall  from  a  height  or  a  violent  blow 
upon  the  abdomen;  and  the  bones  broken  were  those  of  the  thigh,  leg, 
arm,  and  forearm,  and  the  clavicle. 

The  other  group  includes  some  in  which  an  undoubted  fracture 
existed,  but  with  no  history  of  external  violence,  and  some  in  which 
the  coexistence  of  malformations  threw  some  doubt  upon  the  character 
of  the  supposed  fracture,  and  others  in  which  the  fractures  were  so 
numerous  and  so  symmetrical  that  they  must  have  depended  upon  some 
general  cause,  syphilis  or  rachitis,  acting  possibly  upon  the  epiphyseal 
cartilages. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

EARLY   SYMPTOMS   AND   DIAGNOSIS. 

The  symptoms  produced  by  a  fracture  are  divided  into  two  groups  : 
the  objective  or  positive,  those  which  can  be  directly  observed  by  the 
surgeon,  and  the  subjective  or  rational,  those  for  his  knowledge  of  \vhich 
he  has  to  depend  more  or  less  completely  upon  the  statements  of  the 
patient.  The  former  are  the  most  important,  the  only  ones  that  are 
really  pathognomonic;  they  include,  first,  deformity  of  the  limb  or  part; 
second,  abnormal  mobility  at  the  point  of  fracture;  third,  crepitus. 
The  second  group  includes,  first,  loss  of  function  ;  second,  pain  ;  third, 
history  of  the  case  and  of  the  patient. 

Objective  Signs. 

Deformity.  This  term  is  here  employed  in  its  widest  sense,  to  include 
changes  in  the  relations  of  the  fragments  of  the  bones  to  each  other 
and  the  modifications  in  the  appearance  of  the  limb  or  part  of  the  body 
produced  by  those  changes,  by  the  effusion  of  blood,  and  by  the  later 
inflammatory  processes. 

The  changes  in  the  relations  of  the  fragments  to  each  other  have 
been  described  in  detail  under  Displacements.  Many  of  them  are  so 
marked  that  they  are  recognizable  by  simple  inspection  of  the  part, 
while  others  are  brought  to  light  only  by  careful  palpation  and  by  meas- 
urements compared  with  those  of  the  opposite  limb.  These  measure- 
ments are  used  in  practice  only  to  recognize  displacements  by  which  a 
limb  is  shortened  or  the  diameters  of  an  articular  extremity  modified. 
In  a  few  places  normal  relations  exist  which  may  take  the  place 
of  comparison  with  the  opposite  limb:  such  are  those  of  the  great 
trochanter  of  the  femur  to  a  line  drawn  from  the  tuberosity  of  the 
ischium  to  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium,  and  those  of  the 
styloid  process  of  the  radius  to  that  of  the  ulna,  both  of  which  may 
be  used  with  confidence  in  cases  of  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur 
or  of  the  lower  extremity  of  the  radius  respectively. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  employing  mensuration  is  that  of  finding 
well-defined  points  upon  the  skeleton  between  which  the  measurements 
can  be  made.  Those  employed  in  fractures  are  bony  prominences  or 
edges  sufficiently  near  the  surface  to  be  clearly  felt,  but  as  they  are  all 
more  or  less  rounded,  absolute  accuracy  in  measuring  the  distance  is 
impossible. 

Another  cause  of  uncertainty  or  of  error  lies  in  the  normal  asym- 
metry, the  difference  not  due  to  traumatism  or  disease,  which  has  been 
found  occasionally  to  exist,  and  which  sometimes  is  very  notable,  as 
much  as  an  inch  and  a  half  in  the  lower  limbs. 

Other  sources  of  difficulty  and  error  are  found  in  the  swelling  of  the 

4 


60  FRACTURES. 

soft  parts,  which  may  prevent  the  tape  from  being  drawn  straight,  and 
in  the  varying  angles  between  the  axis  of  the  limb  and  the  line  of 
measurement.  The  first  is  not  likely  to  be  great  or  to  be  overlooked; 
but  the  latter  is  a  frequent  source  of  error.  It  is  rare  that  the  two 
fixed  points  between  which  the  measurement  is  made  are  both  upon 
the  limb  or  the  bone  whose  length  is  in  question;  one  of  them  is  usually 
upon  the  trunk,  and  lies  at  a  certain  distance  from  the  centre  of  motion 
of  the  limb.  Consequently,  any  change  in  the  position  of  the  limb 
changes  the  distance  between  the  two  points  that  have  been  chosen. 
For  example,  in  measuring  the  length  of  the  lower  limb  the  points 
taken  are  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium  and  the  tip  of  the 
malleolus;  the  former  lies  several  inches  above  the  centre  of  the  hip- 
joint,  and,  therefore,  when  the  limb  is  in  abduction  the  distance  be- 
tween the  chosen  points  is  less  than  when  the  limb  is  parallel  to  the 
long  axis  of  the  body.  If  a  comparison  is  to  be  made  between  the 
two  limbs,  it  is  essential  that  their  position  with  reference  to  the  pelvis 
should  be  the  same,  and,  therefore,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  ankles 
are  equidistant  from  a  line  drawn  between  them  at  right  angles  to  and 
at  the  centre  of  another  connecting  the  two  anterior  iliac  spines. 

Similar  difficulties  and  uncertainties  exist  in  transverse  and  periph- 
eral measurements.  The  swelling  of  the  soft  parts  not  only  increases 
the  bulk  of  the  limb,  but  it  also  obscures  the  bony  prominences  and 
places  them  at  a  greater  distance  below  the  surface,  so  that  an  accurate 
measurement  of  the  distance  between  points  on  the  opposite  sides  of  a 
bone  is  practically  impossible.  For  this  and  for  rotatory  and  angular 
displacements  the  trained  eye,  aided  by  careful  and  minute  considera- 
tion and  palpation  of  the  anatomical  landmarks  and  comparison  with 
the  opposite  limb,  is  the  best  guide. 

The  appearance  of  the  limb  will  be  still  further  modified  by  swell- 
ing due  to  extravasated  blood  and  inflammatory  exudate,  and  some- 
times to  the  shortening  of  the  limb,  which  increases  its  transverse 
diameters. 

Ecchymosis  is  a  symptom  that  is  rarely  absent,  although  its  appear- 
ance may  be  delayed  for  several  days.  It  is  most  marked  and  most 
extensive  in  the  old.  The  blood  which  escapes  from  the  broken  bone 
and  the  adjoining  parts  makes  its  way  along  the  muscular  planes,  and 
first  appears  under  the  surface  at  some  distance  from  the  fracture.  Its 
appearance  at  certain  points  creates  a  strong  presumption  of  fracture 
— e.  g.,  beneath  the  malleoli  in  Pott's  fracture,  and  the  same  interfer- 
ence is  measurably  justified  whenever  an  ecchymosis  appears  upon  a 
limb  that  has  not  been  directly  contused. 

Large  blebs,  the  serum  of  which  is  often  dark,  frequently  appear 
upon  the  leg  a  day  or  two  after  its  fracture;  less  frequently  upon  other 
limbs.     The  cause  of  their  production  is  not  known. 

In  fractures  communicating  with  joints  a  characteristic  deformity  is 
caused  by  the  filling  of  the  cavity  of  the  joint  with  blood  or  an  inflam- 
matory effusion,  the  situation  of  which  is  shown  by  its  limitation  within 
the  boundaries  of  the  articular  capsule. 

Abnormal  Mobility.  Mobility  appearing  after  injury  at  a  point  in  a 
bone  where  it  did  not  previously  exist,  and  permitting  the  bone  to  be 


EAELY  SYMPTOMS  AND  DIAGNOSIS.  51 

bent  at  an  angle,  or  a  portion  of  it  to  be  moved  while  the  other  portion 
remains  at  rest,  is  pathognomonic  of  fracture,  but  it  is  not  always  present 
or  recognizable,  for  the  fracture  may  be  incomplete  or  too  near  a  joint, 
or  one  of  the  fragments  may  be  too  small  or  too  deeply  placed  to  be 
grasped.  In  fracture  of  the  ribs,  sternum,  or  fibula  the  elasticity  of 
the  bone  may  deceive  if  not  taken  into  consideration,  or  raise  a  doubt 
if  it  is. 

The  manipulations  employed  for  the  detection  of  abnormal  mobility 
vary  with  the  seat  of  fracture  and  the  kind  of  mobility  which  is  sought 
to  be  produced.  In  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  a  long  bone  the  surgeon 
seeks  first  to  produce  an  angular  displacement  by  passing  his  hand 
under  the  limb  at  the  supposed  seat  of  fracture  and  gently  raising  it, 
or  by  grasping  the  two  extremities  of  the  bone  firmly  and  moving  the 
lower  one  slightly  from  side  to  side  while  the  upper  one  is  held  station- 
ary. Or  he  may  grasp  the  limb  with  both  hands  close  to  the  fracture, 
and  produce  transverse  displacement  by  moving  the  fragments  bodily 
in  opposite  directions.  In  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  the  fibula,  radius, 
or  ulna  lateral  mobility  may  be  detected  by  grasping  the  limb  with 
both  hands  above  and  below  the  fracture,  and  then  making  pressure 
alternately  against  the  bone. 

In  fracture  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  shaft  of  the  femur  or  of  the 
neck  of  the  humerus  or  of  the  upper  end  of  the  tibia,  wdiere  a  lateral 
or  angular  mobility  cannot  be  easily  recognized,  recourse  may  be  had 
to  slight  rotatory  movements  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  limb,  while 
the  upper  portion  is  so  held  that  its  bony  prominences  can  be  distinctly 
felt  by  the  fingers.  Abnormal  mobility  is  then  recognized  by  the 
failure  of  the  manipulation  to  transmit  the  rotatory  movements  to  the 
upper  fragment.  It  is  essential  that  the  communicated  movements 
should  be  slight,  for  otherwise  the  attachments  of  the  soft  parts  or  the 
interlocking  of  the  fragments  may  prevent  the  success  of  the  manoeuvre, 
which,  moreover,  for  obvious  reasons,  must  fail  in  partial  or  impacted 
fractures. 

In  fracture  of  either  condyle  of  the  femur  or  humerus,  or  in  fracture 
of  an  apophysis,  the  surgeon  must  try  to  grasp  the  fragment  firmly 
and  move  it  in  the  direction  of  the  line  of  fracture. 

It  is  sometimes  possible  to  give  a  fragment  a  tipping  or  see-saw 
motion;  thus,  by  pressing  the  tip  of  the  external  malleolus  inward, 
when  the  fibula  has  been  broken  just  above  the  ankle,  the  upper  end 
of  the  lower  fragment  may  sometimes  be  felt  to  move  outward.  In 
this  manipulation  the  sliding  of  the  skin  is  liable  to  be  mistaken  for 
movement  of  the  bone,  and  should  be  guarded  against  by  pressing  the 
fingers  toward  each  other  so  as  to  relax  the  skin  between  them. 

Crepitus.  This  is  the  sound  produced,  or  the  sensation  communi- 
cated to  the  hand  of  the  surgeon,  by  the  friction  of  the  fragments  of  a 
broken  bone  against  each  other.  It  is  as  pathognomonic  of  fracture 
as  is  abnormal  mobility,  and  these  two  signs  usually  coexist.  The 
sensation  is  not  the  same  in  all  cases;  it  may  be  the  sharp  click  of  two 
hard  points  or  edges,  or  a  dull,  muffled  contact,  or  the  crackling  and 
grating  of  multiple  fragments  and  broad  surfaces.  Some  of  its  forms 
are  practically  identical  with  the  friction  sounds  obtained  by  the  move- 


52  FRACTURES. 

ment  of  joints  whose  surfaces  are  altered  by  disease,  and  although  it  is 
usual  to  speak  of  a  recognizable  difference  in  the  quality  of  these  sensa- 
tions, the  one  being  called  hard  or  rough,  the  other  soft  or  smooth,  the 
diagnosis  in  cases  of  doubt  must  depend  upon  circumstances  other  than 
this  difference. 

Crepitus  is  perceived  through  the  hand  rather  than  the  ear,  although 
sometimes  it  is  audible  to  bystanders  not  in  contact  with  the  patient. 
It  is  to  be  sought  by  the  same  methods  as  abnormal  mobility,  and  also 
in  the  ribs  and  flat  bones  by  placing  the  palm  of  the  hand  over  the 
supposed  seat  of  fracture  and  pressing  gently  in  various  directions. 
Direct  auscultation  is  sometimes  employed,  especially  in  fracture  of 
the  ribs  or  sternum. 

Crepitus  cannot  always  be  produced  when  there  is  a  fracture,  for 
its  production  is  conditioned  upon  the  contact  and,  in  a  measure,  the 
character  of  the  broken  surfaces.  If  the  fragments  are  completely 
separated,  if  a  piece  of  muscle  or  fascia  is  interposed  between  them,  or 
if  they  have  become  covered  with  granulations,  their  movements  may 
not  cause  crepitus,  and  it  is  a  common  experience  that  the  manipu- 
lation which  produces  it  at  one  moment  fails  to  produce  it  at  the  next. 

Auscultatory  percussion,  the  stethoscope  being  moved  from  one  frag- 
ment to  the  other  while  percussion  is  made  upon  the  first,  will  some- 
times give  a  marked  change  in  the  sound  as  the  line  of  fracture  is 
crossed;  but  it  is  rarely  significant,  except  in  cases  in  which  the  diag- 
nosis can  be  made  by  other  means. 

Conditions  giving  rise  to  sensations  that  may  be  mistaken  for  crep- 
itus are  :  Roughness  of  neighboring  joints,  inflammation  of  the  sheaths 
of  tendons  or  of  bursse,  and  the  crackling  of  coagulated  blood. 

By  the  use  of  the  x-rays,  aided  by  the  fluoroscope  or  photography, 
many  fractures  can  be  recognized  in  detail.  Thus  far,  in  my  experi- 
ence, the  rays  have  rarely  given  practically  important  information  in 
fractures  which  could  not  be  obtained  without  their  aid  ;  but  there  is 
reason  to  anticipate  that  with  increasing  knowledge  and  experience 
much  good  will  yet  come  from  their  use. 

Subjective  or  Rational  Symptoms. 

Loss  of  function  of  the  limb  or  part  involved  is  a  common  result  of 
fracture,  and  is  due  either  to  mechanical  causes,  such  as  the  breaking 
of  the  lever  through  which  the  muscles  act,  or  to  the  inhibitory  effect 
of  pain  or  the  fear  of  pain.  As  pain  due  to  other  causes  may  have 
the  same  effect,  and  as  the  loss  after  some  fractures,  even  of  the  main 
bone  of  a  limb,  may  be  at  first  slight,  the  presence  or  the  absence  of 
the  symptom  is  only  suggestive,  not  indicative  of  the  presence  or 
absence  of  fracture.  In  most  cases  of  fracture  of  a  long  bone  the  limb 
is  practically  helpless,  but  from  time  to  time  we  meet  with  patients 
who  can  move  it  with  some  freedom  or  who  can  walk  with  a  broken 
ankle,  leg,  or  even  thigh. 

Pain,  spontaneous  or  on  pressure  upon,  or  movement  of,  the  broken 
bone,  is  a  constant  accompaniment  of  fracture.  Spontaneous  pain 
when  the  part  is  at  rest  is  usually  slight,  not  distinctly  limited  to  the 


EARLY  SYMPTOMS  AND  DIAGNOSIS.  53 

seat  of  injury,  and  not  significative;  but  localized  pain  on  pressure,  on 
movement  of  the  bone,  and  on  pressing  the  fragments  together  is  a 
valuable  symptom,  and  in  some  cases  the  most  ])ositive  one  that  can  be 
obtained,  and  sufficient  in  itself  for  a  diagnosis.  It  is  to  be  sought  for 
by  pressure  with  the  tip  of  the  finger  along  the  line  of  the  bone,  by 
pressing  one  end  of  the  bone  toward  the  other,  or,  more  rarely,  by 
gentle  lateral  or  rotatory  movements  communicated  to  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  limb  while  the  upper  is  fixed,  or  by  making  the  patient 
contract  a  muscle  attached  to  the  bone  while  its  movement  is  opposed, 
as  in  fracture  of  the  calcaneum  or  olecranon.  It  is  of  diagnostic  im- 
portance only  in  absence  of  the  positive  signs,  as  in  some  partial  frac- 
tures, some  fractures  of  the  lower  end  of  the  radius,  neck  of  the  femur, 
and  fibula,  and  particularly  in  those  of  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal 
bones. 

The  absence  of  pain  on  handling  an  important  fracture,  such  as  one 
of  the  leg  or  thigh,  deserves  attention  as  possibly  indicative  of  central 
nervous  disease  or  of  commencing  delirium  tremens. 

The  history,  with  reference  to  diagnosis,  includes  earlier  injuries  which 
may  have  modified  the  form  of  the  limb,  the  nature  of  the  accident 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  force  was  applied,  the  interference  with 
function,  and  occasionally  the  snap  heard  at  the  time  and  the  distortion 
of  the  limb  observed.  A  knowledge  of  the  manner  in  which  the  vio- 
lence was  applied  is  sometimes  of  value  in  determining  obscure  points, 
and,  in  the  absence  of  positive  information,  indications  may  be  gathered 
from  the  position  of  contusions  or  of  stains  made  by  contact  with  the 
ground. 

Such  are  the  facts  upon  which  the  diagnosis  is  made.  They  are  not 
all  present  in  every  case,  and  it  is  never  necessary  to  seek  for  them 
all;  deformity,  abnormal  mobility,  and  crepitus  are  alone  absolutely 
pathognomonic,  but  in  not  a  few  fractures  none  of  these  can  be  recog- 
nized by  manipulations  that  are  not  unduly  severe,  and  the  diagnosis 
must  be  made  upon  the  history  and  localized  pain.  It  is  important 
that  this  should  be  borne  in  mind,  for  many  a  fracture  has  been  over- 
looked because  crepitus  could  not  be  got.  The  character  of  the  injury 
is  sometimes  so  apparent  that  it  can  be  recognized  at  a  glance;  in 
others  so  obscure  that  even  the  most  careful  and  experienced  observer 
may  remain  in  doubt.  In  most  cases  the  examination  should  be  made 
systematically  and  thoroughly,  beginning  with  the  history  and  follow- 
ing with  an  investigation  of  the  interference  with  function,  the  pain, 
the  deformity,  and  the  abnormal  mobility  and  crepitus  in  that  order. 

The  clothing  should  be  removed  from  the  injured  part,  and  in  doubt- 
ful cases  also  from  the  opposite  limb.  After  having  noted  such  changes 
in  appearance  as  are  easily  recognizable,  the  surgeon  makes  gentle  press- 
ure with  his  fingers  along  the  limb  in  search  of  the  point  of  maximum 
tenderness  and  of  irregularity  of  outline  if  the  bone  is  subcutaneous, 
and  when  that  has  been  found  he  seeks  evidence  of  abnormal  mobility 
at  that  point  by  one  of  the  manipulations  above  mentioned.  If  the 
search  is  successful  the  diagnosis  is  made.  If  not,  or  if  the  injury  is 
at  a  point  where  abnormal  mobility  is  not  recognizable,  the  surgeon 
seeks  for  such  deformity  as  is  likely  to  exist  after  such  a  fracture  as  is 


54  FRACTURES. 

suspected,  first  inquiring  whether  the  region  has  been  previously 
injured,  in  order  that  he  may  not  mistake  an  old  deformity  for  a  fresh 
one,  and  the  pain  of  a  sprain  for  that  of  a  fracture. 

If  neither  abnormal  mobility  nor  deformity  can  be  recognized  he 
tests  for  local  pain  by  pressure  in  the  long  axis  of  the  bone  or  by  the 
action  of  attached  muscles,  and  accepts  pain  thus  aroused  as  indicative 
of  the  presence  of  a  variety  of  fracture  which  should  not  give  the 
signs  that  are  lacking. 

If  doubt  still  remains  as  to  the  existence  of  a  fracture,  and  if  the 
search  for  signs  is  hampered  by  the  pain  that  the  necessary  manipula- 
tions cause,  or  if,  a  fracture  having  been  proved,  it  is  necessary  to 
determine  its  details,  he  employs  an  ansesthetic  after  having  made  his 
preparations  to  utilize  the  antesthesia  for  the  reduction  of  displacements 
and  the  application  of  a  dressing. 

The  compound  character  of  a  fracture  is  easily  determined.  In 
fractures  by  indirect  violence  the  wound  in  the  skin,  close  to  the  seat 
of  fracture,  is  usually  small  and  bleeds  much  more  freely  than  a 
simple  wound  of  the  skin  would;  in  fractures  by  direct  violence  the 
tegumentary  wound  is  usually  large  and  ragged,  and  the  broken  ends 
of  the  bones  can  be  seen  or  felt  through  it.  It  is  not  necessary  posi- 
tively to  determine  the  existence  of  direct  communication  between  the 
fracture  and  the  external  wound;  the  coexistence  of  the  two  is  suffi- 
cient to  make  imperative  the  employment  of  every  precaution  against 
infection  that  would  be  called  for  if  such  communication  were  known 
to  exist.  If  the  wound  is  explored  at  all,  it  should  be  done  only  as 
a  part  of  the  treatment,  and  with  strict  asepsis,  not  merely  as  a  diag- 
nostic measure. 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE  EEPAIR   OF   FRACTURES  AND   THE   CLINICAL   COURSE. 

Anatomo-pathological  Processes.  The  Callus.  Bone  is  one  of  those 
tissues  whose  cicatrices  are  composed  of  a  substance  closely  resemblino;, 
or  identical  with,  the  original  tissue.  The  process  of  repair  after  frac- 
ture is  fundamentally  the  same  as  that  after  other  forms  of  injury,  and 
its  histological  phenomena,  like  those  of  repair  of  other  tissues,  are 
those  of  normal  growth  and  exaggerated  nutrition.  It  begins  with  the 
enlargement  and  multiplication  of  the  cells  of  the  periosteum,  marrow, 
Haversian  canals,  and  lacunae;  this  multiplication  produces  a  mass  of 
granulations  which  fill  the  gap  between  the  fragments  and  are  trans- 
formed into  bone,  sometimes  directly,  sometimes  after  having  passed 
through  a  cartilaginous  stage.  This  mass  of  new  bone,  at  first  spongy 
in  its  structure — that  is,  composed  of  irregular  lamellae  or  plates  cir- 
cumscribing relatively  large  lacunae  filled  with  bloodvessels  and  medul- 
lary elements — becomes  firmer  and  more  compact  in  some  portions  by 
increase  in  thickness  of  the  lamellae  and  consequent  reduction  in  size 
of  the  lacunae — the  process  known  as  "  condensing  osteitis,"  and  ob- 
served constantly  in  the  foetus  as  well  as  in  many  pathological  condi- 
tions— and  becomes  thinner  and  weaker  in  other  portions  until  it  finally 
disappears  by  the  converse  process,  diminution  of  the  lamellae  through 
their  absorption  by  the  medullary  elements  of  the  lacunae,  ''  rarefying 
osteitis,"  another  stage  of  productive  or  simple  osteitis  and  also  found 
in  the  normal  development  of  bone  and  in  pathological  conditions. 
The  variations  depend  upon  differences  in  the  degree  of  the  injury  or 
in  the  position  of  the  fragments,  which  require  disproportionate 
amounts  of  work  to  be  done  by  the  different  parts.  The  details  of 
the  process  will  appear  upon  examination  of  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  carried  on  after  simple  fracture  of  the  sliaft  of  a  long  bone,  an 
example  which  has  the  advantage  of  illustrating  the  behavior  of  all 
the  different  elements  and  of  being  both  more  complete  and  more 
open  to  experimental  study  than  fractures  of  short  bones  or  of  the 
spongy  extremities  of  long  ones. 

When  a  fracture  takes  place  the  cylindrical  shell  is  broken  along  an 
irregular  line  and  probably  always  with  the  production  of  splinters  of 
greater  or  less  size.  The  periosteum  is  usually  torn,  but  the  extent 
of  its  rupture  has  probably  been  largely  overestimated  even  when 
there  is  much  displacement  of  the  fragments.  Oilier^  was  the  first 
to  call  especial  attention  to  the  preservation  of  its  continuity  at  some 
part  of  the  periphery  of  the  bone  and  to  the  fact  that  when  a  lateral 
or  longitudinal  displacement  has  occurred  the  membrane  is  stripped 
partly  off  one  fragment,  but  without  having  its  continuity  broken, 

1  oilier  :  TraiW  de  la  R6g(5n  Oration  des  Os. 


56  FRACTURES. 

and  thus  forms  a  band  uniting  the  two  fragments.  To  this  baud  lie 
gave  the  name  of  ''  periosteal  bridge."  Other  portions,  also,  which 
do  not  preserve  their  continuity  with  one  another,  are  doubtless 
stripped  off  the  two  fragments,  as  can  be  seen  in  compound  fractures, 
and  as  they  are  structurally  continuous  with  the  overlying  soft  parts 
they  probably  come  quite  accurately  into  place  when  the  displacement 
is  corrected,  and  thus  form  a  fairly  complete  tubular  sheath  connect- 
ing the  ends  of  the  fragments  and  all  splinters  except  those  which 
are  entirely  loose,  guiding  and  limiting  the  formation  of  the  new 
tissue  that  is  to  establish  the  ultimate  union.  When  this  sheath  is 
not  complete,  because  of  persisting  displacement,  the  existence  of  the 
periosteal  bridge  is  of  extreme  importance,  because  it  maintains  the 
connection  between  the  fragments  by  means  of  a  tissue  whose  activity 
in  the  production  of  bone  is  marked.  The  position  and  form  of  the 
callus  in  specimens  of  union  with  displacement  indicate  clearly  the 
position  and  agency  of  the  bridge,  and  Plate  I.,  fig.  1,  shows  the 
ossification  begun  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  bridge  but  not  yet  com- 
plete throughout  the  interval  between  it  and  the  surface  of  the  bone. 

At  the  same  time  blood  is  poured  out  from  the  torn  vessels  of  the 
bone  into  the  gap  between  the  fragments  and  from  the  vessels  of  the 
soft  parts  into  the  interstices  among  the  muscles.  This  blood  is  grad- 
ually absorbed  during  the  first  few  days  following  the  receipt  of  the 
injury,  and  at  the  same  time  the  effects  of  the  traumatism  are  mani- 
fested in  the  inflammatory  oedema  of  the  limb  and  the  infiltration  of 
a  thick  viscid  liquid  into  the  soft  tissues  immediately  adjoining  the 
seat  of  the  fracture,  the  beginning  of  the  firm  ovoid  mass  which  can 
always  be  felt  at  this  point.  The  periosteum  becomes  much  thicker, 
softer,  and  more  vascular  ;  a  thin  layer  of  gelatinous  or  viscid  liquid 
is  found  between  it  and  the  bone  for  a  distance  of  a  few  lines  from 
the  edge  of  the  fracture  or  from  the  point  to  which  the  membrane  has 
been  stripped  up,  and  at  the  more  distant  limit  of  this  layer  the  sur- 
face of  the  bone  promptly  becomes  roughened  by  the  formation  of 
patches  of  new  bone.  The  portions  of  the  periosteum  which  have 
been  stripped  off',  those  which  form  complete  or  incomplete  bridges, 
and  the  lacerated  tissues  which  form  the  wall  of  the  cavity  in  which 
the  ends  of  the  bone  lie,  granulate  and  pour  out  an  exudate  to  mingle 
with  the  remaining  blood. 

The  marrow  shares  in  this  production  of  granulations,  and  the  cells 
of  the  connective  tissue  external  to  the  periosteum  share  for  a  greater 
or  less  distance  in  the  irritation,  and  by  their  proliferation  bind  to- 
gether all  the  adjoining  parts  in  one  firm,  compact  mass.  The  com- 
pact layer  of  bone,  the  cylindrical  shell  of  the  shaft,  feels  the  same 
influence  and  reacts  in  the  same  manner,  but  much  more  slowly  in 
consequence  of  the  scantiness  of  its  cellular  elements.  Its  outer  and 
broken  surfaces  soon  show  pink  points  which  enlarge  and  send  out 
granulations  to  join  those  already  produced  by  the  periosteum  and 
marrow,  and  thus  there  is  formed  between  the  separated  fragments  a 
bond  of  union  which  is  actually  continuous,  almost  from  the  beginning, 
with  all  their  constituent  parts.  The  size  and  character  of  this  bond  vary 
with  the  degree  of  displacement ;  if  the  fragments  remain  nearly  in 


THE  REPAIR  OF  FRACTURES  AND  THE  CLINICAL  COURSE.     57 


Fig.  21. 


their  original  relations  to  each  othei',  the  bond  is  short  and  symmetrical, 
the  granulations  springing  from  the  marrow  meet  and  unite  in  the 
centre  of  the  gap,  while  the  thickened  periosteum  passes  from  one 
fragment  directly  to  the  other,  remaining  adherent  to  them  or  sepa- 
rated only  by  a  layer  of  effused  blood.  If  longitudinal  and  lateral 
displacement  occurs  and  persists,  the  bond  passes  obliquely  from  the 
outer  surface  of  one  fragment  to  that  of  the  other,  and  is  much  more 
complete  at  some  points  of  the  periphery  than  at  others.  Thus,  in 
Fig.  21,  which  represents  the  condition  on  the  seventh  day,  the  firmest 
union  is  by  the  cartilaginous  baud  crossing  the 
angle  at  b  and  formed  apparently  by  the  thick- 
ening of  a  periosteal  bridge.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  lower  fragment  the  beginning  of 
an  incomplete  band  of  similar  structure  is  seen. 

The  formative  action  thus  begun  is  rapidly 
carried  on,  and  principally  by  the  periosteum 
and  marrow.  When  the  fragments  are  kept 
end  to  end  an  ovoid  mass  of  tissue,  having  the 
consistency  of  jelly  and  a  pearly  white  appear- 
ance, and  continuous  above  and  below  with  the 
periosteum,  envelops  them,  the  so-called  "  pro- 
visional" or  ^'ensheathing"  callus.  This  mass 
is  formed  not  solely  by  granulations  springing 
from  the  under  side  of  the  periosteum,  but  also 
by  the  thickening  of  that  membrane  and  of  the 
connective  tissue  on  the  outer  side,  including 
even  that  which  surrounds  the  adjoining  mus- 
cular bundles.  Composed  at  first  of  embryonal 
elements,  it  soon  becomes  cartilaginous  in  the 
portions  formed  by  the  periosteum;  then  lime 
salts  are  deposited  at  different  points  within  it, 
and  finally  it  is  transformed  into  bone. 

The  granulations  that  spring  from  the  marrow  ossify  without  passing 
through  the  cartilaginous  stage,  and  the  process  here  apparently  begins 
at  the  fine  lamellae  which  lie  upon  the  inner  side  of  the  compact  shell. 
The  new  lamellae  extend  across  the  canal,  soon  occluding  it  entirely, 
and  also  out  into  the  interval  to  meet  those  coming  from  the  other 
fragment.     Thus  is  formed  the  internal  or  medullary  plug. 

The  granulations  occupying  the  annular  interval  between  the  cortical 
layers  of  the  two  fragments  (when  the  reduction  is  complete)  apparently 
come  mainly  from  the  periosteum  and  pass  through  a  cartilaginous 
stage  before  becoming  bone,  as  do  the  others  that  have  the  same  origin. 
They  unite  promptly  with  those  of  the  medullary  plug  and  ultimately 
(sometimes  after  a  long  delay)  with  the  cortical  layer.  It  was  to  this 
part  of  the  callus  that  Dupuytren  gave  the  name  of  '^  definitive  callus." 
The  cause  of  the  delay  in  union  with  the  cortical  layer  lies  in  the  slow- 
ness with  which  the  latter  forms  the  granulations  necessary  to  unite 
with  the  others,  and  doubtless  to  the  occasional  long  persistence  of  a 
necrotic  scale  of  bone  on  its  broken  surface,  which  has  to  be  slowly 
penetrated  and  absorbed  by  the  granulations.     The  cellular  elements 


Tibia  of  rabbit.  Seventh 
day  ;  a,  blood  ;  6,  cartilag- 
inous   callus ;    c,    muscles. 

(GURLT.) 


58  FBAOTUBES. 

of  the  cortex,  which  have  to  do  the  work  of  enlarging  the  Haversian 
canals  and  forming  the  granulations,  are  scanty,  and  those  immediately 
adjoining  the  broken  surface  cannot  share  in  the  work  because  their 
blood-supply  is  cut  off  by  the  clotting  of  the  blood  in  the  torn  capil- 
laries. The  cells  situated  a  little  more  deeply  have  to  carry  on  the 
work  and  slowly  break  through  the  intermediate  necrotic  scale  before 
they  can  meet  and  unite  with  the  other  granulations  that  have  spread 
into  the  interval  from  without  and  within.  This  process  in  the  com- 
pact tissue  is  the  usual  rarefying  osteitis,  characterized  by  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  Haversian  canals  and  a  corresponding  loss  of  the  bone 
tissue,  a  change,  in  short,  which  transforms  the  cortex  for  a  certain 
distance  into  spongy  tissue  like  that  of  the  ossifying  callus.  Ulti- 
mately the  rarefaction  ceases  and  a  ^'  productive"  or  '^  condensing" 
osteitis  follows,  by  which  the  lamellse  are  thickened  and  the  interme- 
diate spaces  and  canals  contracted  until  the  former  proportions  between 
them  are  measurably  restored.  Occasionally  the  ossification  spreads 
into  ligaments  and  tendons  attached  to  the  bone  close  by  the  fracture. 

While  the  callus  is  thus  forming  and  ossifying,  the  irritation  in  the 
adjoining  soft  parts  subsides,  and  they  regain  their  original  condition 
and  functions  more  or  less  completely.  Occasionally  the  associated 
injuries  of  muscles  or  tendons  or  the  sheaths  of  the  latter  lead  to  per- 
manent disabling  adhesions. 

After  the  ossification  of  the  callus  has  been  completed  the  excess  on 
its  exterior  and  even  projecting  portions  of  fragments  slowly  disap- 
pear, and  in  cases  in  which  the  reduction  of  the  displacements  has 
been  exact  this  disappearance  of  the  exterior  callus  may  go  so  far  as 
to  leave  little  or  no  trace  on  the  surface  of  its  previous  existence.  In 
like  manner  the  central  plug  diminishes  and  the  medullary  canal  may 
be  restored. 

Fragments  of  the  cortical  layer  broken  off  at  the  time  of  the  injury 
may  remain  attached  to  the  periosteum,  preserve  their  vitality,  share 
in  the  same  processes,  and  form  a  part,  often  an  important  one,  of  the 
callus.  There  is  reason  to  believe  also  that  even  after  they  have  been 
entirely  detached  they  may  form  new  connections  with  the  soft  parts 
and  granulations,  and  preserve  (or  renew)  their  life.  Such  fragments 
have  been  found  embedded  so  deeply  in  a  callus  that  no  other  expla- 
nation than  that  of  complete  detachment  can  well  be  accepted.  How- 
ship  describes  and  figures  one,  and  Gurlt  another  and  remarkable  one 
(Fig.  22).  The  possibility  of  this  preservation  has  also  been  estab- 
lished by  experiment  upon  animals.  Portions  of  the  shaft  have  been 
chiselled  off,  separated  entirely  from  the  soft  parts,  and  replaced  in 
contact  with  the  bone;  examination  after  the  lapse  of  some  weeks 
showed  re-establishment  of  vascular  connection. 

It  is  also  known  that  fragments  may  long  remain  without  vascular 
connection  embedded  in  a  callus  as  well -tolerated  foreign  bodies.  After 
the  lapse  of  months,  or  even  years,  and  from  unknown  causes,  they 
may  cause  irritation;  an  abscess  forms,  the  bone  softens  about  them, 
and  either  they  are  cast  out  spontaneously  or  they  remain,  provoking 
an  interminable  suppuration,  until  removed. 

It  occasionally  happens  that  the  callus  does  not  ossify,  and  in  some 


THE  REPAIR  OF  FRACTURES  AND  THE  CLINICAL  COURSE.      59 


Fio.  22. 


very  exceptional  cases  the  bone  is  entirely  absorbed  for  a  considerable 
distance  on  each  side  of  the  seat  of  fracture.  The  causes  are  not  fully 
understood.  The  difference  in  the  process  consists  in  an  entire  or 
partial  absence  of  productive  osteitis  and  in  an 
excess  of  the  rarefying  osteitis.  The  latter,  I  am 
convinced,  is  favored  by  the  presence  of  a  me- 
tallic suture  in  the  bone. 

When  the  fracture  is  compound,  and  remains 
so,  the  details  of  the  reparative  process  are  differ- 
ent to  this  extent:  that  the  callus  does  not  pass 
through  the  preliminary  cartilaginous  stage  at 
any  point  where  suppuration  has  occurred.  The 
formation  of  the  medullary  plug  is  not  affected, 
the  granulations  there  being  transformed  directly 
into  bone  as  they  are  in  simple  fractures;  the  dif- 
ference is  in  the  external  or  ensheathing  callus. 
The  reason  of  this  difference,  as  shown  by  ex- 
periment,^ lies  in  the  destruction  of  the  perios- 
teum by  the  suppurative  process,  in  the  destruc- 
tion, that  is,  of  the  only  tissue  whose  granula- 
tions pass  through  the  cartilaginous  stage  in 
forming  the  callus. 

The  process  is  slower  than  after  a  simple  frac- 
ture because  the  suppuration  of  the  wound  delays 
or  prevents  the  formation  of  much  of  the  exter- 
nal callus  and  throws  most  of  the  labor  upon  the 
bone  itself,  which,  as  has  been  shown,  is  the  least 
able  to  do  it.  It  is  easy  to  watch  the  process. 
The  ends  of  the  bone  are  seen  lying  bare  and 
white  in  the  wound;  a  mass  of  pink  granulations 
forms  at  the  limit  of  the  denudation  and  advances 
slowly  across  the  bared  surface;  the  broken  sur- 
face remains  for  a  time  quiescent,  then  granula- 
tions   spring    from    it,   beginning  at  the  points 

nearest  the  medullary  canal  and  spreading  slowly  and  become  united,  with 
toward  the  outer  edge  ;  the  wound  gradually  fills  its  original  periosteal  sur- 
up  with  these  granulations,  the  bone  is  covered  ^^^^  ^°  contact  with  the 
in   and  cicatrization  follows.        ^  CGuKLXomSeMlfseum 

In  less  fortunate  cases  a  portion  of  the  bared   of  the  Eoj'ai  college  of  snr- 
bone  dies  and  is  cast  off  by  the  formation  of  a   s^o'^s,  England,  No.  454 ) 
line  of  demarcation  which  can  sometimes  be  seen 

at  the  edge  of  the  granulations,  but  which  more  commonly  is  hid- 
den by  them.  It  must  not  be  thought  that  all  the  bare  white  bone 
seen  in  such  a  wound  is  dead,  even  after  it  has  remained  unchanged 
in  appearance  for  several  weeks.  Its  surface  may,  indeed,  be  dead,  but 
the  interior  is  often  alive  and  able  to  cast  off  the  dead  superficial  scale 
without  aid.  The  granulations  which  form  between  the  living  and 
the  dead  parts  seem  sometimes  to  dissolve  and  absorb  the  latter  if  they 


Fracture  of  the  neck  of 
the  femur  and  of  the  shaft- 
A  splinter  5  inches  long 
and  nearly  1  inch  wide, 
composed  of  the  cortical 
layer,  has  been  turned  com- 
pletely about  its  long  axis 


1  Rigal  and  Vignal :  Comptes-Rendus  de  1' Academic  des  Sciences,  1880,  vol.  xc.  p.  1218. 


60  FRACTURES. 

are  small  and  thin,  or,  if  not,  slowly  to  bear  them  to  the  surface  and 
cast  them  out. 

The  callus  thus  formed  is  larger  and  more  irregular  than  after  simple 
fracture;  it  remains  tender  and  sensitive  for  a  long  time,  and  is  covered 
by  an  adherent  scar  at  the  seat  of  the  wound  if  the  bone  is  superficial. 
Fragments  formed  at  the  time  of  the  accident  and  remaining  attached 
to  the  periosteum  usually  preserve  their  vitality;  if  not,  they  become 
detached  after  a  time  and  are  found  loose  in  the  wound,  or  become  shut 
in  by  the  callus  and  prolong  the  suppuration  indefinitely.  In  this 
latter  case  the  constant  irritation  due  to  the  presence  of  the  foreign 
body,  the  existence  of  sinuses,  and  the  burrowing  of  the  pus  interfere 
with  the  evolution  of  the  callus.  Instead  of  undergoing  a  gradual  and 
uniform  diminution  and  condensation,  it  becomes  eburnated  at  some 
points  and  entirely  absorbed  at  others,  irregular  prominences  appear  on 
its  surface  or  follow  the  lines  of  attached  tendons  and  fascise,  and  its 
interior  is  occupied  by  cavities  of  various  sizes  usually  suppurating  and 
in  communication  with  the  exterior. 

In  the  spongy  bones  and  the  spongy  ends  of  the  long  bones  less  of 
the  work  of  repair  is  done  by  the  periosteum  and  more  by  the  bone 
itself,  for  the  periosteum  is  so  interrupted  by  attached  tendons  and 
ligaments  that  it  is  less  freely  stripped  up,  and  the  bone  surfaces  are 
broadly  in  contact  and,  being  spongy,  are  ready  at  once  to  form  gran- 
ulations without  preliminary  rarefaction. 

In  fractures  involving  joint-surfaces  the  absence  of  periosteum  and 
other  soft  tissues  on  the  articular  surface  prevents  the  formation  of  an 
external  callus  on  that  side,  and  union  takes  place  by  granulations 
arising  directly  from  the  fractured  surfaces  and  by  an  external  callus 
at  the  extra-articular  parts  of  the  fracture.  The  line  of  the  fracture 
on  the  articular  surface  is  marked  by  the  absence  of  cartilage  over  it, 
and  usually  by  a  groove.  The  fracture  of  the  cartilage  does  not  heal 
by  the  formation  of  new  cartilage;  usually  the  callus  is  covered  at  this 
point  by  a  firm  white  layer  of  fibrous  tissue,  but  sometimes  the  bone 
is  bare.  In  exceptional  cases  the  callus  is  exuberant  and  grows  out 
beyond  the  level  of  the  cartilage,  forming  an  irregular  mass  in  place 
of  the  usual  groove. 

Fracture  of  cartilage  (costal  cartilage,  larynx,  etc.)  is  repaired  partly 
by  a  fibrous,  rarely  a  cartilaginous,  band  between  the  fragments,  and 
partly  by  a  bony  peripheral  callus.     See  Chapter  XVI. 

Exuberance  of  the  callus,  both  external  and  intermediate,  is  a  fre- 
quent cause  of  diminution  of  the  functions  of  the  joint  by  destroying 
the  normal  relations  of  the  articular  surfaces,  by  filling  up  normal 
depressions,  and  by  creating  abnormal  prominences.  These  results  are 
usually  beyond  the  control  of  the  surgeon,  and  the  latter  are  most 
common  in  the  young,  whose  power  of  producing  bone  is  greatest. 
Occasionally  the  productive  process  excited  by  the  fracture  extends  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  latter,  and  not  only  may  the  joint  itself  be 
obliterated  by  fusion  of  the  bones  which  constitute  it,  but  the  process 
may  also  spread  to  and  produce  the  same  result  in  neighboring  joints 
as  in  the  case  represented  in  Fig.  23. 

Bones  which  lie  parallel  and  close  to  each  other,  as  those  of  the  fore- 


THE  REPAIR  OF  FRACTURES  AND  THE  CLINICAL  COURSE.      61 


arm  and  leg  and  the  ribs,  may  become  united  by  an  exuberant  callus 
when  either  one  or  both  are  broken.  This  consolidation  is  most  likely 
to  occur  when  both  bones  are  broken  at  the  same  level,  and  when  dis- 
placement of  one  or  more  of  the  fragments  diminishes  the  normal 
interval  between  them.  The  mass  of  granulations  develo])ed  about 
one  fracture  becomes  continuous  with  that  developed  about  the  other, 
and  ossification  follows.  The  presence  of  an  interosseous  membrane 
favors  this  result,  for  tiiis  tissue  has  the  same  tendency  to  ossify  that 
is  shown  by  other  white  fibrous  tissue  in  the  presence  of  a  productive 
osteitis.  The  effect  of  this  consolidation  is,  of  course,  to  prevent  inde- 
pendent motion  of  the  two  bones,  and  while  of  no  importance  in  the 
leg  and  of  little,  if  any,  in  the  ribs,  it  produces  a  very  serious  disability 


Fig  23. 


Fig.  24. 


Bony  anchylosis  of  the  foot  and  ankle  after 
fracture  of  the  leg.    (Gurlt.) 


Absorption  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  after 
fracture.    (Gifrlt.) 


in  the  forearm  by  abolishing  pronation  and  supination.  It  occasion- 
ally happens,  when  two  bones  are  broken  at  the  same  level,  that  the 
calluses  grow  into  contact  with  each  other  but  do  not  unite.  Their 
adjoining  surfaces  are  smooth  and  together  form  a  sort  of  lateral  joint 
which  may  allow  movement  of  one  upon  the  other. 

When  the  line  of  fracture  follows  that  of  a  still  existing  epiphyseal 
cartilage  either  wholly  or  in  part,  and  the  fragments  are  not  displaced, 
union  apparently  takes  place  as  readily  as  after  simple  fracture,  but 
nothing  positive  is  knoAvn  of  the  details  of  the  process.  The  injury 
does  not  necessarily  interfere  with  the  subsequent  growth  of  the  bone; 
the  layer  of  cartilage  may  remain  unossified  and  perform  its  functions 


62  FRACTURES. 

as  before;  but  it  is  known  from  the  results  of  experiments  upon  ani- 
mals, and  from  cases  of  inflammatory  disease  and  from  some  of  trau- 
matic separation  without  displacement,  that  the  effect  of  irritation  of 
the  epiphyseal  cartilage  is  sometimes  to  hasten  its  ossification,  and  thus 
arrest  the  growth  of  the  limb.  This  last  result  must  certainly  be  pro- 
duced when  the  epiphysis  is  dislocated  by  the  fracture  and  is  not 
restored  to  its  place.  Gurlt  quotes  a  case  of  separation  of  the  upper 
epiphysis  of  the  humerus  which  showed  on  dissection  three  years  later 
a  false  joint  between  the  fragments.  The  head  of  the  bone  was  united 
to  the  scapula,  and  the  movements  of  the  limb  were  free. 

Finally,  failure  of  union  after  fracture  may  be  due  to  arrest  of  the 
reparative  process  in  the  granulation  stage,  ossification  not  taking  place 
and  the  bond  between  the  fragments  remaining  fibrous,  or  to  the  wide 
separation  of  the  fragments,  or  to  the  interposition  of  a  bundle  of  mus- 
cular tissue,  or  to  the  insufficiency  of  the  blood-supply  of  one  of  the 
fragments.  This  condition,  especially  as  seen  after  fracture  of  the 
shaft  of  a  long  bone,  is  considered  in  detail  in  Chapter  VIII. ,  Pseudar- 
ihrosis.  Examples  at  other  points  than  the  shaft  are  furnished 
especially  by  the  patella  and  olecranon  (direct  longitudinal  separation), 
and  by  some  fractures  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  where  the  cause  lies 
in  an  excess  of  the  rarefying  process,  by  which  the  neck  is  destroyed, 
or  in  the  cutting  off  of  the  blood-supply  by  complete  rupture  of  the 
periosteum  of  the  neck  which  carries  vessels  to  the  head. 

Fig.  25. 


Fracture  of  the  olecranon  ;  fibrous  union.    (Malgaigne.) 

Clinical  Course.  This  varies  with  the  position  and  character  of 
the  fracture  and  especially  with  the  complications  arising  from  the 
peculiarities  of  the  fracture  and  the  health  and  age  of  the  patient. 
Ordinarily,  in  simple  cases,  after  the  primary  reaction  of  the  injury 
has  subsided  and  an  appropriate  treatment  has  been  established,  the 
ptatient  goes  on  to  recovery  without  pain,  fever,  or  other  disturbance  of 
his  general  health,  and  incommoded  only  by  the  disability  of  the  limb 
and  the  confinement  to  which  he  is  subjected.  But  in  the  alcoholic 
this  tranquil  course  may  be  promptly  interrupted  by  the  onset  of  a 
pneumonia  or  an  attack  of  delirium  tremens;  and  in  the  old,  confined 
to  bed  by  a  broken  thigh  or  leg,  the  primary  shock  may  be  sufficient 
to  cause  death  in  the  first  few  days,  or  the  general  health  may  begin 
to  suffer  about  the  third  week,  and  death  follow  after  a  short  interval 
marked  by  symptoms  of  hypostatic  pneumonia  or  mild  delirium  and 


THE  REPAIR  OF  FRACTURES  AND  THE  CLINICAL  COURSE.     63 

gradual  failing  of  the  strength.  And  very,  \Qvy  rarely,  even  in  sim])]e 
cases  and  without  the  slightest  warning,  death  may  come  suddenly  in 
the  first  few  days  by  fat  embolism  of  the  lungs,  or  at  a  later  period  by 
a  cardiac  or  pulmonary  embolus  detached  from  a  thrombus  in  some 
large  vein. 

For  the  first  day  or  two  the  patient  may  suffer  pain  at  and  near  the 
fracture,  augmented  by  muscular  twitchings,  and  considerable  discom- 
fort from  the  weight  and  tension  of  the  swollen  limb;  and  if  the  bone 
is  a  large  one  (thigh,  leg,  arm)  and  the  fright  and  emotion  at  the 
time  of  the  accident  extreme,  the  symptoms  of  shock  may  be  well 
marked. 

The  temperature  usually  shows  a  rise  of  from  one  to  two  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  "aseptic"  fever,  which  promptly  diminishes,  and  disap- 
pears within  a  few  days.  At  the  same  time  the  urine  may  contain  a 
small  amount  of  albumin  and  free  fat  and  hyaline  casts  enclosing 
brown  granules.  The  fat,  which  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  form  a  dis- 
tinct layer  on  the  surface  after  standing,  is  thought  to  come  from  the 
crushed  marrow  of  the  bone,  and  the  variations  in  its  quality  and  the 
time  of  appearance  to  depend  upon  its  temporary  arrest  in  the  pul- 
monary capillaries  (fat  embolism,  q.  v.).  The  brown  casts  are  sometimes 
very  numerous,  but  more  often  are  wholly  lacking. 

The  limb  swells,  partly  because  of  extravasated  blood  and  shorten- 
ing, but  mainly  by  oedema;  the  swelling  reaches  its  maximum  on  the 
second  or  third  day  and  then  slowly  subsides.  The  skin  of  the  involved 
region  shows  a  yellowish  tinge,  the  result  of  staining  with  the  coloring 
matter  of  the  extrav^asated  blood,  and  ecchymoses  appear  at  points 
below  and  sometimes  above  the  fracture.  Larger  or  smaller  blebs 
appear,  especially  on  the  legs,  by  the  second  or  third  day,  and  may 
interfere  with  the  early  application  of  a  fixed  dressing. 

As  the  swelling  subsides  a  firm  ovoid  mass  becomes  recognizable, 
extending  above  and  below  the  fracture,  and  the  sensitiveness  on  press- 
ure diminishes;  this  mass  diminishes  in  size  and  increases  in  firmness 
as  time  passes,  the  abnormal  mobility  diminishes,  and  finally,  after  a 
length  of  time  which  varies  greatly  in  different  cases,  ceases,  and  union 
is  then  effected,  although  not  so  firm  as  it  will  ultimately  become  after 
ossification  shall  have  been  completed.  A  small,  hard  mass  can  still 
be  felt  at  the  seat  of  fracture,  which  will  slowly  diminish  for  months, 
perhaps  for  years. 

Other  things  being  equal,  and  bone  for  bone,  less  time  is  required  to 
complete  repair  in  children  than  in  adults;  and  fractures  heal  as  rap- 
idly in  one  sex  as  in  the  other,  and  in  the  old  as  rapidly  as  in  the 
middle-aged.  As  a  general  rule,  too,  the  larger  the  bone  the  longer 
the  time  required,  and  fractures  of  the  shaft  require  more  time  than 
those  of  the  spongy  ends,  and  those  with  uncorrected  displacement  more 
than  those  in  which  the  normal  relations  have  been  maintained  or 
restored.  The  average  for  fractures  of  the  shaft  of  the  long  bones  in 
adults  varies  from  four  weeks  for  the  clavicle  or  forearm  to  eight  or 
nine  weeks  for  the  thigh. 

But  with  the  union  of  the  fracture  the  recovery  of  the  patient,  espe- 


64  fractures: 

cially  after  fractures  of  the  limbs,  is  not  yet  complete.  The  circulation 
of  the  part,  the  skin,  the  muscles,  and  the  neighboring  joints  have  yet 
to  recover  from  the  disabilities  imposed  upon  them  by  the  primary 
injury  or  by  the  prolonged  disuse  of  the  limb.  The  skin  is  harsh  and 
dry;  the  limb  swells  and  shows  venous  congestion  when  used,  and 
especially  when  dependent,  presumably  because  of  plugging  of  the 
veins  and  possibly  because  of  rupture  of  lymphatic  channels;  the  joints 
are  swollen,  stiff,  and  sensitive.  As  a  rule,  all  these  features  disap- 
pear under  use,  and  more  rapidly  in  the  young  than  in  the  old,  but 
occasionally  some  of  them  persist  for  a  long  time.  (See  Chapter  X., 
Prognosis.)  Their  duration  can  usually  be  shortened  by  appropriate 
treatment,  especially  by  massage  and  mobilization  of  the  joints. 

The  course  of  the  case,  as  thus  sketched,  may  be  greatly  modified  by 
exceptional  severity  of  the  injury,  by  associated  lesions,  or  by  a  wound 
or  contusion  which  makes  the  fracture  compound  either  immediately 
or  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  days.  In  the  severe  cases,  with  more  splin- 
tering of  the  bone  and  laceration  of  the  soft  parts,  the  pain,  swelling, 
and  general  and  local  reaction  are  greater  and  more  prolonged,  but 
very  rarely  end  in  suppuration. 

The  direct  implication  of  a  joint  in  a  fracture,  or  the  spread  to  it  of 
theuieighboring  reaction,  or  the  presence  of  a  concomitant  sprain,  as 
is  so  often  seen  at  the  knee  in  fractures  of  the  thigh,  adds  an  arthritis 
which  increases  the  pain  and  discomfort,  and  may  delay  recovery  or 
diminish  its  completeness. 

In  compound  fractures  with  a  small,  clean  wound  in  unbruised  skin 
the  local  and  general  reaction  is  even  less  than  in  simple  fracture,  pre- 
sumably because  the  extravasated  blood  escapes  through  the  wound, 
with  consequently  less  tension  and  less  absorption  of  fibrin-ferments  to 
cause  fever.  Under  appropriate  treatment  such  a  wound  heals  in  a 
few  days,  and  the  course  is  thenceforth  that  of  a  simple  fracture. 

In  compound  fractures  with  bruising  of  the  skin  that  prevents  pri- 
mary union  of  the  wound,  and  in  those  made  compound  by  the  slough- 
ing of  the  bruised  skin,  the  course  may  be  very  different.  It  is  that 
of  a  deep,  lacerated  wound,  from  whose  walls  sloughs  must  be  cast  off, 
and  in  which  suppuration  is  inevitable  and  serious  infection  possible. 
In  the  milder  forms  the  suppuration  is  slight  and  limited  to  the  super- 
ficial portions  of  the  wound,  and  the  course  is  practically  that  of  a 
simple  fracture  with  only  the  delay  due  to  tardier  union  of  the  bone 
and  cicatrization  of  the  wound.  But  in  the  severer  forms  all  the  local 
and  general  symptoms  are  more  marked,  the  swelling  is  greater,  the 
fever  higher  and  persistent.  If  treatment  fails  to  overcome  the  infec- 
tion the  pus  burrows  amid  the  muscles,  neighboring  abscesses  form, 
with  chills  and  exacerbation  of  the  fever,  and  amputation  may  be  indi- 
cated to  save  the  imperiled  life.  Or,  by  counter-openings,  drainage, 
and  the  free  use  of  antiseptics,  the  suppuration  may  be  brought  under 
control,  and  then  the  patient  pursues  his  weary  course  toward  conva- 
lescence through  the  pains  and  perils  of  the  slow  casting  off  of  necrotic 
fragments  of  the  bone  and  the  tardy  formation  and  ossification  of  the 
granulations  that  must  take  their  place.    Such  cases  are  often  despair- 


THE  REPAIR  OF  FRACTURES  AND  THE  CLINICAL  COURSE.     65 

ingly  slow  in  reaching  solid  union  and  closure  of  the  sinuses,  and  still 
longer  in  regaining  use  of  the  limb.  The  callus  is  large,  the  cicatrix 
adherent  and  sensitive,  the  adjoining  muscles  hampered  by  adhesions. 
The  condensation  of  the  callus  is  liable  to  become  extreme  in  portions, 
because  of  the  prolongation  of  the  irritation,  and  tlierel^y  to  cause  par- 
tial necroses  which  prolong  or  renew  the  suppuration  in  the  efforts  to 
cast  them  out,  so  that  the  sinuses  may  persist  for  years  with  longer  or 
shorter  interruptions. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

COMPLICATIONS  AND  EEMOTE  CONSEQUENCES. 

These  may  be  local  or  general,  and  the  complications  may  be  the 
direct  and  immediate  result  of  the  primary  violence  or  the  later  result 
of  the  primary  lesions,  of  infection,  or  of  constitutional  conditions. 
Some  are  peculiar  to  fractures,  others  may  arise  also  in  connection  with 
other  forms  of  injury. 

Early  Local  Complications. 

Skin.  The  sharp  point  of  the  upper  main  fragment  may  be  forced 
through  the  overlying  muscles  and  fascia  and  perforate  the  skin  or 
become  engaged  in  its  deeper  layers  in  such  a  way  that  its  reduction  is 
difficult,  or  it  may  make  such  pressure  upon  the  unbroken  skin  that 
the  latter  will  slough  at  the  point  of  pressure  in  the  course  of  a  few 
days.  The  first  condition  may  sometimes  be  corrected  by  traction  upon 
the  lower  segment  of  the  limb,  but  usually  an  incision  will  be  neces- 
sary to  effect  a  complete  reduction  of  the  displacement.  If  perforation 
has  taken  place  the  opening  should  be  at  once  enlarged,  for  this  does 
not  add  to  the  chance  of  infection,  and  greatly  simplifies  reduction. 

Pressure  upon  the  unbroken  skin  must  be  relieved  by  reduction,  or 
at  least  by  diminution  of  the  displacement;  and  if  this  is  not  possible 
the  bone  should  be  exposed  by  incision  and  the  projecting  portion  cut 
away,  for  such  a  wound  can  be  so  protected  that  it  will  heal  promptly, 
while  one  made  by  sloughing  will  surely  suppurate,  and  even  if  danger- 
ous infection  thereby  of  the  seat  of  fracture  is  avoided,  yet  the  wound 
will  be  slow  to  heal,  and  will  leave  an  adherent  and  possibly  sensitive 
scar. 

The  sloughing  of  the  skin  contused  by  the  primary  violence  is  rare 
except  in  connection  with  compound  fracture — that  is,  violence  which 
is  sufficient  to  kill  the  skin  generally  breaks  it.  Theoretically,  it 
would  be  well  immediately  to  remove  all  skin  and  other  tissues  that 
have  been  thus  killed,  in  order  more  surely  to  avoid  infection  ;  but  the 
limits  of  such  destruction  cannot  be  determined  with  sufficient  accu- 
racy. A  fairly  accurate  estimate  of  the  probability  of  sloughing  and 
its  extent  can  be  made  by  applying  a  rubber  bandage  tightly  to  the 
limb  for  a  few  minutes,  as  in  producing  artificial  ischsemia  for  opera- 
tion, and  noting  the  areas  which  do  not  share  in  the  blush  following 
its  removal.  This  test  is  fairly  accurate  except  for  areas  of  skin  on  the 
distal  side  of  long  transverse  wounds;  such  generally  remain  pale,  even 
if  viable.  It  is  important  promptly  to  remove  the  dead  skin  in  order 
to  check  the  spread  of  infection.  After  its  removal  the  raw  surfaces 
must  be  protected  with  sterile  or  antiseptic  dressings. 

Bloodvessels.     Rupture  or  serious  bruising  of  the  main  vessels  of  a 


COMPLICATIONS  AND  REMOTE  CONSEQUENCES.  67 

limb  is  a  serious  but  infrequent  complication.  Among  the  more  impor- 
tant vessels  that  have  been  thus  injured  in  simple  fracture  are  the 
middle  meningeal  and  carotid  arteries  in  fractures  of  the  skull,  the 
subclavian  vein  and  the  acromial  branch  of  the  acromio-thoracic 
artery  in  fractures  of  the  clavicle,  the  brachial  and  axillary  artery  in 
fractures  of  the  humerus,  the  popliteal  artery  and  vein  in  those  of  the 
lower  end  of  the  femur,  and  the  anterior  tibial  in  those  of  the 
leg.  In  compound  fractures  the  same  vessels  and  also  those  lying  at  a 
greater  distance  from  the  bone  may  be  injured. 

The  rupture  of  an  artery  in  a  simple  fracture  may  lead  to  fatal 
hemorrhage,  even  if  the  vessel  is  a  small  one,  in  case  the  blood  can 
escape  into  a  large  natural  cavity,  as  in  a  unique  case  of  fatal  hemor- 
rhage following  rupture  of  a  small  branch  of  an  intercostal  artery  after 
fracture  of  a  rib;^  but  in  a  limb  it  leads  either  to  the  formation  of  a 
traumatic  aneurism  or  to  gangrene.  The  rupture  may  be  immediate 
or  it  may  occur  after  a  few  days  by  sloughing  of  the  bruised  vessel. 

The  symptoms  are  a  rapidly  increasing  local  swelling,  which  pulsates 
after  it  has  ceased  to  increase,  and  (in  the  case  of  the  main  artery) 
absence  of  the  pulse  in  its  distal  branches.  Pulsation  in  the  swelling 
is  not  pathognomonic,  for  it  can  be  communicated  from  an  underlying 
artery.  Gangrene  is  more  directly  due  to  interference  with  the  venous 
flow  by  the  pressure  of  the  swelling  than  to  loss  of  arterial  supply, 
and  consequently  appears  in  the  ^' moist"  form,  characterized  by 
swelling,  duskiness,  and  coolness  of  the  limb. 

The  object  of  early  treatment  is  to  check  the  hemorrhage  and  favor 
the  venous  flow  by  elevation  of  the  limb,  possibly  combined  with 
digital  pressure  upon  the  main  trunk  or  with  snug  bandaging  from  the 
lower  end  of  the  limb  to  a  point  well  above  the  injury.  If  a  well- 
defined  aneurism  forms  it  may  be  treated,  after  union  of  the  fracture 
has  taken  place  or  is  well  advanced,  by  proximal  or  local  ligature  of 
the  artery.  Possibly,  if  gangrene  threatened,  the  limb  might  be  saved 
by  a  free  incision  through  which  the  escaped  blood  could  be  turned 
out,  thus  relieving  the  pressure  on  the  veins,  and  by  tying  the  artery. 

In  compound  fractures  the  diagnosis  is  made  by  the  prof useness  and 
arterial  character  of  the  bleeding;  and  the  treatment  is  to  tie  the  artery 
at  the  point  of  injury. 

Rupture  of  a  large  vein  cannot  be  certainly  recognized  in  a  simple 
fracture,  and  its  treatment  is  controlled  by  that  of  the  gangrene  which 
it  may  cause.  In  compound  fractures  the  vessels  may  sometimes 
be  seen  and  tied,  but  probably  the  associated  lesions  will  be  such  that 
amputation  will  be  indicated. 

Thrombosis  of  an  artery,  and  doubtless  also  of  a  vein,  may  be  caused 
by  the  direct  violence  which  causes  a  fracture.  I  have  seen  examples 
in  the  arteries  of  the  arm  and  leg  broken  by  the  passage  of  a  wheel, 
the  condition  being  found  on  examination  of  the  limb  after  amputation 
because  of  gangrene,  and  others  have  been  reported.  Thrombosis  of 
a  vein  may  be  caused  by  the  pressure  of  a  displaced  fragment.  A 
case  involving  the  femoral  vein  and  ending  in  gangrene  and  amputa- 

1  London  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1860,  ii.,  p.  607. 


^8  FRACTURES. 

tion  is  reported  in  the  Deutsche  med.  Wocheoischrift,  June  8,  1892,  p. 
549. 

Gangrene  may  be  local  or  general;  the  former  the  result  of  crushing 
of  the  skin  and  other  soft  parts  in  direct  fracture,  the  latter  the  result 
of  injury  to  or  compression  of  the  vessels  or  of  tight  bandaging. 

Local  gangrene  is  manifested  by  the  darkening  and  hardening  of  an 
area  of  skin  surrounded  by  an  inflammatory  zone;  the  swelling  and 
fever  are  more  marked  and  persistent,  and  when  the  dry  patch  is  split 
or  cut  away  an  abundant  thin,  pink  or  dark,  and  offensive  exudate 
escapes  from  beneath  it  and  from  the  adjoining  subcutaneous  and  inter- 
muscular planes.  The  infection  must  be  combated  by  free  removal  of 
the  dead  and  dying  tissues,  irrigation,  and  drainage.  The  danger  of 
general  infection  is  great,  and  amputation  is  often  required  to  save  life. 

Gangrene  of  the  limbs  is  usually  of  the  moist  form  and  begins  with 
coolness  and  discoloration  of  the  toes  or  fingers,  the  latter  beginning 
as  a  deep-red  color  and  soon  changing  to  purple  and  grayish-black. 
Dark  blebs  may  appear  on  the  surface,  or  the  epidermis  may  be  exten- 
sively but  slightly  raised  by  a  thin,  dark  serum.  If  taken  in  time, 
and  if  the  cause  can  be  removed,  as  in  tight  bandaging,  the  life  of  the 
part  may  be  preserved,  and  I  have  thought  that  keeping  the  limb  in 
hot  water  (100°  to  102°  F.)  was  helpful;  but  the  vitality  of  the  skin 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  muscles,  so  that  even  if  the  circulation 
returns  in  the  former  the  muscles  may  yet  disintegrate  and  the  limb 
be  lost.  I  saw  this  result  in  a  case  of  fracture  of  the  olecranon  which 
had  been  treated  by  the  immediate  application  of  a  plaster-of-Paris 
dressing.  The  patient  entered  the  hospital  on  the  fifth  day,  with  the 
uncovered  hand  black  and  swollen;  the  dressing  was  removed,  and  the 
limb  placed  in  a  hot  bath.  Two  days  later  circulation  was  re-estab- 
lished in  the  skin  of  the  hand  and  forearm,  but  a  week  later  incisions 
had  to  be  made  in  the  forearm,  through  which  the  muscles  appeared 
wholly  disorganized  and  pulpy. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  even  a  narrow  circular  constriction, 
as  by  a  band  of  adhesive  plaster,  is  sufficient  to  produce  this  disastrous 
result  and  is,  perhaps,  even  more  likely  to  do  so  than  an  equally  tight 
bandage  covering  the  limb.  Consequently  the  longitudinal  strips  of 
plaster  used  in  making  traction  should  not  be  reinforced  by  the  circular 
strips  which  are  sometimes  applied  with  the  idea  of  keeping  the  former 
more  securely  in  place. 

Degeneration  and  contraction  of  the  muscles,  the  result  of  arrested 
blood-supply  by  bandaging,  is  occasionally  seen;  it  is  a  lower  grade  of 
the  change  mentioned  in  the  preceding  section.  Volkmann,  who  first 
described  it,  gave  it  the  name  "  ischsemic  contraction."  It  is  most 
frequently  seen  in  the  forearm  and  is  marked  by  atrophy  and  shorten- 
ing of  the  muscles,  the  fingers  being  permanently  flexed.  This  change 
is  brought  about  by  rapid  degeneration  of  the  muscular  fibres  and 
subsequent  reactive  increase  and  contraction  of  the  connective  tissue. 
It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  similar  contractures  due  to  nerve  injury 
or  disease  by  its  prompt  appearance.  In  the  less  severe  cases  some- 
thing may  be  gained  by  massage,  electricity,  and  persistent  efforts  to 
straighten  the  fingers. 


COMPLICATIONS  AND  REMOTE  CONSEQUENCES.  69 

Suppuration  in  simple  fractures  is  very  rare,  and  when  it  occurs  it 
appears  to  be  due  to  auto-infection,  by  germs  carried  by  the  blood  and 
possibly  brought  from  some  suppurating  focus  in  a  distant  ])ortion  of 
the  body,  as  a  furuncle;  rough  handling  of  the  broken  limb  and 
neglect  of  proper  care  ai)parently  favor  its  occurrence.  It  promptly 
makes  the  fracture  compound  by  spontaneous  or  surgical  opening, 
and  the  course  and  prognosis  are  then  those  of  open  infected  frac- 
tures. 

Suppuration  in  compound  fractures  can  generally  be  prevented  or 
restricted  to  the  superficial  layers  when  the  wound  is  small  and  its 
edges  not  contused,  as  is  ordinarily  the  case  in  fractures  by  indirect 
violence.  The  later  its  appearance,  the  less  likely  is  it  to  spread  widely 
among  the  muscles  and  endanger  life. 

In  compound  fracture  with  bruising  and  extensive  laceration,  sup- 
puration may  remain  as  a  local  complication,  the  pus  escaping  freely 
to  the  exterior  and  the  infection  not  spreading  ;  the  graver  cases  will 
be  considered  in  the  following  section. 

Early  General  Complications. 

Septicaemia.  This  grave  complication  occurs  in  compound  fractures 
and  in  siuaple  ones  followed  by  gangrene  of  the  limb  or  suppuration  at 
the  seat  of  fracture.  The  most  prompt,  rapid,  and  fatal  forms  are 
seen  in  compound  fractures  accompanied  by  much  bruising  and  lacera- 
tion of  the  soft  parts  and  in  those  patients  whose  vitality  has  been 
lowered  by  alcoholism,  constitutional  disease,  or  age. 

A  dusky-brown  tinge  discolors  the  skin  about  the  wound  and  spreads 
rapidly  upward,  especially  on  the  sides  and  back  of  the  limb;  the  torn 
muscles  become  gray  and  less  moist,  an  offensive  odor  appears  and 
grows  rapidly  more  marked,  and  a  thin  offensive  discharge  escapes  at 
the  surface  of  the  wound  and  can  be  pressed  out  from  its  recesses. 
The  limb  swells  far  above  the  fracture,  the  temperature  rises,  the 
patient  becomes  apathetic  and  slightly  delirious.  Occasionally  pressure 
with  the  fingers  upon  the  discolored  skin  provokes  the  slight  crackle 
of  emphysema,  evidence  of  decomposition  with  production  of  gas,  and, 
if  well  marked,  strongly  suggestive  of  the  presence  of  one  of  the  most 
rapidly  fatal  infections  known,  that  of  the  '' vibrion  septique"  of 
Pasteur,  or  the  bacillus  capsulatus  aerogenes  (Welch),  the  germ  of 
acute  gangrenous  septicemia. 

Amputation  alone,  with  vigorous  disinfection  of  the  stump  and  of 
the  subcutaneous  tissue  throughout  the  discolored  area,  can  save  life, 
and  that  only  in  so  small  a  proportion  of  the  cases  that  no  one  can  be 
blamed  for  declining  to  resort  to  it.  The  peroxide  of  hydrogen  appears 
to  be  a  valuable  antiseptic  in  these  eases;  it  can  be  forced  under  the 
skin  with  a  syringe  or  through  incisions  which  will  serve  also  for 
drainage.  I  have  never  known  a  case  in  which  the  septic  vibrio  was 
present  to  recover,  although  I  have  heard  of  one  or  two;  in  a  few  cases 
in  which  the  early  symptoms  indicated  its  presence  I  have  changed 
the  diagnosis  because  the  patient  did  not  fail  so  rapidly  as  I  anticipated, 
and  in  every  such  case  culture  tests  have  shown  its  absence.    Air  which 


70  FRACTURES. 

occasionally  makes  its  way  through  the  wound  into  the  adjoining  cel- 
lular tissue  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  gas  of  this  decomposition. 

In  the  less  acute  cases  septic  infection  follows  the  establishment  of 
suppuration  and  is  less  marked  locally  and  generally.  The  limb  swells 
and  becomes  discolored,  but  the  color  is  a  dusky  red  and  its  area  is 
limited;  the  swelling  is  more  like  the  common  inflammatory  bogginess, 
and  incisions  into  it  give  exit  to  pus  or  inflammatory  serum  which  has 
not  the  odor  of  decomposition.  Such  processes  may  be  arrested  by 
free  incisions,  drainage,  and  antiseptics;  but  complete  recovery  is  long 
delayed  by  necrosis  of  the  ends  of  the  fragments. 

Fat  Embolism.  As  has  been  stated  in  Chapter  III.,  free  fat  can  fre- 
quently be  found  in  the  urine  during  the  first  two  or  three  days  after 
fracture.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  comes  from  the  lacerated 
marrow,  entering  the  circulation  either  directly  through  the  torn  and 
gaping  veins  of  the  bone  or  through  the  lymphatics.  When  thus 
taken  up  in  considerable  quantities  it  may  be  arrested  in  the  pul- 
monary capillaries  or,  after  having  passed  through  those,  in  the  capil- 
laries of  the  systemic  circulation,  and  occasion  serious  symptoms  or 
even  death.  Although  the  subject  has  been  studied  by  several,  by 
observation  and  experiment,  since  Yon  Recklinghausen  first  noted  it 
in  ]  884  as  a  cause  of  death  by  plugging  the  pulmonary  capillaries,  its 
symptomatology  is  not  at  all  clear,  presumably  because  it  is  masked 
by  the  functional  disturbances  created  by  its  interference  with  the 
circulation  in  various  organs,  notably  the  brain.  There  is  even  reason 
to  think  that  it  has  something,  perhaps  much,  to  do  in  some  cases 
with  the  phenomena  classed  as  shock,  with  delirium  tremens,  which  is 
so  much  more  common  after  fractures  than  after  other  injuries,  and 
w'ith  the  pulmonary  cedema  and  early  pneumonias  of  the  alcoholic 
and  aged. 

The  pathological  conditions  revealed  on  autopsy  are  oedema  of  the 
lungs  and  extensive  plugging  of  the  pulmonary  capillaries,  and 
sometimes  even  of  the  arterioles,  with  free  fat,  similar  but  less  ex- 
tensive plugging  of  the  systemic  capillaries,  often  marked  by  small 
hemorrhages,  and  sometimes  extensive  filling  of  the  renal  glomeruli. 
The  local  reaction  is  that  of  the  beginning  of  infarction,  and  probably 
in  the  cases  which  survive  it  is  arrested  by  the  prompt  forcing  of  the 
fat  through  the  capillaries  and  the  re -establishment  of  the  circulation. 
Since  the  emboli  are  not  septic  the  element  of  infection  does  not  enter 
into  the  case,  and  death  is  due  to  the  mechanical  interference  with 
the  nutrition  and  functions  of  the  parts  involved. 

The  symptoms  in  well-defined  cases  confirmed  by  autopsy  have 
begun  within  twenty-four  hours  after  the  injury,  rarely  after  two  or 
three  days,  and  usually  with  quickening  of  the  respiration  that  some- 
times became  marked  dyspnoea;  undiminished  resonance  of  the  chest 
and  abundant,  coarse  rales;  little  or  no  fever;  face  at  first  pale,  then 
cyanotic;  unconsciousness  followed,  and  death  within  a  few  hours. 
In  other  cases  the  central  nervous  symptoms  have  been  the  most 
prominent:  unconsciousness,  noisy  and  slow  breathing,  muscular 
twitching,  and  even  convulsions,  and  sometimes  paralyses.  Most 
tragical  are  those  cases,  fortunately  very  rare,  in  which  the  complica- 


COMPLICATIONS  AND  REMOTE  CONSEQUENCES.  71 

tion  proves  rapidly  fatal  in  a  young  and  healthy  patient  after  a  simple, 
comparatively  unimportant  fracture,  such  as  a  Pott's  at  the  ankle, 
with  which  the  idea  of  danger  to  life  is  never  associated. 

Treatment  is  apparently  almost  powerless  to  helj);  the  indications 
are  to  prevent  further  crushing  of  the  marrow  by  immobilization  of 
the  limb,  to  stimulate  the  heart,  and  to  aid  the  respiration  by  inhala- 
tions of  oxygen  when  dyspnrea  is  present. 

Delirium  tremens  is  a  not  infrequent  complication  of  fracture  in  hos- 
pital cases.  The  course  is  less  severe  and  the  prognosis  better  than 
in  cases  not  excited  by  traumatism.  Its  occurrence  appears  to  be 
favored  not  only  by  the  traumatism,  but  also  by  the  withdrawal  of 
the  customary  stimulant  which  usually  follows  admission  to  a  hospital, 
and  I  have  found  it  advisable,  therefore,  as  routine  practice  to  give 
alcohol  in  moderate  quantities  during  the  first  week  to  those  injured 
who  are  habitual,  even  if  not  excessive,  drinkers.  The  attack  begins 
with  restlessness  and  sleeplessness,  and  when  fully  developed  presents 
the  usual  symptoms.  In  addition  to  alcohol,  sedatives  are  indicated, 
together  with  cathartics  and  a  light,  nutritious  diet.  Usually  the  attack 
subsides  after  one  good  night's  rest  has  been  obtained.  Care  must 
be  taken  not  to  give  alcohol  too  freely,  lest  it  should  provoke  an  attack. 

Tetanus  is  a  rare  complication,  almost  unknown  in  simple  fractures 
and  much  more  frequent  in  compound  fractures  of  the  hand  and 
fingers  than  in  those  of  other  bones.  Excluding  those  of  the  hand 
and  fingers,  I  have  seen  it  only  in  one  fracture  of  the  femur  (gunshot) 
and  in  two  of  tlie  forearm  (compound).  Although  the  microbic  nature 
of  the  disease  has  been  established,  it  is  noteworthy  that  many  of  the 
attacks  are  preceded  by  a  sudden  fall  in  the  temperature  of  the  air. 
One  of  my  cases  developed  after  such  a  fall,  and  on  the  same  day  two 
cases  occurred  in  two  other  hospitals  in  the  city. 

Pneumonia,  developing  on  the  second  or  third  day,  is  a  rather  fre- 
quent and  dangerous  complication.  Reference  has  been  made  to  its 
possible  origin  in  fat  embolism  of  the  lungs.  It  begins  more  fre- 
quently without  a  chill  than  with  one,  and,  in  our  hospital  cases  at 
least,  is  likely  to  run  a  rapid,  severe  course,  with  high  fever  and 
delirium,  often  terminating  fatally  in  three  or  four  days. 

Pneumonia  appears  also  as  a  late  complication  in  the  old  and  feeble, 
beginning  insidiously,  and  pursuing  an  asthenic  course,  with  moderate 
fever  and  mild  delirium,  and  ending  usually  in  unconsciousness  and 
death.  Prolonged  recumbency  is  thought  to  favor  its  occurrence  by 
promoting  venous  congestion  of  the  lungs,  but  it  appears  to  me  to  be 
rather  a  relatively  unimportant  incident  in  a  general  failing  of  the 
strength  which  is  usually  manifest  a  few  days  before  the  signs  of  con- 
solidation appear,  and  to  which  the  death  appears  to  be  due  quite  as 
much  as  to  the  pneumonia.  I  have  learned  to  look  for  this  change 
especially  in  fractures  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  in  the  old  and  feeble. 

Late  Local  Complications. 

The  callus  may  be  excessive,  painful,  or  weak,  or  may  become  the 
seat  of  a  sarcoma.     A  callus  may  be  unusually  large,  '^exuberant," 


72 


FRACTURES. 


either  because  the  fragments  remain  widely  displaced  during  repair, 
or  because  ossification  extends  far  beyond  the  usual  limits,  or  because 
the  presence  of  a  necrotic  fragment  maintains  irritation  and  delays  the 
termination  of  the  productive  process.  The  first  variety  is  not  prop- 
erly to  be  termed  a  complication,  for  the  size  of  the  callus  is  necessary 
to  firm  union.  The  second  is  seen  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of 
joints,  as  the  result  of  the  persistent  displacement  of  a  fragment,  or  of 
ossification  of  muscular  attachments,  ligaments,  or  capsule  in  the  old, 
or  of  exaggerated  productive  activity  of  the  periosteum  in  the  young. 
The  third  is  rather  common  after  compound  fractures  that  have  sup- 
purated. 


Fig.  26. 


Fig.  27. 


Intra-articular  fracture  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  humerus,  with  exuberant  callus, 
especially  in  front. 


Exuberant  callus ;  fracture  of  lower  end 
of  humerus. 


Enlargement  near  a  joint  may  mechanically  restrict  its  range  of 
motion,  and  at  other  points  it  may,  in  like  manner,  interfere  with 
the  action  of  a  muscle  or  make  disabling  pressure  upon  a  nerve  or 
interfere  with  the  venous  circulation  in  the  limb. 

Virchow  has  suggested  that  a  callus  may  continue  to  increase  for  a 
long  time  by  the  progressive  ossification  of  ligaments  and  tendons  in- 
cluded in  it,  just  as  those  tissues  ossify  under  other  irritating  condi- 
tions. A  sudden  increase  may  take  place  in  consequence  of  premature 
use  of  the  limb  by  which  the  union  is  loosened  and  the  irritation 
renewed,  but  such  increase  is  temporary  and  is  due  to  a  renewal  of 
the  irritative  reaction  in  the  soft  parts  which  is  manifest  in  the  early 
days  of  a  fracture  and  then  produces  the  swelling  about  the  injury. 

An  exuberant  callus  may,  and  usually  does,  diminish  in  size,  but 
not  sufficiently  to  remove  marked  obstacles  to  f  imction.  Such  removal 
can  be  effected  only  by  surgical  measures,  the  cutting  away  of  the 
exuberant  mass;  local  applications  made  to  the  surface  with  the  object 
of  promoting  its  absorption  are  useless.     The  same  pressure-effects 


COMPLICATIONS  AND  REMOTE  CONSEQUENCES.  73 

can  be  produced  by  persistent  displacement  of  the  fragments,  and  it 
is  not  always  possible  to  determine,  previous  to  operation,  whether 
the  offending  mass  is  a  fragment  or  the  callus. 

Painfulness  of  the  callus  may  begin  early  in  the  course  of  repair 
and  persist  long  after  union  has  become  complete,  or  it  may  begin 
after  an  interval,  sometimes  a  very  long  one.  Many  patients  com- 
plain of  dull  pain  in  the  limb  for  months,  even  for  years,  after  the 
injury,  especially  after  prolonged  use  and  in  connection  with  changes 
in  the  weather,  but  the  cases  in  which  the  pain  is  limited  to  the  callus 
are  rare.  The  late  form,  that  in  which  the  pain  begins  after  an  in- 
terval, is  clearly  inflammatory,  the  inflammation  being  generally  a 
recurrence  in  an  old  suppurative  focus,  manifesting  itself  by  fever, 
swelling,  and  tenderness,  and  relieved  by  spontaneous  or  surgical 
evacuation  of  the  pus. 

The  early  continuous  form  is  not  inflammatory,  but  the  causes  are 
not  always  clear.  The  pain  has  been  attributed  to  pressure  upon  a 
nerve  either  without  or  within  the  callus,  to  a  neuritis  set  up  by  in- 
jury of  a  nerve  at  the  time  of  the  accident,  as  is  seen  also  after  wounds 
involving  only  the  soft  parts,  and  to  a  supposed  persistent  osteitis  or 
an  osteo-neuralgia  (Gosselin),  the  cause  of  which  is  equally  hypothet- 
ical. The  pain  may  begin  early  in  the  formation  of  the  callus,  or 
not  until  after  union  has  become  complete;  it  may  be  continuous  or 
intermittent,  and  exacerbated  at  night  or  by  change  in  the  weather. 
It  must  be  distinguished  from  pain  due  to  injury  of  or  pressure  upon 
a  nerve. 

Counter-irritation  on  the  surface  has  given  relief,  and  I  should  sup- 
pose that  in  the  rebellious  cases  it  would  be  advisable  to  incise  the 
periosteum  or  to  cut  into  or  chisel  away  the  bone. 

The  development  of  a  tumor,  sarcoma,  at  the  site  of  a  healed  frac- 
ture, within  a  few  weeks  or  after  an  interval  of  several  years,  has  been 
occasionally  observed,  and  apparently  belongs  in  the  same  etiological 
group  as  that  of  sarcomata  following  other  injuries  of  bone  or  soft 
tissues.  Still  rarer  is  the  development  of  carcinoma  after  fracture  in 
those  who  have  or  have  had  a  carcinoma  at  another  point.  Pearce 
Gould  {Lancet,  April  25,  1896)  refers  to  one  such  case,  fracture  of  the 
humerus  in  a  lady  whose  breast  had  been  removed  for  carcinoma  five 
years  previously;  he  explored  very  carefully  by  operation,  without 
finding  any  sign  of  tumor;  "  two  mouths  later  an  extensive  growth 
had  appeared  at  the  seat  of  fracture." 

Associated  Injury  of  a  Nerve.  A  nerve  may  be  bruised  or  completely 
ruptured  at  the  time  of  the  accident,  or  it  may  become  stretched  over  the 
edge  of  a  fragment  or  by  the  growing  callus,  or  compressed  within  a 
more  or  less  complete  canal  formed  about  it  by  the  callus  or  by  cica- 
tricial tissue  developed  in  the  soft  parts.  Primary  rupture  of  a  motor 
nerve  is  liable  to  be  overlooked  at  first,  because  of  the  withdrawal  of 
the  limb  from  use  in  consequence  of  the  fracture,  but  it  is  not  prob- 
able that  the  resultant  delay  diminishes  the  chance  of  successfully 
uniting  the  divided  portions  by  operation,  and  on  some  accounts  the 
operation  is  more  free  from  risk  if  not  undertaken  until  after  the  frac- 
ture has  become  united.     The  diagnosis  of  rupture  cannot  always  be 


74 


FRACTURES. 


Fig.  28. 


safely  made  on  immediate  paralysis  of  the  muscles  supplied  by  the 
nerve.  I  once  operated  upon  a  case  of  supposed  rupture  of  the 
musculo-spiral  nerve  in  conuection  with  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  the 
humerus,  and  found  the  nerve  untorn  and  apparently  uninjured  for 
some  distance  above  and  below  the  fracture. 
It  must  also  not  be  hastily  assumed  that  an 
operation  to  reunite  the  nerve  has  failed;  in 
two  cases  (musculo-spiral  nerve)  I  have  seen 
function  return  after  nearly  a  year  had  elapsed 
since  the  operation. 

The  compression  of  a  nerve  by  a  displaced 
fragment  may  abolish  its  functions  or  may  ex- 
cite a  neuritis  manifested  by  modifications  of 
sensibility  and  sometimes  by  great  pain;  simi- 
lar effects  may  be  produced  by  a  coincident 
contusion  of  the  nerve.  The  most  frequent  ex- 
amples are  in  fractures  above  the  elbow  and 
above  and  below  the  knee ;  occasionally  it  is 
seen  in  fractures  of  the  clavicle,  upper  end  of 
the  humerus,  and  pelvis. 

Similar  compression  may  be  made  by  the 
callus  upon  a  nerve  which  crosses  or  passes 
through  it.  Of  late  years  a  number  of  such 
cases  have  been  operated  upon,  and  various 
gross  changes  noted  in  the  nerve,  which  is 
usually  reduced  in  size  for  a  greater  or  less 
distance  and  shows  a  notable  enlargement  just 
above  the  point  of  pressure. 
The  treatment  consists  in  the  removal  of  the  corresponding  portion 
of  the  bone  or  callus,  and  this  should  be  done  freely.  I  have  thought 
it  advisable  in  some  cases  to  interpose  a  strip  of  periosteum  or  other 
soft  tissue  between  the  nerve  and  the  cut  surface  of  the  bone  in  order 
to  diminish  the  probability  of  the  nerve  becoming  included  in  a  firm 
adherent  and  possibly  compressing  cicatrix. 

Weakness  of  the  callus,  which  should  not  be  confounded  with  delay 
in  consolidation,  is  manifested  in  two  ways  :  by  its  yielding  under  use 
of  the  limb  after  union,  as  judged  by  the  usual  tests,  has  appeared  to 
be  complete,  and  by  a  later  loss  of  its  strength  under  the  influence  of 
intercurrent  local  or  general  causes;  the  latter  is  also  termed  softening 
or  absorption  of  the  callus,  and  in  either  case,  if  fracture  occurs,  it 
is  termed  secondary  fracture.  The  weakness  may  be  due  to  insuffi- 
ciency in  the  amount  of  the  callus,  as  when  a  gap  has  been  created 
between  the  principal  fragments  by  their  displacement  or  by  loss  of 
bone,  or  in  the  ossification  of  the  bond  uniting  the  fragments.  In 
either  case  the  bony  bridge  uniting  the  fragments  is  not  strong  enough 
to  bear  the  strain  of  use,  and  it  either  breaks  completely  or  yields 
enough  to  permit  an  angular  displacement. 

Softening  of  the  callus  under  the  influence  of  a  general  disease — 
e.  g,,  scurvy,  typhoid  fever,  erysipelas — has  been  observed  in  a  few 
cases,  sometimes  after  the  lapse  of  many  months.     Clarke,  quoted  in 


Ollier's  case  of  inclusion  of 
the  musculo-spiral  nerve  in 
the  callus. 


COMPLICATIONS  AND  REMOTE  CONSEQUENCES.  75 

the  Traite  de  Chirurgie,  reported  a  case  in  which  the  softening  ap- 
peared to  be  the  result  of  overwork  in  school.  The  callus  has  been 
felt  to  diminish  in  size,  and  abnormal  mobility  to  reappear  without  the 
intervention  of  any  violence. 

Secondary,  or  '^iterative,"  fracture  without  apparent  defect  or 
change  in  the  callus  is  a  not  infrequent  accident  due  to  ))rcmature  use 
of  the  limb  or  to  slight  external  violence.  Gosselin  tells  of  a  man 
twenty-five  years  old  who  broke  his  femur  six  times  in  twenty 
months;  the  fractures  occurred  in  the  second  week  after  he  began  to 
walk  and  in  consequence  of  a  slight  effort,  as  in  dancing,  running, 
and  trying  to  avoid  a  fall;  each  time  the  patient  had  left  his  bed  on 
the  forty-fifth  day.  The  symptoms  are  those  of  primary  fracture, 
but  usually  less  marked. 

Arrest  of  growth  of  the  bone  is  occasionally  observed  in  the  young 
after  fracture  at  or  near  the  epiphyseal  cartilage.  (See  Separation  of 
the  Epiphyses,  Chapter  II.) 

Exaggeration  of  growth  of  the  bone  after  fracture  has  been  observed 
in  a  very  few  cases,  in  consequence  either  of  stimulation  of  the  epi- 
physeal cartilage  to  greater  activity  or  of  exaggerated  production  of 
bone  at  the  fracture.  Cases  have  been  reported  in  which  a  consider- 
able shortening  noted  immediately  after  recovery  has  disappeared  in 
the  course  of  a  year  or  two.  There  is  usually  room  in  such  cases  for 
some  doubt  of  the  accuracy  of  the  observation. 

Stiffness  of  the  joints  of  the  injured  limb  is  habitually  seen  after 
fracture  and  involves  not  only  those  of  which  the  broken  bone  forms 
part  but  also  those  at  a  distance  from  it,  especially  on  the  distal  side. 
It  is  most  marked  in  the  old  and  rheumatic  and  in  joints  directly  in- 
volved in  the  fracture  or  coincidently  sprained.  It  appears  promptly 
after  the  accident,  is  most  marked  when  the  splints  are  removed 
(unless  measures  have  meanwhile  been  taken  to  relieve  it),  and  in 
most  cases  disappears  slowly  under  use  of  the  limb.  If  a  joint  is 
involved  in  the  fracture,  or  otherwise  injured  at  the  moment  of  the 
accident,  a  traumatic  arthritis  may  follow  and  the  resultant  stiffness 
may  be  permanent;  and  in  the  old  and  rheumatic  more  or  less  limita- 
tion of  motion  may  remain  even  when  the  joint  has  not  been  directly 
injured. 

The  causes  of  the  stiffness,  exclusive  of  direct  injury  of  the  joint, 
are  to  be  found  in  injury  of  the  muscles,  oedema,  and  shortening  and 
loss  of  elasticity  in  the  peri-articular  tissues,  sometimes  because  of 
their  implication  in  the  irritative  reaction  following  the  injury,  and 
sometimes  because  of  the  enforced  quiet.  Stiffness  of  the  knee  and 
ankle  after  fracture  of  the  thigh,  of  the  elbow  after  fracture  of  the 
arm,  and  of  the  wrist  and  fingers  after  fracture  of  the  forearm  is  con- 
stant and  often  very  persistent.  It  is  relieved  by  measures  which 
diminish  the  oedema  and  improve  the  circulation,  and  these  may  some- 
times be  employed  before  consolidation  of  the  fracture  is  complete: 
such  are  massage,  passive  motion,  and  position.  The  fingers  stiffen, 
and  sometimes  very  rebelliously,  under  immobilization,  and  especially 
when  kept  fully  extended.  The  rule  should  therefore  be,  in  all 
injuries  of  the  upper  extremities,  to  leave  them  free  of  the  dressings 


76  FRACTURES. 

whenever  that  is  possible  and  to  instruct  the  patient  to  move  them 
frequently  ;  when  they  must  be  confined  the  position  of  flexion  for 
the  fingers  and  abduction  for  the  thumb  is  to  be  preferred. 

Persistent  active  and  passive  motion  of  the  joints  within  their  ex- 
isting range,  massage,  and  hot  and  cold  douching  will  usually  increase 
the  range  and  freedom  rapidly;  in  the  young  and  young  adults  little 
time  will  be  lost  by  simply  trusting  to  the  natural  use  of  the  limb  to 
restore  its  functions.  Patients  should  be  encouraged  to  disregard 
pain  following  use  which  does  not  leave  the  joint  tender  the  next  day. 
Limitation  of  motion  due  to  displaced  fragments  or  overgrowth  of 
callus  can  be  relieved,  if  at  all,  only  by  operation. 

Atrophy  of  the  Muscles.  A  limb  that  has  long  been  withdrawn 
from  use  because  of  fracture  appears  smaller  above  the  seat  of  the 
injury,  and  also  below  it  if  the  oedema  has  disappeared.  Advantage 
has  been  taken  of  the  death  of  a  few  patients  at  this  period  to  weigh 
their  muscles,  and  they  have  been  found  distinctly,  and  in  some  cases 
notably,  smaller  than  those  of  the  opposite  limb,  the  loss  involving 
all  and  not  merely  those  of  some  group  supplied  by  a  nerve  that  might 
have  been  injured.  In  the  young  and  in  young  adults  the  loss  is 
soon  made  good,  but  in  others  and  in  cases  of  long  duration  the 
atrophy  may  persist  for  months  or  even  be  permanent.  Various 
explanations  have  been  offered,  such  as  lack  of  use,  occlusion  in 
fixed  dressings,  diversion  of  nutritive  materials  to  form  the  callus, 
aud  reflex  trophic  disturbances  from  injured  nerve  branches,  but  none 
is  free  from  serious  objections.  Massage,  electricity,  and  systematic 
exercise  are  the  measures  employed  to  hasten  or  effect  recovery. 

Thrombosis  of  the  Veins  and  Emholism.  Thrombosis  of  some  of  the 
larger  veins  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  fracture  is  thought  to  be  rather 
common  and  to  be  the  cause  of  the  oedema  and  venous  congestion 
which  are  so  constant  and  troublesome  after  fracture  of  the  lower 
limb  when  the  patient  begins  to  walk.  Occasionally,  but  very  rarely, 
the  process  occupies  or  extends  into  a  vein  sufficiently  large  to  furnish  an 
embolus  which  is  carried  to  the  heart  or,  more  commonly,  through  it 
into  the  pulmonary  artery  and  causes  death.  Virchow  published  in 
1846  such  a  case  following  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  and 
Durodie^  collected  eight  other  eases  in  which  the  deaths  occurred  be- 
tween the  sixteenth  and  fifty-seventh  days.  One  fracture  was  of  the 
femur,  the  others  of  the  leg. 

The  symptoms  are  the  usual  ones  of  pulmonary  embolism:  sudden 
onset,  with  lividity  or  pallor,  dyspnoea,  prsecordial  distress,  and  death 
in  a  few  minutes. 

1  Durodie.    Etude  sur  les  Thromboses  et  I'EmbDlie  Teineuses  dans  les  Contusions  et  les  Frac- 
tures.   Th^se  de  Paris,  1874,  No.  326. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

TEEATMENT. 

Generally  speaking,  the  treatment  of  a  fracture  should  begin 
when  the  patient  is  first  seen,  but  by  this  it  is  not  meant  that  every 
indication  should  at  once  be  met  by  appropriate  measures;  even  the 
correction  of  the  displacement,  the  "^setting"  of  the  fracture,  and  the 
immobilization  of  the  fragments  may  have  to  be  left  undone  or  in- 
complete because  of  conflicting  and  dominating  conditions,  such  as 
extreme  swelling,  muscular  spasm,  or  associated  lesions.  A  delay  of 
even  several  days  is  usually,  in  respect  of  these  indications,  of  small 
importance,  for  the  preparatory  work  in  the  bone  and  soft  parts  goes 
on  notwithstanding  it,  and  when  finally  the  adjustment  is  made  the 
condition  differs  but  little  from  that  which  would  have  existed  had  it 
been  made  at  the  first. 

A  much  more  important  indication  in  most  cases  is  to  prevent  addi- 
tional injury  while  the  patient  is  being  taken  home  or  to  hospital. 
The  danger  at  this  time  is  that  by  incautious  handling,  disordered 
movements,  or  injudicious  attempts  to  use  an  injured  limb  a  simple 
fracture  may  be  made  compound  or  additional  laceration  caused. 
This  risk  exists  especially  after  fracture  of  the  middle  or  lower  third 
of  the  leg  because  a  large  extent  of  the  surface  of  the  tibia  lies  im- 
mediately beneath  the  skin  and  the  end  of  a  fragment  can  easily  be 
forced  through  it.  The  surgeon  therefore  will  protect  the  limb  by  a 
temporary  splint,  when  such  protection  is  needed,  and  the  judicious 
layman  will  leave  the  patient  undisturbed  or  will  transport  him  re- 
cumbent. 

If  the  fracture  is  one  which  necessitates  confinement  to  the  bed,  the 
bed  should  be  narrow  and  high,  and  the  mattress  firm.  A  long,  broad 
board  may  be  placed  beneath  the  latter  if  the  spring  mattress  is  soft. 
Specially  constructed  ''  fracture-beds,"  some  of  which  are  very  ingen- 
iously arranged,  are  convenient,  but  not  at  all  essential.  A  water-bed 
or  air-bed  is  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  treatment  of  fractures  of  the 
spine  in  minimizing  the  formation  and  duration  of  bed-sores. 

The  points  to  be  considered  and  the  indications  to  be  followed  by  the 
surgeon  called  to  treat  a  fracture  vary  greatly  in  different  cases  accord- 
ing to  the  bone  or  portion  of  bone  involved,  the  complications  that 
exist  or  are  to  be  feared,  and  the  age,  the  health,  the  habits,  and 
even  the  social  status  of  the  patient.  At  one  end  of  the  long  and 
varied  series  of  problems  which  present  themselves  he  has  only  to 
provide  the  simplest  means  to  protect  the  patient  from  additional  in- 
jury or  pain  during  the  few  days  or  weeks  that  are  needed  for  repair; 
at  the  other  the  highest  resources  of  his  art  are  required  to  save  life 
or  limb  or  to  preserve  function.     On  the  one  hand,  the  fracture  may 


78  FRACTURES. 

be  the  sole  thing  to  be  considered,  his  attention  must  be  unremittingly 
given  to  the  position  of  the  fragments  and  their  maintenance  in  proper 
relations,  and  his  skill  and  care  will  determine  the  character  of  the 
result;  on  the  other,  his  best  endeavor  may  be  powerless  to  affect  the 
position  of  the  fragments  or  modify  the  result,  or  the  fracture,  as  in 
many  of  the  base  of  the  skull,  may  be  a  wholly  unimportant  and 
negligible  incident  beside  the  associated  lesions. 

The  indications  for  treatment  arise,  therefore,  in  varying  degrees 
from  the  fracture  itself,  the  associated  lesions,  and  the  immediate  or 
late  local  or  general  effects  upon  the  patient.  Occasionally  they  conflict, 
and  the  surgeon  must  then  temporarily  disregard  some  or  he  must 
even  be  content  with  a  defective  local  result  because  an  attempt  to 
secure  a  better  one  would  involve  risks  disproportionate  to  the  advan- 
tage sought.  Those  directly  concerned  with  the  fracture  are  to  correct 
displacement  of  the  fragments,  if  such  displacement  exists  and  if  its 
correction  is  possible  and  advisable,  and  to  oppose  by  appropriate 
means  the  action  of  those  forces  which  might  reproduce  it,  such  as 
muscular  action,  swelling,  and  gravity.  This  correction  of  the  dis- 
placement is  termed  the  '^  reduction''  or  ''  setting"  of  the  fracture. 

Reduction. 

Not  every  fresh  fracture  is  accompanied  by  a  displacement  that 
needs  to  be  corrected;  and  of  those  in  which  such  displacement 
exists,  in  not  every  one  is  reduction  possible  or  advisable;  and  some- 
times when  reduction  is  both  possible  and  advisable  circumstances 
require  that  it  should  be  delayed. 

Fractures  without  a  displacement  that  needs  to  be  corrected  are 
many  and  varied,  such  as  most  simple  fractures  of  the  cranium,  of 
the  scapula,  of  the  ribs,  the  ilium,  the  shaft  of  the  fibula  or  ulna 
alone,  and  many  of  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones. 

Reduction  is  said  to  be  impossible  (although  in  most  cases  the  better 
term  would  be  inadvisable)  when  the  opposing  conditions  are  such 
that  they  caonot  be  overcome  by  the  methods  ordinarily  in  use,  and 
when  more  efficient  ones  would  involve  overbalancing  disadvantages 
or  risks.  The  causes  of  this  condition  are  varied;  among  them  may 
be  mentioned  the  interlocking  of  the  irregular  ends  of  the  main  frag- 
ments, the  interposition  of  soft  parts  or  small  fragments,  and  the 
small  size  and  inaccessible  position  of  a  fragment,  as  in  some  articular 
fractures.  When  the  fracture  is  of  the  shaft  or  subcutaneous  end  of 
a  long  bone  the  existence  and  character  of  the  displacement  are 
usually  recognizable,  but  when  one  of  the  principal  fragments  is  a 
part  of  the  articular  end  of  a  long  bone  and  is  thickly  covered  by 
muscle  or  masked  by  swelling,  not  only  the  character  but  even  the 
existence  of  the  displacement  may  be  in  doubt  and  remain  so  until 
after  repair  is  far  advanced.  In  such  cases  an  exact  diagnosis  can  be 
made  and  reduction  can  generally  be  effected  by  the  aid  of  an  incision 
which  exposes  the  seat  of  fracture,  but  although  the  probability  that 
such  an  operation  in  experienced  hands  and  under  proper  precautions 
would  be  followed  by  disaster  is  small,  yet  the  evils  of  such  a  result, 


TREATMENT.  79 

if  it  should  follow,  are  so  greatly  in  excess  of  those  resulting  from 
the  persistence  of  the  displacement  that  the  operation  is  rarely  under- 
taken while  the  injury  is  recent,  and  then  only  because  of  the  presence 
of  some  controlling  condition  or  danger,  such  as  pressure  upon  the  skin 
or  a  main  vessel  or  nerve  that  cannot  otherwise  be  removed.  In  cases 
not  thus  complicated  the  worst  that  can  follow  after  fracture  of  the 
shaft  is  failure  of  union  or  union  with  a  disabling  deformity,  and 
both  of  these  conditions  may  be  relieved  by  a  late  operation.  In 
articular  fractures  the  conditions  are  different:  the  displacement  if 
uncorrected  may  seriously  compromise  the  usefulness  of  the  joint,  and 
but  little  if  any  relief  is  to  be  expected  from  a  late  operation.  If 
anything  is  to  be  done  it  must  be  Avhile  the  injury  is  still  recent. 
These  considerations  have  recently  led  surgeons  to  operate  upon  selected 
cases  of  fresh  injury,  articular  fractures  at  the  elbow,  knee,  and 
shoulder,  when  important  displacement  was  recognized,  but  althonorh 
I  have  taken  this  course  in  a  considerable  number  of  cases,  and  with- 
out ill  result  in  any,  I  am  convinced  that  generalization  of  the  practice 
would  lead  to  more  harm  than  good.  The  risk  of  such  primary  inter- 
ference by  operation  is,  I  think,  less  the  more  promptly  it  follows 
upon  the  receipt  of  the  injury:  if  it  is  done  within  the  first  twenty- 
four  hours  the  condition  is  practically  that  of  an  operation  upon  pre- 
viously uninjured  tissues,  and  the  same  confidence  may  be  felt  that 
primary  union  will  be  obtained,  but  if  the  third  or  fourth  day  has 
been  reached  and  the  tissues  are  swollen  and  infiltrated  with  extrava- 
sated  blood  the  same  confidence  cannot  be  felt,  and  it  is,  I  think, 
better  to  wait  for  the  subsidence  of  the  swelling  and  the  absorption  of 
the  blood.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  compound 
fractures  which  heal  primarily,  and  simple  fractures  which  have  been 
exposed  by  early  incision,  run  their  course  with  less  swelling  and 
possibly  with  less  general  reaction  than  simple  fractures  treated  solely 
by  immobilization;  their  course  is  essentially  that  of  an  ordinary  oste- 
otomy for  deformity;  but  nevertheless  the  difference,  in  my  opinion, 
is  too  slight  to  justify  routine  resort  to  operation,  as  has  been  sug- 
gested, in  order  to  obtain  it,  ev^en  with  the  added  advantage  of  an 
accurate  adjustment  of  the  fragments.  The  difference  is  apparently 
due  to  the  prompt  removal  of  the  extravasated  blood  and  the  drainage 
of  the  primary  serous  exudate;  and  the  advantage,  except  in  a  few 
selected  cases,  is  limited  to  some  diminution  of  the  discomfort  of  the 
first  few  days,  and  does  not  extend  either  to  the  character  of  the  final 
result  or  to  the  time  within  which  it  is  obtained. 

Other  conditions  which  make  exact  and  immediate  reduction  inad- 
visable are  crushing  of  the  spongy  tissue  of  the  bone,  extreme  sub- 
fascial swelling  of  the  broken  limb,  muscular  spasm,  and  coincident 
injuries  or  other  conditions  which  prevent  the  application  of  a  dress- 
ing efficient  to  maintain  the  reduction  when  effected.  Crushing  of 
the  spongy  tissue  is  seen  mainly  in  the  old,  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
femur  and  at  the  lower  end  of  the  radius.  It  is  seen  also  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  humerus,  but  there  reduction  is  mechanically  impossible, 
and  in  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae.  The  effect  of  this  crushing  is  the 
same  as  the  removal  of  a  piece  of  the  bone;  if  the  fragments  are  re- 


80  FRACTURES. 

stored  to  their  original  positions  a  gap  corresponding  to  the  amount  of 
the  crushing  is  created  between  them,  which,  if  the  position  is  main- 
tained, must  be  filled  by  the  production  of  new  bone,  a  task  that  may 
be  beyond  the  power  of  the  organism,  and  failure  in  which  would 
lead  to  failure  of  union,  a  result  much  more  disabling  than  the  per- 
sistence of  the  deformity.  In  fractures  at  the  lower  end  of  the  radius 
it  would  be  easy  to  expose  the  seat  of  fracture,  force  the  lower  frag- 
ment downM'ard,  and  fill  the  gap  with  fresh,  decalcified,  or  calcined 
bone,  but  the  deformity  which  remains  after  such  reduction  as  can  be 
made  without  operation  has  no  functional  importance,  and  the  cases 
in  which  cosmetic  considerations  would  justify  such  interference  must 
be  rare.  In  fractures  at  the  base  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  an  open 
operation  would  be  wholly  unjustifiable;  the  only  other  means  of 
overcoming  the  shortening  and  rotation  of  the  limb  is  by  forcible 
manipulation  under  an  anaesthetic  and  the  prolonged  use  of  forcible 
traction  and  fixed  dressings,  both  of  which  are  badly  borne  by  the 
elderly  patients  who  furnish  the  majority  of  these  cases. 

Extreme  subfascial  swelling  of  an  injured  limb  shortens  it  and  in- 
creases its  transverse  diameter,  because  the  capacity  of  the  fascial 
sheath  is  greater  the  more  nearly  it  approaches  the  globular  form; 
consequently  forcible  elongation  of  the  limb  with  the  object  of  cor- 
recting the  shortening  diminishes  the  capacity  of  the  fascial  sheath 
and  increases  its  tension  and  the  pressure  upon  its  contents;  this 
resistance  may  be  sufficient  to  maintain  the  shortening  against  any 
reasonable  effort  to  overcome  it,  or  to  endanger  the  vitality  of  the 
limb  by  interference  with  the  circulation.  It  is  therefore  necessary 
to  await  the  subsidence  of  the  swelling. 

Muscular  spasm,  excited  by  the  trauma  or  by  pain  or  the  fear  of 
pain,  acts  powerfully  at  first  to  fix  the  fragments  in  their  faulty 
positions  and  especially  to  produce  and  maintain  shortening  of  the 
limb.  It  usually  disappears  within  a  day  or  two,  and  can  be  tempo- 
rarily annulled  by  anaesthesia  or  a  full  dose  of  opium  or  even,  as  was 
pointed  out  by  Broca,  by  compression  of  the  main  artery  of  the  limb. 

Associated  injuries  or  conditions  which  prevent  or  delay  reduction 
may  be  general  or  local,  such  as  profound  shock  due  to  the  fracture 
or  to  other  injuries,  damage  to  the  main  vessels  of  the  limb  threaten- 
ing gangrene,  and  extensive  wounds  of  the  skin  which  would  prevent 
the  use  of  dressings  to  maintain  reduction. 

In  the  absence  of  any  of  these  contraindications  the  sooner  the 
fracture  is  ''  set,'^  the  sooner  the  fragments  are  brought  to  and  fixed 
in  the  positions  they  are  expected  to  keep  during  repair,  the  better; 
for  although  the  preparatory  changes  in  the  bone  itself  require  several 
days,  and  in  places  even  weeks,  for  their  completion,  yet  the  accessory 
processes  in  the  soft  parts  begin  immediately,  and  it  is  desirable  that 
they  should  not  be  interrupted  or  undon.*^  by  changes  of  place  and 
relations  which  are,  moreover,  likely  to  produce  additional,  though 
slight,  lacerations.  The  thickening  and  infiltration  of  the  parts  ad- 
joining the  bone  which  appear  so  promptly  give  a  steadily  increasing 
fixity  to  the  position  of  the  fragments,  and  it  is  desirable  that  that 
position  should  as  early  as  possible  be  made  the  permanent  and  final 


TREATMENT.  81 

one,  for  although  it  can  be  changed  without  much  difficulty  and  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  many  fractures  even  two  or  three  weeks  after 
the  receipt  of  the  injury,  yet  the  shift  is  necessarily  accompanied  by 
some  loss  of  security  and  time. 

The  actual  reduction  or  setting  of  the  fracture  is  in  many  cases  a 
procedure  guided  only  by  general  ideas,  not  by  an  exact  and  detailed 
knowledge  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  displacement  to  be  overcome  or 
even  of  the  lines  of  fracture,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  effort  has 
been  successful  can  only  be  surmised,  not  positively  known.  Such  is 
notably  the  case  in  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  a  long  bone  thickly  covered 
with  muscle,  as  the  femur.  By  eye,  touch,  and  measurements  the 
surgeon  can  recognize  shortening,  angular,  rotatory,  and  perhaps  even 
lateral  displacement,  and  by  traction  and  pressure  he  can  straighten 
and  lengthen  the  limb,  but  he  cannot  know  whether  or  not  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  fragments  is  accurate  and  close.  The  same  is  measurably 
true  even  of  many  fractures  of  bones  that  are  more  or  less  subcuta- 
neous and  palpable;  or  if  palpation  shows  some  remaining  irregularity 
of  outline  the  best  effort  may  be  unavailing  to  correct  it.  This, 
however,  does  not  make  the  result  so  much  a  matter  of  chance  as  the 
statement  may  seem  to  indicate;  the  main  factors  of  displacement  at 
the  different  points  are  known,  and  the  surgeon  is  safely  guided  by 
this  knowledge  in  his  choice  and  use  of  methods  to  make  and  main- 
tain reduction  and  of  the  attitude  and  support  given  to  the  limb  while 
the  fracture  is  healing,  and  is  justified  in  awaiting  the  outcome  with 
a  confidence  that  is  limited  only  by  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  in  a 
certain  proportion  of  cases,  fortunately  small,  unknown  and  unknow- 
able factors  may  defeat  efforts  wisely  conceived  and  faithfully  ex- 
ecuted. The  ideal  is  the  complete  restoration  of  form  and  function, 
but  he  must  often  be  content  to  obtain,  or  even  to  seek,  much  less. 
These  more  or  less  necessary  limitations  will  be  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  the  results  of  the  individual  varieties  of  fracture. 

Since  the  principal  causes  of  displacement  after  fracture  of  the  shaft 
of  a  long  bone  are  the  tonic  contraction  of  the  attached  muscles  and 
the  unsupported  weight  of  the  lower  segment  of  the  limb,  reduction 
is  commonly  effected  by  bringing  this  lower  segment  into  line  with 
the  upper  one  and  making  steady  traction  upon  it  in  the  direction  of 
its  long  axis,  the  different  joints  being  usually  held  in  partial  flexion 
in  order  that  the  attached  muscles  on  either  side  may  be  correspond- 
ingly relaxed.  Note  must  be  taken,  in  fractures  at  certain  points,  of 
the  known  tendency  of  the  upper  segment  to  assume  a  certain  attitude 
because  of  the  unopposed  action  of  the  muscles  attached  to  it,  an  atti- 
tude which  is  often  but  faintly  indicated  by  the  form  of  the  limb  if 
the  fragment  is  short  and  thickly  covered  by  muscle.  Common  ex- 
amples are  furnished  by  fractures  of  the  upper  third  of  the  femur  and 
of  the  surgical  neck  of  the  humerus,  in  both  of  which  the  upper 
fragment  may  be  markedly  abducted,  flexed,  and  rotated  outward. 
The  surgeon  confidently  places  the  lower  segment  in  the  corresponding 
attitude,  even  if  he  cannot  detect  the  deviation  of  the  upper  one,  for 
he  knows  that  even  if  it  does  not  exist  the  upper  fragment  will  follow 
the  movement  he  gives  to  the  lower  one,  and  the  two  pieces  will  be 

6 


32  FRACTURES. 

in  line  when  he  makes  the  traction  designed  to  give  the  limb  its  proper 
length. 

While  traction  (and,  if  necessary,  rotation  of  the  lower  segment) 
is  made  the  surgeon  makes  lateral  pressure  to  correct  such  lateral  dis- 
placement as  may  remain,  and  seeks  to  discover  and  take  advantage 
of  such  peculiarities  of  the  line  of  fracture  as  may  aid  him  to  main- 
tain the  position  he  gives  the  fragments.  Thus,  in  a  transverse  frac- 
ture or  in  one  with  marked  irregularities  of  outline  the  opposing  ends 
may  be  so  engaged  with  each  other  that  the  lower  fragment  will  be 
held  in  place  and  kept  from  overriding  notwithstanding  the  pull  of 
the  muscles.  If  there  is  only  an  angular  displacement,  as  in  partial, 
subperiosteal,  and  sozne  transverse  fractures,  traction  is  not  needed, 
and  the  surgeon  has  only  to  correct  the  deviation  by  lateral  pressure. 
In  the  partial  fractures  of  adolescence  this  sometimes  requires  con- 
siderable force;  the  knee  must  be  placed  against  the  projecting  angle 
and  the  ends  drawn  into  line,  but  usually  this  can  be  accomplished 
by  the  hands  alone,  the  thumbs  being  placed  against  the  angle  while 
the  fingers  grasp  the  limb  above  and  below  it. 

A  serious  obstacle  to  reduction  occasionally  arises  from  the  penetra- 
tion of  the  overlying  muscle  and  fascia  by  the  sharp  end  of  one  of  the 
fragments,  usually  the  upper  one.  This  occurs  most  frequently  in 
oblique  fracture  of  the  lower  third  of  the  femur,  and  can  there  be 
treated  most  effectively  by  flexing  the  hip  and  the  knee  to  a  right 
angle,  thus  drawing  the  relaxed  quadriceps  (which  is  the  muscle  com- 
monly penetrated)  downward  past  the  engaged  end  of  the  upper  frag- 
ment, and,  if  necessary,  completing  the  act  by  traction  at  the  knee. 
This  exemplifies  the  principles  of  treatment  in  all  cases:  relaxation 
of  the  muscle,  if  it  crosses  the  proximal  joint,  and  also  the  fascia  by 
moving  the  limb  toward  the  corresponding  side;  drawing  the  muscle 
downward  by  bending  the  distal  joint  in  the  opposite  direction;  and 
then  lifting  the  lower  segment  of  the  limb  bodily  away  from  the  upper 
fragment.  If  this  or  other  appropriate  manipulations  fail,  the  frag- 
ment must  be  exposed  by  an  incision  and  freed  by  direct  means.  If 
the  fragment  has  perforated  the  skin  also  the  opening  should  be  at 
once  enlarged  and  reduction  made  through  it;  as  the  external  wound 
exists,  nothing  is  lost  and  much  may  be  gained  by  freely  using  it  for 
reduction,  cleaning,  and  drainage. 

Whenever  an  angesthetic  is  given  it  is  prudent  to  protect  the  broken 
limb  during  its  administration  by  temporary  splints  or  the  hands  of 
an  assistant  in  order  that  the  lacerations  may  not  be  increased  by  the 
unconscious  struggles  of  the  patient. 

In  some  cases  in  which  the  fragments  are  firmly  interlocked  or  im- 
pacted, notably  in  Colics' s  fracture  at  the  lower  end  of  the  radius,  it 
is  advisable  to  increase  the  angular  displacement  as  a  first  step,  and 
forcibly  to  move  the  lower  fragment  backward  and  forward  in  order 
to  break  up  the  impaction  and  thus  facilitate  reduction. 

When  the  line  of  fracture  runs  through  or  close  above  the  articular 
end  of  a  bone  it  is  at  most  points  impracticable  to  control  the  position 
of  the  small  articular  fragment  by  manipulation,  because  it  is  too 
small  or  too  deeply  covered  to  be  grasped;  under  such  circumstances 


TREATMENT.  83 

it  can  sometimes  be  brought  into  place  by  so  changing  the  attitude  at 
the  corresponding  point  as  to  make  tense  a  portion  of  the  capsule 
Avhich  is  attached  to  it  and  then  by  continuing  the  movement  to  cor- 
rect the  displacement,  or  by  making  direct  traction  upon  it  through  its 
ligaments.  In  some  injuries,  e.  g.,  separation  of  the  upper  epiphysis 
of  the  humerus  and  Pott's  fracture  at  the  ankle,  the  character  of  the 
displacement  is  so  constant  that  a  formula  of  treatment  is  based  upon 
these  facts;  similar  formulae  have  been  made  for  injuries  at  other 
points,  as  the  elbow  and  knee,  but  the  lesions  and  displacements  are 
there  too  varied  to  make  routine  treatment  safe.  At  the  shoulder  the 
separated  epiphysis  is  in  anterior  flexion  and  abduction  although  the 
arm  hangs  by  the  side;  on  raising  and  abducting  the  elbow  the  move- 
ment of  the  already  flexed  and  abducted  epipliysis  is  promptly  arrested 
at  the  normal  limit  by  the  posterior  portion  of  the  capsule,  and  then 
the  lower  portion  of  the  humerus  is  brought  into  line  with  it  by  con- 
tinuino;  its  movement  in  the  same  direction,  and  thus  the  ang-ular  dis- 
placement  is  corrected.  At  the  elbow,  after  fracture  of  the  internal 
condyle,  the  small  fragment  can  be  drawn  down  into  place  by  full 
extension  of  the  joint  and  abduction  of  the  forearm;  and  after  supra- 
condylar fracture  of  the  humerus  full  flexion  of  the  elbow,  by  making 
tense  the  posterior  portion  of  the  capsule,  enables  the  surgeon  to  cor- 
rect an  angular  displacement  of  the  lower  fragment  in  which  the  apex 
of  the  angle  is  directed  forward. 

Retention. 

The  objects  of  retention  are  to  prevent  displacement  of  the  frag- 
ments by  the  various  agents  that  are  competent  to  produce  it,  notably 
gravity  and  muscular  contraction,  to  protect  the  limb  from  external 
violence  during  the  progress  of  repair,  and  to  prevent  the  pain  that 
would  be  caused  by  movement  of  the  fragments.  The  relative  im- 
portance or  urgency  of  these  needs  varies  greatly  in  different  cases, 
and  this,  together  with  the  mechanical  conditions,  measurably  deter- 
mines the  choice  of  the  method  of  treatment.  Thus,  in  the  fracture 
of  a  single  long  bone,  such  as  the  femur,  where  the  weight  of  the 
limb  and  the  action  of  the  muscles  are  efficient  and  always  ready  to 
produce  displacement,  support  equivalent  to  that  destroyed  by  the 
injury  must  be  supplied  by  apparatus;  while  in  fractures  of  only  one 
of  two  or  more  parallel  bones,  as  of  the  fibula  or  of  a  rib,  or  in  those 
of  the  flat  or  small  spongy  bones  or  of  an  apophysis  or  condyle,  only 
such  a  dressing  is  required  as  will  moderate  or  prevent  voluntary  or 
involuntary  contraction  of  attached  muscles. 

The  swelling  of  a  limb  which  so  promptly  follows  its  fracture  is  an 
element  of  much  importance  because  its  variations  affect  the  adjust- 
ment and  fit  of  most  dressings  and  because  its  appearance  after  the 
application  of  a  dressing  that  envelops  a  limb  may  so  interfere  with  the 
circulation  as  to  cause  gangrene  of  the  limb  or  ischsemic  degeneration 
and  contracture  of  the  muscles.  For  these  reasons  it  is  frequently 
advisable  to  delay  the  application  of  an  enveloping  permanent  dressing 
until  after  the  swelling  has  notably  subsided,  and  it  should  be  the 


84  FRACTURES. 

rule  to  make  frequent  examination  of  the  fingers  and  toes  during  the 
first  two  or  three  days  after  the  application  of  such  a  dressing  and  to 
leave  them  uncovered  by  the  dressing  for  the  purpose  of  such  exami- 
nation. 

The  possibility  of  dangerous  constriction  is  specially  to  be  borne  in 
mind  in  dressings  which  completely  and  closely  encircle  a  limb  and 
which  are  inelastic,  such  as  plaster- of -Paris  encasement  or  even  a 
muslin  roller-bandage  applied  directly  to  the  surface  without  an  inter- 
vening layer  of  cotton.  Such  a  dressing  snugly  applied  while  the 
injury  is  recent  will  almost  always  become  too  tight  and  will  have  to 
be  removed  in  a  few  hours  either  because  of  the  pain  which  it  causes 
or  of  the  threatening  strangulation  of  the  tissues.  This  is  true  even 
when  the  injury  is  a  comparatively  slight  one.  I  have  seen  gangrene 
of  the  hand  and  forearm  follow  the  application  of  a  gypsum  dressing 
for  fracture  of  the  olecranon.  A  roller-bandage  may  be  applied  to 
the  limb  below  the  fracture  to  restrain  its  swelling,  but  should  not  be 
carried  as  high  as  the  fracture  beneath  the  splints;  and  when  splints 
are  used  they  should  be  broad  enough  to  prevent  circular  constriction 
by  the  bandage  which  binds  them  in  place.  If  plaster  of  Paris  is 
used  it  should  preferably  be  in  the  form  of  moulded  splints,  not  com- 
plete encasement,  or  at  least  in  a  form  which  will  permit  the  dressing 
to  be  loosened. 

It  is  a  good  rule  also  to  remove  a  permanent  dressing  after  ten  or 
twelve  days  in  order  to  detect  and  correct  any  displacement  that  may 
have  taken  place  under  it  and  to  tighten  or  renew  it  to  meet  the 
shrinking  of  the  limb. 

It  is  specially  important  that  the  possibility  of  constriction  by  the 
dressing  should  be  guarded  against  whenever  the  injury  is  such 
that  it  may  itself  cause  gangrene  of  the  limb,  A  limb  v/hose  vitality 
has  thus  been  put  in  doubt  by  the  injury  should  be  treated  for  the 
first  few  days  with  the  primary  object  of  favoring  the  impaired  cir- 
culation and  especially  of  avoiding  the  creation  of  any  additional  ob- 
stacle to  the  venous  flow,  and  this  not  only  for  the  advantage  of  the 
patient  but  also  for  the  protection  of  the  surgeon  against  the  suspicion 
or  the  charge  that  his  dressings  may  have  caused  the  gangrene.  This 
disastrous  result  of  injury  is  a  fruitful  source  of  suits  for  malpractice, 
and  the  defence  that  it  was  due  to  the  injury  and  not  to  the  treatment 
is  usually  viewed  with  so  much  suspicion  that  the  surgeon  should  be 
watchful  from  the  beginning  of  the  case  that  the  real  cause  should  be 
clear.  It  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases 
the  gangrene  is  of  the  moist  form  and  due  to  interference  with  the 
venous  flow,  and  that  this  interference  may  easily  and  rapidly  be  raised 
to  a  dangerous  degree  by  circular  constriction  at  even  a  single  point. 

Cases  differ  far  too  widely  in  severity  and  local  conditions  to  permit 
of  a  general  rule  of  practice  applicable  to  all.  Many,  in  which  the 
tendency  to  displacement  is  slight  or  easily  controlled,  may  be  treated 
in  a  permanent  dressing  from  the  beginning,  one  which  gives  the  nec- 
essary support  without  danger  of  constriction,  and  can  be  left  in  place 
(or  removed  temporarily  for  inspection)  for  one,  two,  or  three  weeks. 
Others,  more  severe,  such  as  most  fractures  of  the  femur,  also  receive 


TREATMENT.  85 

a  permanent  dressing  at  the  beginning  because  this  dressing  is  mainly 
applied  below  the  seat  of  fracture  and  does  not  expose  to  constriction 
by  swelling.  Others,  such  as  most  fractures  of  the  leg,  should  rest  in 
a  temporary  dressing,  such  as  a  Yolkmann  splint,  for  from  fiv^e  to 
ten  days,  unless  permanent  moulded  splints  that  can  be  loosened  are 
used. 

So,  too,  when  the  surface  of  the  limb  has  been  so  torn  or  bruised 
that  the  wounds  cannot  be  properly  treated  through  an  opening  made 
for  the  purpose  in  a  permanent  dressing,  and  when  damage  to  the 
deeper  parts  forbids  the  use  of  any  constriction  or  pressure.  Under 
such  circumstances  the  surgeon  must  be  content  to  make  such  dressings 
as  the  associated  injuries  require  and  to  leave  the  limb  simply  sup- 
ported upon  the  bed  by  pads  or  in  splints  loosely  applied  over  the 
other  dressings.  Although  the  use  of  these  temporary  dressings  may 
be  necessarily  prolonged  for  several  weeks,  it  will  be  convenient  and 
proper  to  describe  them  under  that  title. 

The  presence  of  large  blebs  is  sometimes  an  additional  reason  for 
delay,  although  they  usually  heal  promptly  under  a  protective  dress- 
ing after  puncture.  If  it  is  desired  to  leave  the  limb  as  undisturbed 
as  possible,  it  is  advisable  thoroughly  to  clean  and  disinfect  the  ad- 
joining skin,  cut  away  all  the  raised  epidermis,  cover  the  exposed  sur- 
face with  sterile  rubber  tissue,  and  apply  a  gauze  dressing. 

Temporary  and  Removable  Dressings. 

The  object  of  a  temporary  dressing  is  mainly  to  protect  the  patient 
against  pain  and  additional  injury  by  movement  of  the  fragments 
during  transport  to  his  home  or  hospital,  or  to  prevent  displacement 
by  the  unsupported  weight  of  the  lower  segment  of  the  limb;  it  is 
rarely  efficient  to  prevent  displacement  by  the  action  of  the  muscles 
when  the  character  of  the  fracture  is  such  that  such  displacement  is 
possible. 

Side  Splints.  These  are  usually  made  of  wood,  but  in  case  of  need 
many  other  materials  are  available,  such  as  card-board,  stiff  leather, 
iron,  zinc,  tin,  even  bundles  of  tightly-rolled  straw. 

The  wooden  splint  in  its  simplest  form  is  a  piece  of  soft  wood  of  a 
length  and  breadth  corresponding  to  those  of  the  injured  limb  and 
thick  enough  not  to  bend  under  firm  pressure.  A  thick  layer  of 
cotton  or  other  soft  material  should  be  bound  along  the  side  which  is 
to  rest  against  the  limb,  and  should  be  reinforced  at  needed  points  in 
order  to  fill  depressions  of  the  surface  of  the  limb.  Projecting  points 
of  bone  should  be  protected  by  cotton  placed  around  them,  not  upon 
them.  While  an  assistant  makes  traction  upon  the  lower  segment  of 
the  limb  the  surgeon  places  the  splints,  one  on  each  side,  and  binds 
them  on  with  a  roller-bandage,  taking  care  that  the  turns  support  the 
limb  throughout  its  entire  length  but  do  not  make  circular  compres- 
sion. The  splints  should  be  long  enough  to  support  the  hand  and 
foot  respectively.  A  form  in  common  hospital  use  is  the  thin  bass- 
wood  splint,  the  necessary  rigidity  being  obtained  by  binding  several 
together. 


86 


FRACTURES. 


Gooch's  flexible  wooden  splint  (Fig.  29),  which  is  made  of  narrow 
strips  pasted  together  upon  cloth  on  one  side,  is  designed  to  adapt 


Fig.    29. 


■^  ^ 


Gooch's  flexible  wooden  splint. 


itself  to  the  curve  of  the  limb  and  thus  give  a  more  uniform  support. 
It  is  rarely  used. 


Fig.  30. 


Wire  splint. 


The  carved  "splints  sold  in  packages  of  assorted  sizes  have  few  if 
any  points  of  superiority  over  those  improvised  for  the  occasion,  for 


Fig.  31. 


Petit's  fracture-box. 


they  also  need  to  be  fitted  and  padded.     If  it  is  desired  to  have  a 
splint  that  more  nearly  follows  the  contour  of  the  limb  an  excellent 


TREATMENT. 


87 


one  can  he  made  with  plaster  of  Paris  (see  below)  or  card-board  or 
leather  softened  in  water,  and  similar  ones  can  also  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage over  the  dressings  that  are  needed  for  associated  wounds  of 
the  skin  or  compound  fractures. 

Splints  of  wire  (Fig.  30)  that  can  be  measurably  modelled  to  the 
limb  are  convenient;  they  can  be  had  from  the  instrument  makers. 

The  fracture-box  (Fig.  31)  is  a  form  of  wooden  splint  once  much 
used  in  fractures  of  the  leg,  but  now  almost  wholly  discarded  for  the 
following. 

Fig.  32. 


Volkmann's  splint. 


Fig.  33. 


Volkmann's  splint  (Fig.  32)  is  a  shallow  gutter  and  foot-piece,  made 
in  several  lengths,  and  fitted  with  a  movable  support  by  which  the 
foot  can  be  raised  from  the  bed.  For  use  it  is  thickly  padded  with 
cotton,  and  the  leg  is  bound  in  it  with  a  roller  bandage.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  undue  pressure  is  not  made  on  the  skin  covering  the 
front  of  the  tibia  by  the  bandage  or  on  the  heel  or  the  teudo  Achillis; 
the  latter  pressure  is  best  avoided  by  slinging  the  foot  by  means  of  a 
broad  strip  of  adhesive  plaster  extending  from  the  middle  of  the  calf, 
under  the  heel  and  along  the  sole,  to  the  top  of  the  foot-piece,  where 
it  is  made  fast  by  a  reversed 
piece  attached  to  it  and  then  to 
the  lower  surface  of  the  metal. 

Gutters  of  galvanized  wire  or 
tin  (Fig.  33)  are  much  used  for 
fractures  of  the  humerus:  they 
give  more  protection  than  short 
splints  because  they  include  the 
forearm.  They  can  be  readily 
made  from  sheets  of  wire  gauze 
by  taking  a  strip  of  suitable  size 
and  cutting  it  partly  through  at 
the  angle,  and  tying  together  the 
meshes  which  overlap  where  it 
is  bent. 

When  it  is  desired  to  cover  the 
limb  with   dressings  because  of 

the  presence  of  a  wound  of  the  skin  or  to  make  moderate  uniform  com- 
pression, or  while  waiting  to  learn  the  effect  of  the  injury  upon  the 
vitality  of  the  skin  or  the  limb,  a  convenient  method  of  applying 
them  so  that  they  can  be  readily  and  painlessly  removed  for  adjust- 
ment or  inspection  is  in  the  form  of  the  SouUetus  bandage,  a  dressing 


Wire  gutter  for  the  arm  and  forearm. 


88  FRACTURES. 

which  was  formerly  in  wide  use  for  retention.  The  dressings  are  cut 
in  thick  strips  one-half  longer  than  the  circumference  of  the  limb  and 
three  or  four  inches  wide,  and  then  arranged  upon  a  piece  of  muslin 
a  little  longer  than  the  part  to  be  dressed  in  such  a  way  that  each 
overlaps  its  adjoining  upper  one  by  about  an  inch.  The  limb  is  then 
placed  along  the  centre  of  the  bandages  and  each  end  of  each  of  the 
latter,  beginning  with  the  lowest,  turned  over  the  front  of  the  limb 
until  it  is  entirely  enveloped;  lateral  support  is  given  by  splints  rolled 
into  the  sides  of  the  underlying  strip  of  muslin  and  bound  fast,  or  by 
other  splints,  or  by  placing  the  limb  in  a  Volkmann  splint  or  a  gutter. 
The  front  and  sides  of  the  limb  can  then  be  readily  exposed  by  turn- 
ing back  the  ends  of  the  pieces  of  dressing. 

Instead  of  lateral,  anterior  or  posterior  splints  may  be  used,  either 
that  they  may  be  combined  with  suspension  or  that  portions  of  the 
limb  may  be  more  conveniently  exposed  and  dressed.  Because  of 
the  importance  of  equally  distributing  the  pressure,  a  posterior  splint 
to  be  used  with  suspension  should  be  accurately  fitted  to  the  limb; 
consequently  the  moulded  splints  (plaster-of-Paris,  gutta-percha,  etc., 
see  below)  are  to  be  preferred.  When  they  are  sufficiently  rigid  the 
limb  can  be  suspended  by  two  or  three  bandages  passed  beneath  and 
attached  above  to  a  suitable  support. 

Late  in  the  treatment  of  fracture  of  the  femur  one  of  the  forms  of 
hip-splints  may  be  conveniently  used. 

Anterior  suspended  splints  may  also  be  of  the  moulded  kind,  with 
included  metal  rings  or  loops  for  the  attachment  of  the  supporting 
cords,  or  some  modification  of  Nathan  R.  Smith's  anterior  splint 
specially  designed  for  the  treatment  of  fractures  of  the  femur.  This 
splint  (Fig.  34)  is  made  of  two  parallel  iron  rods,  joined  at  the  ends 

Fig.  34. 


/^t        //   ^  //     I?  • ;; 


Nathan  R.  Smith's  anterior  splint. 


and  by^two  or  three  intermediate  rods,  slightly  bent  at  the  knee  and 
sharply  upward  at  each  end  to  fit  the  foot  and  pelvis.  It  is  placed 
along  the  anterior  surface  of  the  limb,  which  is  attached  to  it  by  a 
roller  or  by  straps,  and  is  suspended  by  cords.  Hodgen's  splint  has 
taken  its^^place  for  fractures  of  the  thigh  because  of  the  additional 


TREATMENT.  89 

traction  which  it  supplies,  but  Smith's  is  useful  in  those  and,  in  suit- 
ably modified  forms,  in  others  when  suspension  alone  is  desired. 

Moulded  splints  are  constructed  of  any  material  that  can  be  made 
temporarily  soft  enough  accurately  to  take  the  shape  of  the  part  to 
which  it  is  fitted  and  which  then  becomes  hard  enough  to  retain  the 
shape  thus  given  to  it.  The  materials  most  frequently  used  are 
plaster  of  Paris,  pasteboard,  leather,  felt,  and  gutta-percha. 

Pasteboard  is  used  by  softening  one  or  two  strips  of  suitable  size  by 
immersion  in  hot  water,  and  then  moulding  them  to  the  limb  by 
binding  them  snugly  on  with  a  roller-bandage.  Temporary  support 
must  usually  be  given  by  other  splints  until  the  pasteboard  has  be- 
come hard  by  drying.  When  it  is  necessary  to  bend  the  pasteboard 
at  a  sharp  angle  cuts  should  be  made  in  it  in  suitable  directions  and 
places  and  the  overlapping  portions  stitched  together. 

Leather  and  felt  are  prepared  in  the  same  manner.  A  material  is 
made  for  this  purpose  of  woven  tissue  soaked  in  shellac  which  can  be 
softened  by  dry  heat  and  hardens  more  rapidly  than  the  others. 
Gutta-percha  is  used  in  strips  one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth  inch  thick 
and  is  softened  by  immersion  in  hot  water.  The  stickiness  of  the 
surface  can  be  mitigated  by  covering  it  with  muslin. 

Plaster-of-Paris,  or  gypsum,  splints  can  be  made  of  the  prepared 
bandages  or  of  some  loose-meshed  material  soaked  in  plaster  cream. 
If  the  prepared  bandages  are  used  they  should  be  thoroughly  wet  in 
the  usual  way,  squeezed  out,  and  then  rapidly  unrolled  back  and  forth 
to  make  a  splint  of  the  desired  dimensions.  From  eight  to  fifteen 
layers  are  required  to  give  the  needed  solidity.  Plaster  cream  is  pre- 
pared by  sifting  the  dry  plaster  into  water  and  then  spreading  the 
plaster  thus  moistened  upon  the  selected  material  previously  cut  to 
suitable  shape  and  wrung  out  in  water.  The  number  of  layers 
needed  will  depend  upon  the  thickness  of  the  material,  and  care  must 
be  taken  thoroughly  to  work  the  plaster  into  them.  The  use  of  hot 
water  or  the  addition  of  salt  or  zinc  oxide  to  the  water  will  hasten 
the  setting.  If  the  plaster  has  been  long  exposed  to  the  air  before 
use  it  should  be  dried  in  an  oven;  otherwise  the  setting  may  be  long 
delayed  or  even  fail.  Splints  thus  prepared  can  be  made  impervious 
to  water  by  varnishing  them  or  by  pouring  melted  paraffin  upon 
them.  A  strip  of  rubber  tissue  or  oiled-silk  carefully  packed  in  at 
the  exposed  point  will  protect  satisfactorily  for  several  days  from  the 
discharge  of  a  wound.  Weight  can  be  reduced,  while  preserving  the 
strength,  by  inserting  thin  strips  of  metal  or  wood  at  places  where 
the  splint  will  not  require  much  modelling  to  fit  the  limb.  Splints  of 
this  kind  are  specially  useful  in  fractures  at  the  ankle,  wrist,  elbow, 
and  arm,  and  not  infrequently  such  a  temporary  splint  will  remain 
efficient  for  two  or  three  weeks.  For  fractures  of  the  leg  one  of  the 
splints  should  be  posterior  and  broad  enough  to  cover  about  one-third 
of  the  circumference  of  the  limb;  a  narrower  anterior  one  may  be 
used  with  it,  or  a  lateral  one  the  lower  end  of  which  encircles  the 
instep,  or  a  bilateral  one  crossing  below  the  instep  like  a  stirrup. 
The  posterior  splint  should  pass  along  the  sole  and  project  about  an  inch 
beyond  the  toes  so  as  to  take  the  weight  of  the  bedclothing.  (Fig.  35.) 


90 


FRACTURES. 


A  form  o£  bilateral  moulded  splint  which  I  have  found  convenient 
in  fractures  of  the  leg  as  a  substitute  for  the  Volkmann  splint  during 
the  first  week,  and,  because  of  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  removed, 


Pig.  35. 


Posterior  gypsum  splint  or  gutter. 


Fig.  36. 


even  for  the  complete  encasement  in  plas- 
ter of  Paris  which  usually  follows,  is  the 
following:  Two  pieces  of  muslin  are  cut 
to  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  36,  and  of  a 
size  to  fit  the  limb,  and  stitched  together 
along  the  median  line.  Then  twelve  or 
fifteen  pieces  of  crinoline,  or  three  or  four 
of  caQton-flannel,  each  a  little  smaller  than 
a  lateral  half  of  the  first,  are  soaked  in 
plaster  cream  and  laid  in  each  half  of  the 
first  between  its  two  layers,  and  the  whole 
then  bound  smoothly  to  the  limb  with  a 
roller-bandage.  Swelling  of  the  limb  is 
met  by  loosening  the  bandage,  and  inspec- 
tion is  easy  by  turning  down  either  lateral 
half,  the  line  of  stitching  acting  as  a  hinge. 
The  additional  trouble  entailed  in  its  prep- 
aration, as  compared  with  the  Volkmann 
splint  and  later  encasement  in  plaster,  is 
offset  by  the  greater  security  and  ease  with  which  the  patient  can  be 
moved  during  the  first  week,  and  the  ease  with  which  the  dressing 
can  be  removed  and  the  seat  of  fracture  inspected  so  long  as  inter- 
current displacement  is  possible  and  corrigible. 


stocking  or  bivalve  plaster  splint. 


Permanent  or  Final  Dressings. 

The  dressings  included  under  this  title  are  those  designed  to  main- 
tain the  fragments  in  the  relative  positions  given  them  until  union  is 
complete  or,  at  least,  far  advanced.  They  are  expected  to  give  the  pro- 
tection and  quiet  of  the  temporary  dressings,  and  in  addition  to  oppose, 
with  as  much  efficiency  as  possible,  shortening  of  the  limb  or  angular 


TREATMENT.  91 

displacement  by  muscular  contraction  or  gravity.  As  has  been  said, 
the  temporary  dressings  may  sometimes  be  used  equally  well  for  the 
same  purpose,  and  some  of  the  permanent  dressings,  especially  those 
making  continuous  traction,  may  be  used  from  the  beginning.  A 
rule  of  practice  which  will  save  the  surgeon  an  occasional  and  very 
disagreeable  surprise  and  disappointment  should  be  to  examine  about 
the  end  of  the  second  week,  and  again  later  if  the  fragments  are  still 
movable,  every  fracture  that  has  been  covered  by  the  dressing  in  order 
to  detect  and  correct  such  displacement  as  may  have  occurred  beneath 
it.  This  applies  especially  to  fractures  of  the  shaft  of  the  long  bones 
and  to  some  articular  fractures  in  which  displacement  is  easy. 

Fig.  37. 


Encasement  of  leg  in  plaster  of  Paris. 

Complete  encasement  in  plaster  of  Paris  (Fig.  37),  occasionally  advis- 
able, if  carefully  watched,  even  as  a  primary  dressing,  is  most  useful 
and  efficient  when  applied  after  the  swelling  has  subsided,  and  at  still 
later  stages  in  cases  in  which  continuous  traction  has  been  used  until 
union  has  become  well  advanced.  Its  mode  of  application  is  as  fol- 
lows :  The  limb  is  raised  by  one  or  two  assistants  who  make  steady 
traction  upon  it  in  order  to  keep  it  straight  and  of  full  length,  the  sur- 
geon wraps  it  in  a  thin  layer  of  cotton  batting,  preferably  prepared  in 
three-inch  rollers,  and  then  applies  the  plaster  roller-bandages,  thor- 
oughly wetted  and  wrung  out  in  hot  water,  from  below  upward.  The 
turns  of  the  first  layer  should  be  drawn  just  tight  enough  to  keep  their 
place,  and  the  subsequent  turns  simply  rolled  over  the  first  without 
increasing  the  pressure,  taking  care  to  model  the  dressings  accurately 
to  the  prominences  and  depressions  of  the  limb.  When  the  dressing 
is  complete  the  limb  is  lowered  to  rest,  and  proper  support  given  it 
until  the  ])laster  has  hardened.  The  dressing  should  extend  far  enough 
above  and  below  the  fracture  to  rest  against  such  prominences  of  the 
skeleton  or  muscles  as  may  be  present  and  will  act,  after  the  plaster 
shall  have  set,  to  prevent  movement  of  the  limb  within  its  case.  When 
such  fixed  points  do  not  exist,  as  at  the  shoulder  and  hip,  other  means 
to  prevent  shortening  must  be  used,  usually  some  form  of  traction. 
The  upper  and  lower  ends  should  be  so  placed  that  their  edges  will  not 
make  irritating  pressure  directly  against  a  diverging  surface:  thus,  for 
the  forearm  it  should  stop  well  short  of  the  flexure  of  the  elbow  or 
should  pass  a  short  distance  up  the  arm;  at  the  ankle  it  should  stop 
short  of  or  pass  well  forward  on  the  dorsum  of  the  foot;  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  thigh  it  should  not  reach  the  perineum. 

The  finger  or  toes  should  always  be  left  uncovered  and  should  be 


92 


FRACTURES. 


Fig.  38. 


repeatedly  inspected  during  the  first  two  or  three  days  in  order  to  detect 
any  interference  with  the  circulation. 

In  the  lack  of  plaster  rollers  the  dressing  can  be  made  of  any  coarse 
material  cat  in  suitable  strips  and  soaked  in  plaster  cream.    (Fig.  38.) 

If  it  is  desired  to  have  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  limb  exposed,  as  for  the 
dressing  of  a  wound,  a  fenestra  can  be 
cut,  and  its  edges  protected  with  adhe- 
sive plaster,  rubber  tissue,  or  oiled-silk. 
If  a  larger  opening  is  required  the 
splint  must  be  reinforced  by  one  or 
two  curved  iron  bands  incorporated  in 
the  dressing  or,  better,  fastened  to  it 
by  additional  turns  of  a  plaster  roller 
after  the  main  portion  of  the  dressing 
has  hardened.  These  are  termed  ''  fe- 
nestrated" or  "interrupted"  splints. 
(Fig.  39.)  ^ 

Similar  dressings  can  be  made  with 
silicate  of  soda  or  potash,  starch,  dex<- 
trin,  or  glue.  The  silicate  and  dex- 
trin are  used  by  thoroughly  saturating 
roller-bandages  with  the  material  and 
applying  them  in  the  same  manner  as 
plaster  bandages.  They  do  not  dry 
so  rapidly  as  plaster,  but  are  lighter 
and  cleaner  and  not  so  liable  to  crumble 
at  the  edges.  Silicate  is  frequently 
used  for  dressings  of  the  hand  and 
forearm.  The  edges  of  both  silicate 
and  plaster  dressings  can  be  advan- 
tageously protected  by  covering  them  with  adhesive  plaster. 

The  removal  of  one  of  these  dressings  is  a  tedious  and  troublesome 


Plaster-of-Paris  dressing  made  of  coarse 
sackcloth.    (Esmarch.) 


Fig.  39. 


Fenestrated  plaster  dressing. 


task;  it  can  best  be  done  by  cutting  it  lengthwise  with  a  short,  stout- 
bladed  knife,  aided  in  the  case  of  plaster  by  moistening  the  dressing 


TREATMENT. 


93 


along  the  line  of  the  division.  The  diminished  resistance  to  the  knife 
gives  warning  of  the  proximity  of  the  skin,  and  the  deepest  layer  and 
the  underlying  cotton  should  be  cut  with  strong  bandage  scissors.  The 
principal  diiiiculty  is  in  turning  the  angles,  as  at  the  front  of  the  ankle 
or  elbow.  After  the  division  has  been  completed  the  sides  can  Ije 
forcibly  drawn  back  and  the  limb  lifted  out. 

In  cases  in  which  the  absence  of  firm  points  of  support  makes  a 
fixed  dressing  inefficient  effectually  to  oppose  the  contraction  of  the 
muscles,  as  in  most  fractures  of  the  thigh  and  many  of  the  humerus, 
permanent  moderate  traction  is  employed  to  tire  the  muscles  and  obtain 
and  maintain  the  desired  length  of  the  limb.  For  this  purpose  the 
partially  unsupported  weight  of  one  segment  of  tlie  limb  may  be 
utilized  or  a  weight  attaclied  to  the  lower  segment. 

Traction  by  "Weight  and  Pulley,  or  Elastic  Traction.  This  method  is 
employed  almost  exclusively  in  the  treatment  of  fractures  of  the  thigh. 
Methods  of  treatment  by  continuous  traction  have  long  been  in  use, 
but  the  efficiency  and  comfort  which  now  make  the  method  so  popular 
date  from  the  introduction  about  the  year  1850  by  the  American  sur- 
geons Sargent,  Josiah  Crosby,  and  Gurdon  Buck  of  the  use  of  adhesive 
plaster  to  attach  the  weight  or  screw  to  the  limb.  Previously  the  attach- 
ment was  by  bandages  about  the  foot  and  ankle,  and  the  pain  and  dam- 
age to  the  skin  occasioned  thereby  were  such  that  efficient  traction  could 
not  be  maintained. 

"  Buck's  Extension."  (As  for  a  fracture  of  the  thigh.)  Two  strips  of 
stout  adhesive  plaster,  each  four  inches  wide  and  long  enough  to  reach 
from  well  above  the  knee  to  a  little  beyond  the  sole,  are  notched  on 
each  side  at  the  junction  of  the  lower  and  middle  thirds  for  one- third 
their  width,  and  the  sides  turned  in,  as  shown  in  Fig.  40,  so  as  com- 


FlG.  40. 


"^^  V 


X  X  X  X  y 


7 


Adhesive  plaster  and  "  spreader"  for  Buck's  extension. 


pletely  to  cover  the  adhesive  surface  of  that  portion.  The  sides  of  the 
remaining  portion  are  obliquely  notched  at  several  points.  A  piece  of 
wood,  5x3  inches,  with  a  central  hole,  is  then  covered  with  adhesive 
plaster  folded  beyond  the  ends,  as  shown  in  Fig.  40. 

A  third  piece  of  adhesive  plaster  a  yard  long  and  2  inches  wide  is 
cut  in  two  and  the  halves  fastened  together  end  to  end  by  facing  their 
terminal  four  or  five  inches;  it  is  attached  to  the  back  of  the  calf,  and 
brought  along  and  well  beyond  the  sole  of  the  foot;  a  roller-bandage 
is  applied  to  the  foot  and  lower  third  of  the  leg,  the  first  two  strips  of 
plaster  placed  one  on  each  side  above  it  so  that  their  folded  portions 
extend  below  the  ankle,  and  the  roller  carried  over  them.    Unless  the 


94 


FRACTURES. 


fractare  is  too  low  the  roller  and  strips  of  plaster  should  be  carried 
well  above  the  knee.  The  ends  of  the  plaster  on  the  wooden 
'^spreader"  are  then  attached  by  pins  or  clamps  to  the  free  ends  of 
the  lateral  plasters  so  that  it  lies  squarely  across  the  sole  a  few  inches 
below  it.  A  cord  is  then  passed  through  the  hole  in  the  "  spreader" 
and  secured  by  a  knot. 

A  Volkmann's  sliding-rest  (Fig.  41)  is  then  placed  under  the  leg, 
the  foot  lightly  swung  from  it  by  carrying  the  free  end  of  the  third 
strip  of  plaster  over  its  top  and  sticking  it  to  its  lower  surface,  and  the 
leg  secured  to  it  by  a  roller.  The  cord  is  then  carried  over  a  pulley 
at  the  foot  of  the  bed,  and  a  weight  of  from  ten  to  twenty  pounds 
attached.  Counter-extension  is  made  by  raising  the  foot  of  the  bed 
about  four  inches.  Coaptation  splints  about  a  foot  long  are  bound 
about  the  thigh  to  give  lateral  support. 

Fig.  41. 


Volkmann's  sliding  rest  for  fractures  of  the  tiiigh. 


A  modification  which  gives  more  freedom  of  motion  and  conse- 
quently more  comfort  to  the  patient  is  found  in  the  use  of  Hodgen^s  sus- 
pended splint  (Fig.  42).  It  consists  of  two  parallel  iron  bars,  slightly 
bent  at  the  point  corresj)onding  to  the  knee  and  connected  at  the  lower 
end  by  a  straight  bar  and  at  the  upper  end  by  a  curved  one.  The  leg 
and  thigh  are  placed  between  these  bars  and  suspended  from  them  by 
half  a  dozen  bands,  and  the  ends  of  the  lateral  pieces  of  plaster  are 
attached  to  the  lower  cross-bar,  care  being  taken  that  they  do  not  press 
against  the  malleoli,  or  by  the  cord  of  the  spreader  of  Buck's  exten- 
sion. Then  the  limb  is  raised  from  the  bed  by  a  cord,  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  which  should  be  attached  to  a  support  at  least  four  feet  (better 
more)  above  the  bed  and  so  placed  that  the  cord  is  inclined  fifteen  to 


TREATMENT. 


95 


twenty  degrees  from  the  vertical  and  shall  thus  tend  constantly  to  draw 
the  leg  downward;  this  furnishes  the  traction,  and  l)y  moving  the  point 
of  support  to  the  outer  side  tlie  position  of  abduction  of  the  thigli, 
which  is  usually  desirable,  can  be  readily  obtained. 


Fig.  42. 


Hodgen's  suspended  splint. 

Vertical  suspension,  for  fractures  of  the  thigh  in  infants  and  for  some 
fractures  of  the  arm,  can  be  obtained  in  like  manner  by  the  use  of  the 
plaster  strips  and  a  cord  carried  to  a  point  of  support  directly  above 
the  bed. 

The  same  method  of  traction  is  sometimes  used  in  fractures  of  the 
thigh  in  connection  with  a  long  side  splint,  either  with  a  weight  and 
pulley  or  with  an  elastic  cord  on  the  side  of  the  splint  (Fig.  43),  and 


Fig.  43. 
Double  pulley 


Ind. -rubber  accumulator 
Long  side  splint  with  traction. 


also  with  [one  °^of  the  forms  of  hip-splints.  A  splint  devised  by  Dr. 
Weed  (Fig.  44)  uses  a  steel  spring  to  make  traction,  and  contains  many 
ingenious  devices  to  modify  the  amount  of  traction  and  to  adapt  the 
splint  to  limbs  of  different  sizes. 


96 


FRACTURES. 


In  the  double  inclined  plane  (Fig.  45)  traction  is  made  by  the  weight 
of  the  upper  segment  of  the  thigh  and  pelvis.  It  consists  of  two  pos- 
terior splints,  for  the  leg  and  thigh  respectively,  hinged  at  the  knee  and 


Fig.  44. 


Weed's  splint. 


kept  at  the  desired  angle  by  a  plank  upon  which  they  rest  and  to  which 
the  upper  end  of  the  short  femoral  spliat  is  hinged.  As  shown  in  the 
figure  the  femoral  splint  is  too  loug;  it  must  be  so  short  that  the  upper 
part  of  the  thigh  is  wholly  unsupported  by  it,  and  the  mattress  must 


Fig.  45. 


Esmarch's  double  inclined  plane. 

be  so  soft  that  the  pelvis  can  sink  into  it,  for  it  is  by  this  sinking  of 
the  pelvis  that  the  upper  fragment  of  the  broken  thigh  is  drawn  away 
from  the  lower  one.  It  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  give  a  good  result 
in  respect  of  shortening,  but  it  is  very  convenient  in  some  compound 
fractures. 

Direct  Fixation  of  the  Fragments. 

This  can  be  effected  in  a  variety  of  ways,  the  types  being  the  suture, 
ligature,  pin,  and  central  or  external  brace.  Even  the  plan  of  baring 
the  ends  and  engaging  them  in  a  ferrule  of  bone  has  been  employed 
in  a  few  cases.  It  is  rarely  resorted  to  except  in  compound  fractures, 
some  special  ones  such  as  fracture  of  the  patella,  and  in  operations 
after  failure  of  union. 

In  determining  the  advisability  of  resort  to  it  in  any  case  or  in 
making  choice  of  a  method,  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  fol- 
lowing facts  :  The  cases  of  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  a  long  bone  in 
which  reduction  cannot  be  maintained  by  a  suitable  external  dressing 
are  very  rare.  The  cases  are  more  frequent  in  which  it  cannot  be  com- 
pletely made,  or  in  which  it  cannot  be  certainly  maintained  during  the 
application  of  the  dressing.     To  make  complete  reduction  exposure  of 


TREATMENT.  97 

the  seat  of  fracture  may  be  necessary,  and  in  some  fractures  thus 
exposed  and  in  some  compound  ones  temporary  direct  fixation  of  the 
fragments  may  be  advisable.  In  fractures  of  articular  extremities  the 
difficulty  is  in  making  reduction  (or  in  being  certain  that  it  has  been 
made)  rather  than  in  maintaining  it,  the  exceptions  being  cases  of 
extensive  splintering.  In  fracture  of  apophyses  to  which  powerful 
muscles  are  attached,  such  as  the  olecranon,  the  coracoid  process,  the 
greater  tuberosity  of  the  humerus,  the  tuberosity  of  the  os  calcis,  it 
may  be  impracticable  to  maintain  a  position  of  the  limb  in  which  the 
muscle  is  so  fully  relaxed  that  it  will  not  renew  the  displacement  even 
if  it  can  be  corrected,  and  in  such  the  proper  relations  of  the  fragments 
can  be  secured  only  by  direct  fixation;  but  in  most  of  such  cases  the 
continuity  is  maintained  by  periosteal  or  fascial  attachments  which 
ensure  a  union,  bony  or  fibrinous,  sufficient  for  satisfactory  function. 

Another  fact,  to  which  1  think  far  too  little  attention  has  been  given, 
but  of  which  I  have  been  convinced  by  many  observations,  is  that  the 
presence  of  a  foreign  body,  even  if  sterile  and  unconnected  with  sup- 
puration, in  bone  at  or  near  the  line  of  fracture  notably  exaggerates 
and  prolongs  the  preliminary  rarefaction  of  the  bone.  I  believe  this 
influence  may  even  cause  failure  of  union  by  transformation  of  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  bone  into  fibrous  tissue,  for  in  several  cases  in 
which  I  have  operated  for  failure  of  union  several  weeks  or  months 
after  a  wire  suture  has  been  applied  to  the  fracture  I  have  found  the 
suture  lying  free,  and  the  ends  of  the  fragments  thinned  and  pointed 
and  separated  by  a  considerable  intermediate  mass  of  fibrous  tissue. 
That  the  holes  pierced  for  such  sutures  enlarge,  and  that  the  bone 
inluded  in  the  loop  wholly  disappears  is  a  common  observation,  and  I 
believe  the  same  change  is  promoted  for  a  considerable  distance  round 
about,  and  although  this  ill  effect  is  not  to  be  expected  always  to  fol- 
low, yet  its  possibility  should  be  seriously  considered.^ 

In  my  judgment,  direct  fixation  by  suture  or  pins  should  therefore 
be  only  temporary,  with  the  view  merely  of  holding  the  fragments 
together  during  the  application  of  a  dressing  and  for  a  few  days  there- 
after, and  that  the  loop  of  a  suture  should  include  only  a  small  portion 
of  the  cortical  layer.  Possibly  silk  and  silkworm-gut  are  less  injurious 
than  wire,  although  I  have  known  both  wholly  to  free  themselves  in 
the  same  manner  as  wire,  and  I  am  not  willing  to  advise  against  their 
use  as  absolutely  as  I  do  against  that  of  wire,  but  I  believe  that  with 
care  in  handling  strong  catgut  will  give  all  we  ought  to  seek  to  obtain 
from  a  suture.  I  devised  and  have  used  in  two  cases  a  simple  means 
of  freeing  a  silk  suture  which  also  serves  as  a  drain:  a  metal  cylinder 
one-eighth  inch  in  diameter  and  one  or  two  inches  long  according  to 
circumstances,  with  a  broad,  flat,  transversely  notched  head.  After 
the  suture  has  been  drawn  through  the  holes  drilled  in  the  bone  its 
ends  are  passed  through  the  cylinder,  which  is  then  pressed  down  to 
the  bone,  and  are  tied  tight  about  its  head.  After  untying  or  cutting 
the  thread  all  can  be  easily  withdrawn.     That  the  loop  cannot  be  so 

1  Mumford  (Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  May  10,  1894),  in  a  report  on  300  cases  of  com- 
pound fracture,  noted  that  in  twenty-seven  primary  wiring  of  the  fragments  was  done,  and  that 
in  seven  of  these  necrosis  followed. 


98  FRACTURES. 

tightly  drawn  as  by  a  knot  is  no  objection,  for  it  should  always  be 
rather  loose  so  as  to  diminish  the  chance  of  breaking  by  a  bend  or  twist 
of  the  limb. 

Temporary  fastening  by  nails  or  pins  is  applicable  only  to  spongy 
portions  of  bone;  it  has  been  suggested  for  fractures  of  the  shaft  in  the 
form  of  a  long  pin  passed  through  the  pieces,  which  are  further  secured 
by  a  thread  thrown  several  times  over  the  point  and  the  shaft;  on  with- 
drawing the  pin  the  thread  is  freed. 

A  ligature  thrown  circularly,  or  better  obliquely  in  notches,  about 
the  bone  has  been  employed. 

Fixation  by  a  bone  pin  inserted  leugthwise  into  the  medullary  canal, 
by  an  external  metal  plate  screwed  to  the  two  fragments,  or  by  pinning 
or  screwing  the  notched  and  fitted  fragments  together  has  been  prac- 
tised, but  only,  1  think,  in  operations  after  failure  of  union. 

In  fracture  of  the  patella,  in  which  a  special  indication  for  fixation 
exists,  it  has  been  my  practice  for  several  years  to  use  a  silk  suture 
passed  through  the  tendon  of  the  quadriceps  and  the  ligamentum 
patellae  and  crossing  the  front  of  the  bone,  or  simply  two  or  three 
points  of  catgut  suture  in  the  fibro-periosteum  at  the  edge  of  the  frac- 
ture. In  fracture  of  the  olecranon  1  have  never  thought  it  necessary 
to  use  the  suture,  but  doubtless  one  could  be  similarly  passed  through 
the  tendon  of  the  triceps  and  the  firm  fibrous  layers  overlying  the  ulna 
or,  in  case  of  need,  through  a  hole  drilled  transversely  in  the  ulna  a 
short  distance  below  the  fracture. 

To  sum  it  up,  direct  fixation  is  very  rarely  necessary;  when  it  is 
made  convenient  by  an  existing  wound  it  should  be  temporary,  by  the 
use  either  of  an  absorbable  suture  or  of  one  that  can  be  easily  removed 
after  a  few  days. 

Massage. 

Massage  has  shown  itself  after  fracture,  as  after  other  injuries,  so 
efficient  to  overcome  the  early  and  later  swellings,  stiifness  of  contigu- 
ous joints,  and  dryness  and  coldness  of  the  surface,  the  conditions  which 
delay  convalescence  and  apparently  prolong  the  period  of  repair,  that 
a  somewhat  exaggerated  impression  of  its  value  has  found  expression 
in  some  quarters,  and  it  has  even  been  proposed  as  a  sole  method  of 
treatment  to  the  exclusion  of  all  retentive  dressings.  To  these  exces- 
sive claims  has  succeeded  a  calmer  and  more  judicial  appreciation  of 
its  merits  and  limitations,  largely  through  the  experience  and  writings 
■of  Lucas-Championniere.^  It  appears  to  be  beyond  question  that  by  its 
systematic  and  skilful  use  in  suitable  cases  the  primary  swelling  is 
lessened  and  disappears  more  promptly,  the  circulation  and  skin  more 
'rapidly  regain  their  normal  condition,  the  atrophy  of  the  muscles  is 
Hess  and  more  promptly  disappears,  and  the  joints  more  quickly  lose 
Iheir  sensitiveness  and  regain  the  range  of  motion  which  is  possible 
under  the  changed  skeletal  conditions;  possibly  that  range  after  frac- 
ture at  or  near  a  joint  may  be  increased  by  massage  over  what  it  would 
be  without  it,  but  if  so  the  fact  can  hardly  be  demonstrable. 

The  claim  that  repair  of  the  fracture  takes  place  more  promptly  has 

1  Lucas-Cham pionnie re  :  Du  massage  dans  le  traitement  des  fractures.    Paris,  1895. 


TREATMENT.  99 

not,  1  think,  been  substantiated  and  seems  to  me,  moreover,  possibly- 
inconsistent  with  certain  observations  which  indicate  that  repair  may- 
be delayed  by  insufficiency  of  reaction. 

Whether  these  gains,  which  amount  to  little  more  than  a  shortening 
of  the  period  of  after-effects,  are  worth  the  trouble  and  expense  of 
obtaining  them  is  an  economic  rather  than  a  surgical  question,  and  it 
is  clear  that  they  should  be  sought  for  only  when  there  is  no  danger  of 
making  greater  losses  thereby — that  is,  in  cases  in  which  the  tendency 
to  displacement  is  slight  and  can  be  satisfactorily  guarded  against. 
This  is  the  case  with  many  fractures  at  the  ankle,  wrist,  and  elbo\v,  and 
of  the  fibula  alone;  and  in  some  of  the  leg,  forearm,  and  arm  protected 
by  moulded  splints  one  splint  will  give  sufficient  protection  while  mas- 
sage is  made  after  removal  of  the  other. 

Massage  is  made  by  light  rubbing  toward  the  trunk  with  the  fingers 
and  then  the  whole  hand,  first  beside  the  fracture  and  then,  as  tolerance 
is  established,  over  it.  The  sittings  should  last  for  twenty  or  thirty 
minutes  and  be  repeated  daily.  It  has  seemed  to  me  that  the  repeated 
application  of  the  elastic  bandage  was  equally  advantageous. 

Ambulatory  Treatment. 

The  suggestion  made  a  few  years  ago  by  an  instrument  maker  in 
Germany  that  in  fractures  of  the  lower  extremity  splints  should  be 
used  which  would  enable  the  patient  to  walk  during  treatment  has  led 
to  considerable  experimentation,  the  ultimate  result  of  which  seems 
likely  to  be  of  some  benefit  to  the  patient,  although  far  less  than  is 
claimed  by  some  who  have  sought  to  generalize  the  method.  In  esti- 
mating the  value  of  the  suggestion  and  determining  the  extent  to  which 
the  previous  use  of  the  method  can  be  broadened,  we  must  discriminate 
sharply  between  the  different  forms  of  fracture.  A  man  with  a  frac- 
ture of  the  fibula,  of  the  external  malleolus,  even  with  a  Pott's  fracture, 
oan  often  walk  with  comparative  ease  and  security  under  the  protection 
of  a  plaster-of-Paris  dressing  which  limits  the  motion  of  the  ankle- 
joint  and  prevents  lateral  strain  upon  it.  And  so  too  with  fracture  of 
the  patella.  To  that  extent  there  is  nothing  new  in  the  idea,  so  far  at 
least  as  the  freedom  from  confinement  is  concerned.  The  claim  now 
is  that  the  method  can  be  extended  to  fractures  of  both  bones  of  the 
leg  and  even  of  the  femur,  that  the  loss  of  time  and  earning  capacity 
is  thereby  lessened,  that  union  takes  place  more  rapidly,  and  that  the 
joints  more  promptly  regain  their  freedom  of  motion  and  the  whole 
limb  its  normal  condition.  The  comparison  in  respect  of  the  last  three 
points  is  one  that  is  notoriously  difficult  to  make  with  accuracy,  and  it 
has  not  been  helped  by  the  statistics  that  have  been  published,  for  they 
have  included  a  large  proportion  of  the  slighter  cases,  and  I  think  it 
must  still  be  held  that  the  claim  has  not  been  substantiated.  As  for 
the  pecuniary  value  of  ambulation  on  the  splint,  the  advantage  seems 
to  me  to  be  illusory;  the  splint  is  in  that  respect  no  better  than  a 
crutch,  and  although  it  may  perhaps  be  at  times  more  convenient  it  is 
at  others  less  so. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  method  exposes  to  risks  of  displacement  and 


100  FRACTURES. 

of  healing  with  deformity  which,  in  my  judgment,  outweigh  even  the 
claimed  advantages,  and  the  statistics  show  that  the  risk  is  a  real  one 
and  that  the  damage  results  in  a  considerable  proportion  of  cases. 

The  principle  of  construction  of  an  ambulatory  splint  for  a  fracture 
of  the  leg  is  to  make  it  of  plaster-of- Paris  in  a  way  to  combine  reten- 
tion in  the  ordinary  manner  with  a  support  on  each  side  which  extends 
well  below  the  sole  and  takes  the  weight  of  the  body  through  its  attach- 
ment to  the  splint  well  above  the  fracture,  the  lower  segment  of  the 
limb  hanging  between  these  supports  and  receiving  none  of  the  weight. 
For  a  fracture  of  the  thigh  the  dressing  is  a  combination  of  a  fixed 
dressing  and  a  hip-splint  which  receives  the  weight  of  the  body  at  the 
pelvis. 

It  is  admitted,  I  think,  by  all  supporters  of  the  method  that  it 
should  not  be  employed  until  after  the  primary  swelling  has  subsided 
and  the  early  hardening  of  the  soft  parts  about  the  fractui'e  has 
appeared,  say  after  a  fortnight  in  a  fracture  of  both  bones  of  the  leg. 
The  limb  is  then  covered  with  a  plaster  dressing  applied  directly  over 
the  skin  except  along  the  sole,  where  it  is  separated  from  it  by  a  layer 
of  cotton  about  two  inches  thick.  Along  the  sole  and  on  the  sides  of 
the  limb  the  dressing  is  made  very  thick  and  strong  and  is  sometimes 
reinforced  by  lateral  strips  of  wood  or  metal.  The  other  foot  must  be 
correspondingly  raised  by  a  thick  sole.  It  is  beyond  question  that  if 
the  method  is  employed  the  patient  should  be  kept  under  observation 
and  the  same  precautions  as  regards  removal  for  inspection  should  be 
taken  as  have  been  shown  to  be  necessary  with  other  splints. 

A  safer  plan,  if  it  is  essential  that  the  patient  should  walk,  is  to  use 
an  ordinary  hip-splint  for  ambulation,  the  broken  leg  being  separately 
encased  in  plaster.  The  same  plan  can  be  employed  in  the  later  stages 
of  fracture  of  the  femur. 

I  have  found  that  patients  can  sometimes  walk  about  with  the  aid 
of  two  lateral  strips  of  wood  placed  outside  of  an  ordinary  plaster 
dressing  after  it  has  hardened  and  supported  by  a  shoulder  or  collar  of 
plaster  at  its  upper  part,  or  by  a  light  apparatus  of  two  iron  side-pieces 
fastened  over  a  plaster  dressing  with  straps  and  buckles. 

Management  of  the  Joints. 

The  joints  in  the  formation  of  which  the  broken  bone  takes  part, 
and  often  more  distant  ones,  become  stiff  and  sensitive  during  the 
period  of  repair  and  remain  so  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  thereafter. 
This  disability  is  specially  marked  and  may  become  permanent  in  the 
old  and  rheumatic  when  the  fracture  has  involved  the  joint,  when  the 
joint  has  been  coincidently  sprained,  and  in  the  joints  of  the  hand  even 
when  the  fracture  is  of  the  arm  or  forearm.  The  causes  are  varied 
and  numerous,  usually  unavoidable,  and  sometimes  irremovable.  The 
more  important  and  permanent  are  those  arising  from  change  in  the 
shape  of  the  articular  end  of  the  bone  by  uncorrected  displacement  of 
a  fragment  or  by  excessive  formation  of  callus,  and,  in  less  degree, 
from  thickening  and  retraction  of  the  periarticular  tissues  and  the 
formation  of  adhesions  within  the  joint  following  its  sprain  or  its  share 


TREATMENT.  101 

in  the  fracture.  These  are  all  the  result  of  the  primary  injury  and  of 
the  inflammatory  reaction,  the  overgrowth  of  callus  being  most  com- 
mon in  the  young  because  of  the  activity  of  the  periosteum  in  bone 
formation  at  that  period.  Anything  which  diminishes  that  reaction 
and  shortens  its  duration  will,  therefore,  tend  to  diminish  these  ham- 
pering consequences;  anything  which  augments  it  will  add  to  them. 
This  gives  us  a  standard  by  which  to  measure  the  value  and  appropri- 
ateness of  any  method  of  treatment.  Rest,  massage,  elastic  compres- 
sion have  long  since  proved  their  value  to  reduce  inflammation  in 
joints  and  to  remove  exudates  from  within  them  and  from  the  peri- 
articular tissues;  and  moderate  use,  active  or  passive,  to  increase  the 
range  of  motion  after  the  inflammatory  reaction  has  ceased.  The 
importance,  and  especially  the  respective  timeliness,  of  these  two 
opposing  methods  need  to  be  fully  grasped.  The  surgeon's  dread  of 
anchylosis,  his  anchylophobia,  as  it  has  been  termed,  too  often  leads 
him  to  move  and  even  to  force  a  joint  while  such  motion  will  still  be 
painful  and  will  be  followed  by  an  increase  in  the  reaction  and  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  range  of  motion,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if  he  has  well 
grasped  the  corresponding  principle  he  is  in  danger  of  unduly  prolong- 
ing confinement  and  thereby  postponing  and  perhaps  restricting  the 
restoration  of  function.  The  criterion  is  a  plain  one  :  so  long  as  the 
joint  is  swollen  and  hot,  so  long  as  its  use  is  followed  by  an  increase  of 
swelling  and  heat  and  by  persistent  pain,  so  long  must  it  be  kept  at 
rest  and  so  long  must  active  treatment  be  limited  to  massage  or  elastic 
compression;  and  as  a  rule,  this  attitude  of  non-interference  may  be 
maintained  without  harm  until  after  union  of  the  fracture  has  become 
complete.  Then  he  may  resort  to  passive  motion  or  may  encourage  the 
patient  to  gradually  increasing  use  of  the  limb,  and  he  will  see  the  stiff 
joint  rapidly  regain  its  functions. 

Forcible  passive  motion,  with  or  without  anaesthesia,  is  always  harm- 
ful before  the  second  month,  and  even  after  that  time  it  is  far  more 
likely  to  do  harm  than  good.  About  the  only  condition  in  which  it 
can  really  help  is  that  of  isolated  cord-like  adhesions  within  the  joint 
which  can  thus  be  broken  without  the  probability  of  their  reunion. 
Such  a  condition  Ave  have  every  reason  to  believe  to  be  very  rare. 
When  the  method  is  employed  to  increase  a  range  of  motion  that  has 
been  restricted  by  the  common  causes,  such  as  broad  adhesions,  retrac- 
tion of  the  capsule  with  periarticular  thickening,  and  bony  irregulari- 
ties, it  accomplishes  its  object  only  by  creating  lacerations  which 
necessitate  immediate  immobilization  in  order  to  check  inflammatory 
reaction  and  M'hich  in  healing  recreate  the  original  or  similar  conditions 
and  even  increase  them.  The  procedure  should,  I  think,  be  almost 
wholly  abandoned,  and  in  its  place  we  should  resort  to  massage,  con- 
stant use  within  existing  limits,  and  possibly  to  the  recently  intro- 
duced method  of  prolonged  exposure  to  high  dry  temperatures,  and 
these  failing,  I  should  prefer  to  expose  the  joint  by  incision  in  order  to 
remove  such  intra-articular  obstacles  as  might  exist  and  be  removable 
rather  than  blindly  to  seek  to  break  and  tear  them  without  knowing 
what  and  where  they  are. 

This  general  rule  of  immobilization  needs  one  important  addition 


102  FRACTURES. 

with  respect  to  the  fingers.  Prolonged  immobilization  of  the  larger 
joints  does  not  stiffen  them,  but  immobilization  for  even  two  or  three 
weeks,  especially  in  the  extended  position,  will  cause  stiffness  of  the 
fingers  which  in  the  old  and  rheumatic  may  be  permanent,  even  if  the 
hand  and  fingers  have  been  previously  uninjured.  For  this  reason,  in 
the  treatment  of  all  fractures  of  the  arm  and  forearm  the  fingers  and 
thumb  should  be  left  free  and  the  patient  should  be  enjoined  constantly 
to  move  them ;  in  addition,  if  the  dressing  must  include  a  portion  of 
the  hand  it  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  wrist  will  be  in  slight  dorsal 
flexion,  the  fingers  flexed  but  free  to  be  extended,  and  the  thumb 
abducted,  because  these  attitudes  tend  to  retard  and  diminish  the  ill 
effects  of  confinement  and  lack  of  use.  If  the  fingers  must  be  confined 
it  should  be  in  flexion. 

COMPOUND   FRACTURES. 

The  points  here  to  be  considered  are  those  connected  with  the  man- 
agement of  the  wound  of  the  soft  parts  and  the  modifications  imposed 
by  its  presence  and  character  upon  the  details  of  reduction  and  reten- 
tion of  the  fracture. 

A  fracture  may  be  compound  from  the  beginning  or  it  may  become 
so  by  suppuration,  by  the  extension  in  depth  of  a  coexisting  superficial 
wound,  or  by  the  formation  and  fall  of  an  eschar.  A  very  important 
difference  is  that  between  fractures  by  direct  and  fractures  by  indirect 
violence,  because  in  the  former  the  wound  is  usually  large  and  so  con- 
tused that  its  prompt  uncomplicated  healing  cannot  be  expected,  while 
in  the  latter  it  is  usually  made  from  within  outward  by  the  sharp  end 
of  a  fragment,  is  small  and  clean,  and  may  confidently  be  expected  to 
heal  wdthin  a  few  days  under  proper  care,  thus  transforming  the  frac- 
ture into  a  simple  one  and  putting  an  end  to  the  special  dangers  wdiich 
make  the  injury  so  redoubtable.  These  two  varieties  differ  so  greatly 
in  prognosis  and  treatment  that  I  shall  seek  to  emphasize  the  distinc- 
tion between  them  by  a  separate  description,  although  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  special  difficulties  and  dangers  which  characterize 
those  by  direct  violence  may  also  exist  in  those  by  indirect  violence  in 
consequence  of  unusual  associated  conditions  more  or  less  independent 
of  the  mode  of  production.  The  essence  of  the  difference  is  in  the 
condition  of  the  wounded  tissues  :  in  the  one,  a  lacerated  contused 
wound,  some  of  the  skin  about  which,  even  if  apparently  uninjured, 
is  almost  certain  to  slough;  in  the  other,  a  small  clean  wound  almost 
as  fit  to  heal  as  if  it  had  been  made  on  the  operating-table. 

A.  Compound  Fracture  by  Indirect  Violence,  or  with  a  Small,  Clean 

Wound. 

The  patient  is  anaesthetized  and  the  skin  about  the  wound  is  cleaned 
as  for  an  operation.  If  the  point  of  a  fragment  projects  through  the 
skin  and  is  rather  tightly  grasped  by  it  the  wound  must  be  freely 
enlarged,  and  it  and  the  bone  irrigated  with  an  antiseptic  solution,  such 
as  the  1-1000  bicholride;  reduction  is  then  made,  the  limb  pressed  to 
force  out  the  escaped  blood,  the  wound  closed  with  interrupted  sutures 


TREATMENT. 


103 


at  half  or  three-quarter  inch  intervals,  and  a  sterile  or  antiseptic  dress- 
ing applied,  with  temporary  splints.  Exceptionally  it  may  be  advis- 
able to  insert  a  drain  of  gauze  or  tubing,  or  to  explore  the  wound  to 
aid  the  reduction  or  to  remove  fragments  or  to  secure  a  torn  vessel,  but 
the  less  the  wound  is  handled  the  better,  because  of  the  risk  of  con- 
tamination by  the  fingers. 

About  a  week  later  the  dressing  is  removed  and  if  all  has  gone  well 
the  fracture  is  thenceforth  treated  as  a  simple  one;  but  if  infection  has 
occurred  the  measures  described  in  the  next  section  must  be  employed. 

B.  Compound  Fracture  by  Direct  Violence,  or  with  a  Contused  or 
Infected  Wound. 

The  patient  is  anaesthetized,  the  skin  cleaned,  and  the  wound  thor- 
oughly washed  out  with  an  antiseptic  solution;  loose  fragments  are 
removed,  the  ends  of  the  bones  regularized  if  necessary,  and  the  deeper 
layers  of  muscle  and  fascia  fastened  together  by  sutures  so  as  to  give 
support  to  the  fragments;  if  deemed  necessary  a  catgut  or  temporary 
suture  may  be  placed  in  the  bone  to  hold  the  fragments  together.  Then 
the  enveloping  fascia  is  sutured  at  a  few  points,  not  too  closely,  and 
the  skin  sutured  so  far  as  its  condition  permits.  Drains  of  rubber  or 
gauze  are  inserted,  and  a  dressing  placed  over  all.  The  limb  is  then 
placed  in  splints  that  will  permit  a  change  of  dressing  with  the  least 
disturbance  of  the  fragments;  for  the  leg  Volkmann's  splint  is  con- 


Compound  fracture.    Dressing  and  plaster  splint. 

venient,  or  the  plaster  stocking  (page  90),  or  moulded  anterior  and 
posterior  splints  one  of  which  is  placed  if  possible  next  the  skin  and 
protected  by  rubber  tissue  or  oiled  silk  from  being  softened  by  the  dis- 
charge (Fig.  46).  Later  in  the  course,  if  the  case  does  well,  an  inter- 
rupted or  fenestrated  splint  may  be  used,  but  the  dressing  occupying 
the  fenestra  or  interval  must  be  bound  on  very  snugly  or  the  tissues 
under  it  will  become  oedematous  and  project  through  the  opening. 
Suspension  adds  to  the  comfort  of  the  patient  and  often  to  the  con- 
venience of  the  surgeon. 

For  the  thigh  Hodgen's  splint  is  usually  the  most  convenient,  but 
the  double  inclined  plane  is  sometimes  better.  For  the  arm,  especially 
in  fractures  near  the  elbow,  I  like  vertical  suspension;  it  seems  to  keep 
down  the  reaction  very  efficiently,  but  moulded  splints  are  very  con- 
venient, as  they  also  are  for  the  forearm. 

The  condition  of  the  skin  about  the  wound  in  these  fractures  de- 


104  FBAGTUBES. 

mands  close  iuspection,  for  it  is  usually  much  more  seriously  and 
extensively  affected  than  its  appearance  indicates.  It  is  almost  inva- 
riably stripped  up  from  the  underlying  parts  for  a  considerable  distance 
and  certain  to  slough,  often  over  a  large  area,  although  it  may  show  no 
sign  of  the  injury  received.  1  have  found  a  brief  application  of  the 
elastic  bandage,  as  in  producing  artificial  ischsemia  for  operation,  of 
value  in  determining  the  extent  of  this  injury,  for  the  killed  portions 
of  skin  do  not  share  in  the  blush  which  follows  its  removal;  it  must  be 
remembered  that  skin  on  the  distal  side  of  a  long  transverse  wound  some- 
times remains  pale  under  this  test  although  still  viable.  The  absence 
of  bleeding  on  puncture  is  also  a  fairly  good  test  of  loss  of  vitality. 

I  have  experimented  somewhat  on  the  possible  advisability  of  cut- 
ting away  at  once  all  skin  that  is  clearly  certain  to  slough  in  order  to 
diminish  infection  and  favor  drainage  from  beneath  it,  but  have  not 
been  able  to  satisfy  myself  that  it  is  best  to  do  so.  If  the  infection  is 
slight  the  skin  mummifies  and  but  little  exudate  forms  under  it,  and  it 
serves,  by  the  sutures  placed  in  it,  to  prevent  retraction  of  the  adjoin- 
ing portions;  it  can  be  cut  away  later,  in  the  second  or  third  week.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  case  does  less  well  the  dying  or  dead  skin  can  be 
removed  at  the  second  or  third  dressing  with,  I  think,  no  serious  loss 
from  the  attempt  to  utilize  and  save  it. 

Lacerated  and  divided  muscles  should  be  adjusted  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble in  their  normal  relations  and  may  be  secured  there  by  a  few  catgut 
sutures,  but  the  main  reliance  upon  their  proper  reunion  is  in  the  closing 
of  the  enveloping  fascia  over  them,  with  intervals  for  drainage.  Divided 
nerves  and  tendons  are,  of  course,  to  be  sutured,  and  torn  vessels  tied. 

The  proper  management  of  fragments  of  bone  is  often  a  matter  of 
anxious  doubt,  and  the  surgeon  must  be  guided  somewhat  by  the  prob- 
ability of  avoiding  extensive  suppuration,  for  fragments  may  safely  be 
left  in  wounds  that  are  to  heal  kindly  which  must  certainly  be  removed 
sooner  or  later  if  suppuration  takes  place  about  them.  It  has  been 
abundantly  demonstrated  that  even  wholly  detached  fragments  can 
maintain  or  regain  their  vitality  and  be  an  important  aid  in  establish- 
ing union  between  the  main  fragments  if  infection  is  avoided.  If  the 
loss  of  bone  is  considerable  it  is  advisable  to  square  the  ends  of  the 
main  fragments  and  bring  them  close  together;  in  the  leg  this  loss  is 
usually  at  the  expense  of  the  tibia,  and  the  fibula  must  then  be  corre- 
spondingly shortened. 

If  the  laceration  of  the  muscles  is  great,  and  persistent  infection 
probable,  abundant  provision  for  drainage  and  irrigation  should  be 
made.  Long  fenestrated  rubber  tubes  should  be  run  through  the  limb, 
by  counter-openings,  and  should  project  through  the  dressings  so  that 
an  antiseptic  solution  can  be  frequently  injected  during  the  first  few 
days  or  until  the  infection  is  under  control.  If  suppuration  becomes 
fully  established  it  must  be  treated  according  to  general  principles,  or 
amputation  must  be  done. 

Grunshot  Fractures. 

Gunshot  fractures  when  the  missile  is  a  pistol  bullet  can  generally 
be  successfully  treated  by  a  single  irrigation  of  the  wound  and  an  anti- 


TREATMENT.  105 

septic  dressing  without  removal  of  the  bullet.  It  is  very  rare  for  a 
piece  of  the  clothing  to  be  carried  in  beyond  the  skin.  When  the 
missile  is  a  large  rifle  ball  or  a  charge  of  shot  at  close  range  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  soft  parts  is  such  that  prompt  closure  of  the  wound  cannot 
be  expected,  and  the  ease  must  be  treated  as  one  of  the  second  class  just 
described.  I  have  recently,  J  898,  seen  two  eases  of  fracture  of  the 
upper  end  of  the  femur  by  a  Mauser  ball  which  healed  without 
supi^uration. 

Amputation. 

There  is  a  class  of  cases,  fortunately  not  a  large  one,  in  which  pri- 
mary amputation  is  clearly  indicated,  cases  in  which  the  fracture  is 
only  one,  and  sometimes  not  the  most  important,  of  the  injuries 
received.  The  extensive  destruction  of  the  soft  parts,  sometimes  also 
of  the  bone,  makes  it  evident  that  the  limb  cannot  be  saved  or  that  if 
saved  it  would  be  useless.  The  only  question  is  as  to  the  time  and 
place  of  amputation.  I  am  confident  that  in  some  of  these  cases  a 
formal  amputation  well  above  the  injury  should  be  rejected  in  favor  of 
division  of  the  remaining  soft  parts  at  the  upper  limit  of  the  laceration 
and  the  removal  of  only  so  much  of  the  upper  fragment  as  can  be 
conveniently  reached  from  the  surface  of  section.  These  are  the  cases 
in  which  the  soft  parts  have  not  been  torn  and  bruised  above  the  line 
of  their  division,  and  in  which  it  is  important  to  save  as  much  as  pos- 
sible of  the  length  of  the  limb,  or  in  which  a  formal  amputation  would 
sacrifice  a  contiguous  joint,  especially  the  knee  or  elbow.  Recovery  of 
course  would  be  slower,  but  under  the  protection  of  asepsis  the  stump 
would  be  more  serviceable  than  those  which  were  formerly  obtained 
after  suppuration  and  whose  defects  led  to  the  rule  of  practice  which 
now,  I  think,  needs  revision.  Such  limited  experience  as  I  have  gained 
in  the  matter  encourages  me  to  invite  consideration  of  it. 

Doubt  as  to  the  advisability  of  amputation  and  anxiety  as  to  the 
result  if  amputation  is  not  done  arise  in  those  cases  in  which  the  injury 
is  not  clearly  destructive  of  the  limb  or  its  usefulness,  but  in  which 
the  attempt  to  save  it  will  imperil  life  by  the  progress  of  an  infection 
already  present  or  certain  to  result  from  the  sloughing  of  the  bruised 
tissues.  It  is  a  peculiarly  anxious  question  for  the  surgeon,  for  it 
involves  his  reputation  for  sound  judgment  as  well  as  the  welfare  of 
the  patient.  Weighing  the  probabilities  he  may  wisely  decide  that  the 
chance  of  saving  the  limb  or  of  its  usefulness  if  saved  is  not  such  as 
to  justify  the  taking  of  the  risks  involved  in  the  attempt  to  save  it,  and 
yet  if  the  patient  refuses  amputation  and  happily  saves  both  life  and 
limb  the  advice  to  amputate  is  likely  often  to  be  recalled  as  a  reproach 
or  an  error  of  judgment.  In  some  cases  it  is  probable  that  under  the 
protection  of  antiseptics  the  decision  can  be  delayed  until  time  shall 
have  shown  the  full  extent  of  the  injury  and  the  ability  or  inability 
to  control  the  infection,  with  a  reasonable  expectation  that  a  later  am- 
putation, if  necessary,  will  still  be  in  time  to  save  life;  but  in  other 
cases,  particularly  in  the  middle-aged  and  alcoholic  and  in  those  with 
diseased  organs  and  tissues,  the  infection  is  so  superior  to  the  organ- 
ism's power  of  resistance  that  if  it  is  allowed  to  become  fairly  estab- 


106  FRACTURES. 

lished  death  is  inevitable.  In  the  j&rst  set  of  cases  the  surgeon  may 
fairly  place  the  responsibility  of  delay,  of  taking  the  chances,  upon  the 
patient  or  his  friends;  in  the  latter  he  must  throw  the  whole  weight  of 
his  opinion  unreservedly  in  favor  of  immediate  amputation  unless  he 
is  forced  to  believe  that  even  that  will  be  unavailing.  An  infection  in 
a  middle-aged  patient  which  in  a  few  hours  has  produced  a  condition 
of  apathy  or  subdelirium,  with  brownish  discoloration  of  the  skin 
extending  rapidly  upward  and  a  dark  offensive  discharge  from  the 
wound,  cannot  be  arrested  by  amputation,  except  perhaps  when  it  has 
not  got  above  the  knee  or  elbow;  but  one  which  is  marked  rather  by 
abundant  suppuration,  even  with  high  fever,  by  less  implication  of  the 
sensorium,  and  by  a  slower,  reddish,  boggy  oedema  of  the  parts  about 
and  above  the  wound  can  often  be  saved  by  amputation. 

Compound  Articular  Fracture. 

In  these  cases  also  conservative  treatment  has  gained  much  additional 
ground;  the  outlook  and  details  vary,  as  in  fracture  of  the  shaft,  with 
the  character  and  extent  of  the  injury  to  the  soft  parts.  In  addition 
to  the  principles  governing  the  treatment  of  similar  fractures  of  the 
shaft  the  surgeon  has  also  to  consider  the  conditions  arising  from  the 
implication  of  the  joint,  especially  the  probability  of  the  extension 
of  suppuration  to  it  and  the  effect  upon  its  functions  of  such  sup- 
puration or  of  the  injury  itself.  If  the  wound  is  small  and  clean 
its  communication  with  the  joint  may  be  disregarded,  or,  at  the  most, 
drainage  of  the  joint  made  and  maintained  for  twenty-four  to  forty- 
eight  hours.  The  principle  in  any  case  of  moderate  or  extensive  lacera- 
tion and  contusion  of  the  soft  parts,  in  which  the  attempt  is  made  to 
preserve  all  the  articular  portions  of  the  bone  and  the  functions  of  the 
joint,  is  to  protect  the  joint  by  drainage  against  the  consequences  of 
primary  infection  and  against  later  infection  from  the  wound  itself  by 
assuring  the  early  escape  of  the  exudates  of  the  latter.  In  the  more 
severe  cases — laceration,  splintering  of  the  articular  end,  free  commu- 
nication between  the  wound  and  joint — drainage  may  be  made  directly 
through  the  wound  and  even  partial  excision  of  the  joint  may  be  done 
to  insure  its  thoroughness. 

The  probable  effect  of  the  injury  to  destroy  the  functions  of  the  joint 
raises  the  question  of  resection  with  a  view  to  restrict  the  loss.  The 
answer  varies  with  the  joint  and  to  some  extent  with  the  vocation  of 
the  patient,  for  at  some  joints  and  in  some  occupations  solidity  is  more 
useful  than  mobility  with  insufficient  control.  Thus,  at  the  knee  anchy- 
losis is  preferable,  at  the  ankle  the  removal  of  the  astragalus  may  leave 
a  useful  limb  but  anchylosis  is  better  than  removal  of  the  lower  portion 
of  the  tibia,  at  the  elbow  a  stiff  joint  in  a  good  position  is  more  useful 
than  one  that  is  very  loose  for  a  man  who  has  to  do  heavy  work,  while 
for  one  who  does  light  work,  using  mainly  his  fingers  and  wrist,  even 
a  loose  elbow  would  be  better  than  a  stiff  one.  We  have  learned  too 
that  partial  resections  under  the  protection  of  the  antiseptic  method 
give  much  better  results  in  respect  of  mobility  than  they  formerly  did; 
thus,  removal  of  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  with  conservation  of 


TREATMENT.  107 

the  olecranon  gives  usually  a  much  more  useful  joint  than  total  resec- 
tion does. 

General  Treatment. 

The  vital  indications  in  simple  fracture  of  the  limbs  arise  rarely 
except  in  the  aged  and  the  alcoholic.  In  the  former  the  shock  of  the 
injiiryj  frequently  a  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  occasionally 
proves  fatal  within  a  day  or  two,  or  the  strength  gradually  fails  and 
the  patient  dies  about  the  third  week,  often  with  symptoms  of  localized 
pneumonia  at  the  end.  Against  this  there  is  little  that  can  be  done 
except  to  avoid  dressings  which  give  pain  and  increase  discomfort.  I 
do  not  believe  that  the  recumbent  posture  increases  the  latter  danger 
or  can  be  safely  discarded  during  the  first  three  weeks.  At  a  still 
later  period  it  may  sometimes  be  advisable,  because  of  the  general  con- 
dition, to  take  the  patient  out  of  bed  even  at  the  risk  of  failure  of  union. 

In  the  alcoholic,  it  is  important  to  maintain  nutrition  and  secure  sleep 
during  the  first  week,  and  to  give  alcohol  regularly  in  moderate  quan- 
tities; it  is  claimed  that  the  chance  of  an  alcoholic  outbreak — delirium 
tremens — is  less  if  the  patient  is  not  kept  in  bed,  and  for  that  reason 
an  early  application  of  a  fixed  dressing  is  advised. 

No  medication,  except  tonics,  appears  to  have  any  value  in  hastening 
or  assuring  union  of  the  fracture  except  when  some  specific  poisoning 
is  present,  such  as  syphilis  or  paludism,  when  mercurials  and  quinine 
are  respectively  indicated. 


CHAPTEE    VIII. 

DELAYED  UNION,  FAILURE  OF  UNION,  PSEUD AETHROSIS, 
FAULTY   UNION.  1 

In  the  use  of  the  terms  delayed  union,  fibrous  union,  and  failure  of 
union  or  pseudarthrosis,  a  certain  vagueness  of  differentiation  is  inevi- 
table because  of  the  frequent  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  exact  anatomical 
conditions  and  because  the  time  requisite  for  the  complete  repair  of 
a  fracture  varies  so  much  in  different  cases  that  it  may  not  be  pos- 
sible to  say  whether  in  a  given  case  the  process  has  come  to  a  standstill 
or  is  still  slowly  but  surely  continuing.  This  vagueness,  moreover,  is 
not  simply  clinical  but  extends  also  to  the  anatomical  conditions,  for 
in  most  cases  this  represents  a  stage  through  which  the  process  of 
repair  commonly  passes,  that  of  union  of  the  fragments  by  a  bond  of 
fibrous  tissue,  and  the  abnormality  consists  in  the  delay  or  failure  of 
that  bond  to  ossify.  Furthermore,  as  this  final  step,  ossification,  is 
often  still  possible  after  a  delay  of  many  months,  a  case  which  fully 
deserves,  clinically,  to  be  termed  ^'failure  of  union,"  one  in  which 
special  measures  are  required  to  excite  ossification,  is  yet  identical, 
anatomically,  with  another  in  which  ossification  will  follow  without 
other  aid  than  the  prolongation  of  the  usual  immobilization.  The 
term  pseudarthrosis,  literally  false  joint,  is  not  restricted  to  those  rare 
cases  in  which  some  of  the  characteristic  anatomical  elements  of  a 
joint  are  present,  but  is  used  as  a  synonym  of  failure  of  union.  In 
cases  in  which  bony  union  is  from  the  first  unlooked  for,  or  has  been 
deemed  unlikely,  as  in  most  fractures  of  the  patella  without  operative 
treatment  and  in  some  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  the  term  "  fibrous 
union"  is  habitually  used  instead  of  ''failure  of  union." 

While  delay  in  union  is  not  infrequent,  failure  of  union  is  rare. 
The  published  statistics  of  failure  differ  so  widely  that  it  is  evident 
the  same  basis  of  classification  has  not  been  followed,  and  probably 
those  which  give  the  large  proportions  include  cases  of  delayed  union 
and  possibly  even  fractures  of  apophyses  which  are  habitually  so  dis- 
placed by  attached  muscles  that  only  fibrous  union  is  probable.  Fail- 
ure is  more  frequent,  actually  and  relatively,  in  the  shaft  of  the  humerus 
than  in  that  of  any  other  bone,  and  in  the  prime  of  life  than  at  any 
other  age.  It  must  be  remembered  that  these  statements  and  most  of 
what  follows  relate  only  to  the  shafts  of  the  long  bones,  and  do  not 
include  fractures  of  the  short  bones,  of  apophyses,  or  even  of  the  neck 
of  the  femur. 

Pathology.  Although  the  anatomical  conditions  differ  greatly  in 
detail  they  may  be  conveniently  classified  in  two  groups,  one,  contain- 

1  For  statistics  see  Norris,  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  1842,  vol.  xxix.  Agnew's 
Surgery,  vol  i.  Gurlt,  die  Knochenbrliche.  Berenger-Feraud,  Traite  des  fractures  non-consolidees 
ou  pseudarthroses,  1871. 


BELAYED,  FAILURE,    OR  FAULTY  UNION.  109 

ing  most  of  the  cases,  in  which  the  fragments  are  united  end  to  end  or 
laterally  and  more  or  less  closely  by  fibrous  tissue,  and  another,  very 
rare,  in  which  a  distinct  joint  has  formed  between  them.  The  varie- 
ties of  the  first  form  are  very  numerous,  the  variations  depending  upon 
the  relative  positions  of  the  fragments,  the  extent  of  the  preliminary 
rarefaction,  the  amount  of  fibrous  tissue,  and  the  presence  or  absence 
of  a  productive  osteitis  or  partial  ossification  of  the  bond.  In  short, 
the  process  of  repair  in  any  of  the  widely  different  forms  imposed 
upon  it  by  the  character  of  the  fracture  and  the  displacement  may  be 
arrested  at  any  period  or  may  be  continued  unevenly  but  still  incom- 
pletely at  different  points.  Thus,  the  fragments  may  be  in  close  ap- 
position and  united  by  a  short  firm  bond  with  only  slight  motion 
between  them,  or  they  may  overlap  in  such  a  way  that  the  surfaces  of 
fracture  are  not  apposed  and  the  union  is  only  by  the  thickened  inter- 
posed connective  tissue;  or  the  displaced  end  may  be  enlarged,  with 
osteophytes  extending  into  the  fibrous  bond  and  separate  nodules  of 
bone  developed  within  it,  needing  only  a  slight  additional  ossification 
for  complete  bony  union;  or  the  effect  of  the  preliminary  rarefaction 
of  one  or  both  fragments  may  not  have  been  corrected  by  subsequent 
ossification,  and  they  remain  soft  and  spongy,  or  atrophied  and  pointed, 
and  even  this  process  of  rarefaction  may  be  so  exaggerated  as  to  create 
as  distinct  a  gap  between  the  fragments  as  if  a  piece  had  been  removed 
or  even  to  transform  the  entire  shaft  of  the  bone  into  a  fibrous  cord. 

Of  the  second  form,  the  creation  of  a  joint  between  the  fragments, 
only  a  few  examples  have  been  recorded.  They  show,  in  more  or  less 
complete  and  distorted  forms,  joints  with  a  fibrous  capsule  embedding 
cartilaginous  or  bony  nodules,  a  cavity  containing  a  synovia-like 
liquid,  and  the  ends  of  the  fragments  rounded,  ebu mated,  usually 
enlarged,  sometimes  smooth  and  polished  and  sometimes  covered  with 
a  fibrous  or  even  a  cartilaginous  lining. 

Etiology.  Certain  general  conditions  have  been  deemed  a  cause  of 
delay  or  failure  of  union  either  through  a  specific  poison,  as  in  syphilis, 
or  through  a  deterioration  of  the  health  or  a  lowering  of  the  vitality 
induced  by  them,  as  pregnancy,  lactation,  defective  nourishment,  and 
acute  diseases;  but  it  is  beyond  question  that  the  causes  are  usually 
local  and  that  the  most  common  one  is  a  faulty  relation  of  the  frag- 
ments to  each  other,  including  therein  the  interposition  between  them 
of  muscular  tissue.  Others  are  defective  innervation,  disease  of  the 
bone,  inflammation  on  the  surface,  and  defective  treatment.  But  it  is 
also  true  that  delay  and  even  failure  may  occur  when  no  local  or  gen- 
eral cause  can  be  found,  when  the  fragments  are  in  exact  apposition, 
and  when  the  general  condition  is  good.  We  know  that  the  less  the 
primary  displacement,  the  more  exact  the  reposition,  and  the  more 
complete  the  immobilization,  the  less  is  the  local  reaction  and  the 
smaller  the  callus.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  that  the  reaction — the 
hypersemia  and  the  exaggeration  of  the  local  nutritive  processes — may 
be  too  slight  or  too  brief  to  complete  repair,  but  this  only  throws  the 
question  further  back,  and  we  have  yet  to  learn  why  the  reaction  is 
insufficient  in  one  case  and  sufficient  in  others  which  are  apparently 
identical.    In  the  leg  and  in  the  forearm  a  condition  occasionally  exists 


110  FB  AC  TUBES. 

which  is  not  found  where  there  is  only  a  single  bone.  For  example, 
the  fibula  unites,  but  the  rarefactive  process  in  the  tibia  is  exaggerated 
and  leaves  the  fragments  separated  by  quite  an  interval  occupied  by 
granulations,  and  the  ossification  which  follows  is  not  active  enough  to 
extend  entirely  across  it.  If  the  bone  were  single  it  seems  not  unrea- 
sonable to  suppose  that  the  fragments  would  be  brought  nearer  together 
and  the  intermediate  granulations  stimulated  by  the  pressure  caused  by 
the  contraction  of  the  muscles,  but  here  the  fibula  holds  the  fragments 
apart.  This  exaggerated  rarefaction  can  sometimes  be  directly  observed 
in  compound  fractures,  especially  in  the  spongy  tissue  near  the  epiphy- 
ses. The  delay  commonly  observed  after  resection  for  the  relief  of 
pseudarthrosis  I  attribute  to  the  absence  of  a  periosteal  bridge. 

The  defective  relations  of  the  fragments  consist  mainly  in  a  dis- 
placement by  which  the  fractured  surfaces  are  more  or  less  widely  sep- 
arated and  which  is  maintained  perhaps  by  the  interposition  of  muscle. 
This  interposition,  which  has  occasionally  been  demonstrated  by  opera- 
tion, is  thought  by  some  to  be  by  far  the  most  common  cause  of  failure 
of  union,  but  in  the  present  lack  of  observations  the  opinion  must  be 
deemed  too  exclusive.  It  is  probable  that  when  interposition  occurs  it 
is  by  penetration  of  the  sharp  point  of  one  fragment  into  the  overlying 
muscle.  Another  form  of  defective  relations  is  constituted  by  the  inter- 
position of  a  fragment  wholly  or  partially  detached  or  by  the  loss,  in  a 
compound  fracture,  of  one  or  more  fragments  and  the  consequent  crea- 
tion of  a  considerable  gap. 

Failure  by  defective  innervation,  as  shown  by  Bognaud,^  occurs 
when  the  trophic  nerves  or  nerve  centres  of  the  limb  are  injured. 
Motor  or  sensory  paralysis  without  injury  of  the  trophic  apparatus 
does  not  delay  union.  Bognaud  collected  six  cases  of  failure  of  union 
of  fracture  of  the  leg  with  paraplegia  due  to  injury  of  the  spinal  cord 
at  or  below  the  last  dorsal  vertebra,  while  in  others  in  which  the  paral- 
ysis was  incomplete  or  the  spine  was  injured  at  a  higher  point  union 
took  place. 

Local  diseases,  syphilis,  cancer,  etc.,  which  by  destroying  or  soften- 
ing the  bone  lead  to  ''  spontaneous"  or  "  pathological  "  fracture,  act 
in  like  manner  to  prevent  repair,  and  the  inflammation  which  accom- 
panies deep  suppuration  in  compound  fracture  and  is  usually  associated 
with  necrosis  is  a  frequent  cause  of  delay  or  failure. 

The  presence  of  an  open  wound  exposing  a  fracture,  even  when  sup- 
puration is  slight  and  superficial,  I  have  observed  in  several  cases  to 
be  accompanied  by  marked  hypersemia  and  softening  of  the  bone  and 
by  great  delay  in  union  of  the  fracture  even  when  the  fragments  were 
in  exact  apposition. 

Defective  treatment  includes  the  failure  to  correct  the  displacements 
which  make  union  difficult  and  which  might  be  corrected,  to  secure 
immobility  and  maintain  it  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  and  possibly 
certain  errors  of  commission,  such  as  the  excessive  use  of  cold  upon 
the  limb.  Of  these,  frequent  movement  of  the  fragments  upon  each 
other  has  long  been  recognized  as  a  potent  factor  in  delaying  union. 

1  Bognaud :  Sur  rinfluence  de  quelques  lesions  du  systems  nerveux  sur  la  formation  du  cal. 
These  de  Paris,  1878. 


DELAYED,  FAILURE,   OR  FAULTY  UNION.  m 

It  may  be  due  to  insufficient  retention  by  the  splints  or  to  the  indo- 
cility  of  the  patient  or  to  the  manipulation  of  the  surgeon  in  making 
early  passive  motion  of  a  neighljoring  joint.  There  is  reason  to  think 
that  the  exceptional  frequency  of  failure  of  nnion  in  tlie  humerus  is 
due  in  part  to  this  latter  cause,  for,  such  fractures  being  commonly 
treated  with  the  elbow  flexed,  movements  of  the  forearm  are  liable  to 
take  place  about  a  low  fracture  of  the  arm  as  a  centre  instead  of  in 
the  elbow,  especially  if  the  splint  does  not  rest  against  the  front  or 
back  of  the  shoulder. 

The  return  of  mobility  after  imion  has  become  apparently  complete, 
and  even  after  the  patient  has  used  the  limb  for  some  time,  is  occasion- 
ally observed.  In  most  of  the  cases  probably  the  union  has  only  been 
fibrous,  although  close  and  firm,  and  has  slowly  yielded  under  use;  but 
in  others  in  which  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  solidity  of  the  union, 
the  cause  has  been  a  local  inflammation,  such  as  erysipelas,  or  an  ulcer, 
an  acute  febrile  disease,  or  scurvy. 

Symptoms.  The  persistence  of  abnormal  mobility  after  the  lapse  of 
a  period  that  is  usually  largely  sufficient  for  union  constitutes  '^  de- 
layed" union;  the  merger  into  '^  failure  of  union"  is  a  matter  of 
opinion  rather  than  of  exact  definition.  If  the  position  of  the  frag- 
ments is  good  and  the  mobility  slight  the  condition  should  be  deemed 
merely  one  of  delay  for  a  much  longer  period  than  when  the  local 
relations  are  less  favorable,  and  the  usual  treatment  of  a  fracture 
should  be  continued;  the  instances  are  numerous  in  which  union  has 
finally  become  complete  after  the  lapse  of  several  months  and  without 
exceptional  measures.  On  the  other  hand,  failure  may  be  predicated 
even  before  the  usual  time  has  passed  if  the  position  of  the  fragments 
is  very  unfavorable  and  the  mobility  great. 

The  persistence  of  abnormal  mobility  is  the  pathognomonic  sign, 
but  it  is  occasionally  difficult  or  even  impossible  of  recognition  either 
because  it  is  very  slight  or  because  the  fracture  is  so  close  to  the  articular 
end  of  the  bone  that  the  mobility  is  masked  by  the  movements  at  the 
joint;  under  such  circumstances  the  functional  disturbance  and  pain 
may  be  the  only  symptoms.  The  abnormal  mobility  may  be  slight  or 
very  free,  and  is  usually  painless  until  its  limits  are  approached  or 
reached.  With  it  may  be  associated  a  recognizable  position  and  shape 
of  the  fragments  under  which  union  is  plainly  impossible  without 
the  aid  of  exceptional  measures. 

Functional  disturbances  vary  with  the  extent  of  mobility,  the  limb, 
and  the  amount  of  the  associated  muscular  degeneration;  it  ranges 
from  complete  disability  to  interference  so  slight  as  scarcely  to  be 
noticeable;  in  one  of  my  own  cases,  a  compound  fracture,  the  patient 
preferred  amputation  of  the  leg  to  longer  delay,  and  others  have  sought 
in  amputation  relief  from  the  pain  of  the  movements  of  the  limb. 
Others,  again,  are  able  to  use  the  limb  with  the  aid  of  a  brace,  and 
some  even  without  it.  In  the  shaft  of  the  femur  the  disability  is 
usually  the  greatest  and  is  practically  complete,  but  when  at  its  neck 
the  limb  may  be  still  quite  useful;  I  have  one  such  specimen  taken 
from  a  man  who  was  able  to  walk  freely,  and  others  have  been  reported. 

Treatment.     When  delay  has  occurred  and  the  local  conditions  are 


112  FRACTURES. 

such  that  union  may  reasonably  be  hoped  for,  the  surgeon's  first  duty 
is  to  seek  for  and  combat  any  general  condition  that  may  be  at  fault, 
such  as  syphilitic  or  malarial  poisoning  or  defective  nourishment,  using 
the  respective  remedies  and  tonics,  and  perhaps  giving  preference  among 
the  latter  to  phosphorus  or  phosphate  of  lime.^  Then  he  continues  the 
immobilization,  aiding  it  then  or  a  little  later  by  massage;  this  still 
failing,  he  has  choice  of  a  number  of  mild  measures  to  hasten  the  pro- 
cess, such  as  the  application  for  a  few  hours,  once  or  twice  repeated,  of 
a  bandage  about  the  limb  above  the  fracture  tight  enough  to  cause 
venous  congestion  and  swelling,  the  painting  of  the  skin  with  iodine, 
or  the  injection  of  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of  iodine  or  of  a  10  per 
cent,  solution  of  the  chloride  of  zinc  into  the  periosteum  and  the  fibrous 
bond  at  the  fracture;  or,  in  the  case  of  the  leg,  if  the  mobility  is  slight 
and  the  fragment  in  good  position,  he  applies  a  splint  or  brace  by  the 
aid  of  which  the  limb  can  be  used  in  walking  without  too  much  risk 
of  causing  displacement,  in  the  hope  that  the  irritation  thereby  pro- 
duced at  the  fracture  may  stimulate  the  process. 

If  these  also  fail  or  if  the  condition  calls  for  more  pronounced  meas- 
ures, he  seeks  to  produce  a  sharp  reaction  by  forcibly  and  widely  bend- 
ing the  limb  at  the  fracture,  under  an  ansesthetic,  so  as  to  tear  the  bond 
and  measurably  reproduce  the  conditions  of  a  fresh  fracture,  or  he  passes 
a  drill  down  to  the  bone,  with  or  without  incision,  and  perforates  the 
ends  of  the  fragments  at  several  points.  Bone  and  ivory  pegs  have 
been  inserted  into  holes  thus  made  and  withdrawn  after  a  few  days  or 
weeks,  but  apparently  with  no  advantage  over  simple  drilling. 

Electrolysis  has  also  been  used  with  advantage,  the  needle  being 
passed  into  the  bond  between  the  fragments. 

Finally,  the  surgeon  may  freely  expose  the  fracture  by  incision,  resect 
the  ends  of  the  fragments,  bring  them  into  close  and  exact  apposition, 
and  secure  them  there  by  external  dressing  with  or  without  the  aid  of 
a  suture  or  other  fastening  applied  directly  to  the  bone.  In  the  pre- 
ceding chapter,  I  have  given  reasons  for  thinking  that  the  presence 
of  a  permanent  metallic  suture  or  pin  interferes  with  the  processes 
by  which  alone  union  can  be  accomplished,  and  I  must  repeat  my 
belief  that  sufficient  security  can  be  given  by  an  external  dressing, 
and  that  the  usefulness  of  a  suture  is  limited  to  keeping  the  fragments 
in  position  during  the  application  of  that  dressing.  ISTo  suture  that 
can  properly  be  used  is  strong  enough  to  relieve  the  surgeon  from  the 
necessity  of  great  care  in  handling  the  limb  during  the  application  of 
the  dressing,  not  because  the  fragments  have  a  great  tendency  to  slip 
apart  laterally,  but  because  the  angular  deviations  which  are  certain  to 
take  place  bring  a  great  breaking  strain  upon  the  suture.  For  this 
reason  I  believe  that  if  any  suture  is  used  it  should  be  of  catgut  or 
silk,  and  tied  loosely  so  as  to  permit  angular  deviation  within  a  mod- 
erate range.  The  best  security,  I  believe,  lies  in  making  the  ends  of 
the  bone  square  and  then  having  an  assistant  press  the  lower  segment 
of  the  limb  forcibly  against  the  upper  one  until  the  dressing  has  been 

1  Gauthier :  Lyon  Medical,  June  and  July,  1897,  reports  the  successful  use  in  two  cases  of  the 
thyroid  extract  to  cause  consolidation  after  delay  of  about  three  months  ;  the  remedy  was  used  for 
between  three  and  four  weeks  and  union  was  then  established.  I  have  employed  it  in  two  cases, 
without  recognizable  benefit. 


DELAYED,  FAILURE,   OB  FAULTY  UNION.  113 

completed.  I  have  successfully  operated  upon  at  least  six  cases  of 
failure  of  union  of  the  femur  in  this  way  and  without  suture.  I  may 
add  that  I  have  seen  as  many  cases  of  pseudarthrosis  of  the  leg  that 
had  been  unsuccessfully  sutured  with  silver  wire,  and  in  all  of  them  T 
have  found  at  the  second  operation  the  wire  lying  loose  and  sometimes 
broken. 

If  on  resection  the  end  of  the  bone  is  found  thickened  and  dense  I 
drill  it  in  several  places  in  order  to  promote  its  rarefaction  by  increas- 
ing the  area  of  irritation,  and  under  such  circumstances  I  should  have 
no  hesitation  in  using  a  silk  or  other  removable  suture  if  it  seemed 
desirable.  In  the  humerus  and  in  the  bones  of  the  forearm,  where 
retention  is  not  so  easy  as  in  the  thigh  and  leg,  I  have  used  both  absorb- 
able and  temporary  silk  ligatures. 

A  pin  of  bone  has  sometimes  been  inserted  into  the  medullary  canal 
to  hold  the  fragments  together;  if  asepsis  is  preserved  it  may  heal  in, 
but  usually  it  needs  to  be  removed. 

When  failure  of  union  has  been  due  to  loss  of  bone  the  gap  has 
sometimes  been  filled  and  union  obtained  by  pieces  of  fresh  or  decalci- 
fied bone  over  which  the  soft  parts  are  closed  by  primary  healing. 
Absolute  asepsis  is  necessary  to  success.  Apparently  the  pieces  act 
only  mechanically  by  furnishing  a  framework  within  and  around  which 
the  granulations  grow  and  by  filling  the  space  which  if  left  to  be  filled 
by  the  slowly  forming  granulations  would  collect  the  exudates  and  thus 
favor  the  spread  of  chance  infection.  It  has  also  been  proposed  to  fill 
the  gap  with  powdered  calcined  bone  on  the  theory  that  it  would  equally 
well  fill  the  space  and  serve  as  a  framework,  and  would  also  supply  the 
lime  salts  needed  for  the  formation  of  bone.  The  plan  commends  itself 
by  its  simplicity  and  cleanliness,  for  the  powder  can  be  perfectly  ster- 
ilized by  fire,  and  I  have  thought  it  might  also  be  useful  in  delayed 
compound  and  even  simple  fractures,  the  powder  being  poured  in 
among  the  granulations  or  introduced  through  a  hypodermic  needle 
mixed  with  water. 

When  loss  of  substance  has  occurred  in  one  of  two  parallel  bones,  as 
in  the  leg  or  forearm,  it  is  usually  advisable,  if  the  gap  is  not  too  large, 
to  excise  a  corresponding  piece  from  the  other  bone  so  that  the  frag- 
ments of  the  first  can  be  brought  into  contact.  When  the  gap  has  been 
larger  in  the  tibia  a  solid  limb  has  been  obtained  by  dividing  the  fibula 
and  uniting  its  lower  segment  with  the  upper  segment  of  the  tibia.  In 
time  the  bone  enlarges  sufficiently  to  make  the  limb  strong  and  useful. 

Faulty  or  Vicious  Union;  Union  with  Deformity. 

The  use  of  these  terms  is  restricted  to  cases  in  which  the  deformity 
or  persistent  displacement  differs  notably  from  the  result  usually 
obtained  after  that  form  of  fracture;  the  term  is  not  applied  when  the 
irregularity  is  slight  or  common.  Thus  it  is  not  applied  to  moderate 
shortening  by  overriding  in  oblique  fractures,  to  the  shortening  and  out- 
ward rotation  commonly  seen  after  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur, 
or  to  the  deformity  of  the  wrist  so  frequently  seen  after  Colics' s  fracture. 
In  short,  its  use  implies  a  condition  that  might  have  been  avoided. 


114  FRACTURES. 

Any  of  the  possible  displacements  after  fracture  may  remain  uncor- 
rected and  produce  this  condition,  but  the  most  common  are  marked 
angular  displacement  or  rotation  after  fracture  of  the  shaft  and  trans- 
verse displacement  with  overriding.  Excessive  size  of  the  callus  is 
sometimes  included  in  this  group  and  so  is  the  inclusion  in  the  callus 
of  muscle,  tendou,  or  nerve.  The  ill  results  are  not  limited  to  the 
change  in  the  appearance  of  the  limb,  which  is  often  marked  and  offen- 
sive, but  include  also  an  interference  with  function,  which  may  amount 
to  complete  disability  by  shortening  of  the  limb,  by  the  deviation  of 
its  lower  segment,  or  by  restricting  the  movements  of  a  neighboring 
joint  either  directly  or  indirectly  by  implication  of  its  muscles.  Thus 
angular  displacement,  with  or  without  overriding,  after  fracture  of  the 
thigh  near  the  middle  may  produce  a  shortening  of  several  inches; 
angular  displacement  after  fracture  of  the  leg  may  so  raise  the  heel  or 
toes  or  invert  or  evert  the  foot  as  to  make  it  difficult  or  impossible  to 
place  the  sole  squarely  on  the  ground  in  walking;  transverse  displace- 
ment backward  or  forward  close  above  the  elbow  may  limit  flexion  or 
extension  respectively,  more,  I  think,  by  cicatricial  implication  of  the 
muscle  than  by  contact  with  the  bones  of  the  forearm. 

Excessive  callus  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  joint  may  diminish  its 
range  of  motion  mechanically;  this  is  seen  most  frequently  at  the  hip 
after  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  at  its  base  and  at  the  shoulder 
and  elbow.  The  inclusion  of  muscles  and  tendons  in  a  callus  is  rare; 
that  of  a  nerve,  or,  rather,  pressure  upon  a  nerve  by  a  callus,  is  seen 
most  frequently  in  the  musculo-spiral  nerve  after  fracture  of  the  lower 
half  of  the  humerus. 

One  hundred  and  forty-nine  cases  of  faulty  union  collected  by  Gurlt 
showed  71  of  tlie  thigh,  59  of  the  leg,  12  of  the  arm,  and  7  of  the 
forearm;  in  56  of  the  thigh  in  which  the  position  was  indicated  it  was 
at  or  above  the  middle  in  51,  and  in  55  in  which  the  character  of 
displacement  was  mentioned  it  was  angular  with  the  convexity  outward 
or  outward  and  backward  in  38,  and  out^vard  and  forward  in  9.  At 
the  ankle  a  rather  frequent  and  disabling  form  is  uncorrected  displace- 
ment after  Pott's  fracture,  the  astragalus  being  behind  and  somewhat 
to  the  outer  side  of  its  proper  position. 

Treatment.  The  method  of  treatment  varies  with  the  solidity  of 
union,  and  therefore  to  some  extent  with  the  length  of  time  that  has 
elapsed.  As  persistent  displacement  is  often  a  cause  of  delay  of  union 
and  of  early  weakness  of  the  callus,  it  is  possible  to  correct  the  position 
by  the  hands  alone  at  a  much  later  period  than  under  better  conditions; 
that  is,  an  angular  displacement  can  thus  be  corrected  by  forcibly 
straightening  the  limb  with  the  hands  or  with  the  knee  pressed  against 
the  projecting  angle.  But  little  improvement  in  overriding  is  to  be 
expected  from  such  means  because  the  cicatricial  condition  of  the  soft 
parts  which  maintains  it  cannot  often  thus  be  moderated.  A  few  cases 
have  been  reported  in  svhich  continuous  traction  has  been  quite  efficient. 
Gradual  straightening  has  occasionally  been  effected  by  a  lateral  brace 
with  transverse  elastic  pressure  at  the  angle. 

Refracture  by  specially  devised  osteoclasts  has  been  much  employed 
in  the  past  for  the  correction  of  angular  deformity,  but  has  largely  given 


DELAYED,  FAILURE,   OR  FAULTY  UNION.  ]  15 

place  of  late  to  open  operation.  Some  of  the  instruments  are  very 
powerful  and  accurate  in  the  application  of  the  force.  Union  after 
early  refracture  may  be  confidently  expected  to  require  less  time  than 
after  primary  fracture.  A  serious  obstacle  to  success  may  exist  in  the 
permanent  retraction  of  the  soft  parts  on  the  concave  side  when  the 
deformity  has  long  existed.  The  condition  then  resembles  that  of  a 
bent  bow,  and  as  the  length  of  the  soft  parts  determines  that  of  the 
limb  the  latter  cannot  be  increased,  and  the  bone  can  be  straightened 
after  breaking  it  only  by  forcing  the  ends  of  the  fragments  past  each 
other,  overriding. 

Osteotomy  meets  the  indications  in  the  same  manner  as  osteoclasis, 
but  more  widely  and  precisely,  for  it  not  only  insures  division  at  the 
chosen  point,  but  it  also  permits  the  correction  of  lateral  displacement 
and  the  removal  of  a  V-shaped  or  longer  piece  if  the  condition  is  that 
mentioned  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  paragraph.  With  strict  atten- 
tion to  asepsis  recovery  is  likely  to  be  as  uneventful  as  after  osteoclasis, 
but  it  will  be  notably  slower  if  bone  is  excised.  Unless  anatomical 
reasons  to  the  contrary  exist  the  incision  should  be  made  longitudinally 
at  or  near  the  most  projecting  part  of  the  bone,  and  should  be  long 
enough  to  permit  free  exposure  and  easy  access  to  it;  the  management 
of  the  bone  will  be  determined  by  the  relations  of  the  fragments  and 
by  the  end  in  view,  but  in  case  of  excision  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  maintain  the  continuity  of  the  periosteum  on  one  side  and  to  restore 
it  by  suture  on  the  other  at  the  end  of  the  operation. 

In  articular  fracture  with  displacement,  such  as  Pott's  fracture  above 
mentioned,  the  bone  can  sometimes  be  restored  to  place  by  open  opera- 
tion with  considerable  improvement  in  function.  I  have  improved 
the  condition  in  a  number  of  Pott's  fractures  in  this  way;  and  in  one 
of  accidental  refracture  of  the  outer  condyle  of  the  humerus  in  which 
the  primary  fracture  (two  years  previous)  had  resulted  in  considerable 
limitation  of  motion,  I  exposed  the  fracture  by  incision  because  of  non- 
reducible displacement  of  the  fragment,  and  was  able  so  to  place  it  that 
the  range  of  motion  was  subsequently  increased.  Possibly  a  like  advan- 
tage could  be  gained  by  a  deliberate  osteotomy  and  shifting  of  the 
fragments. 

An  excessive  portion  of  callus  or  a  projecting  fragment  which  causes 
pain  or  ulceration  of  the  skin  by  pressure  can  be  removed  by  the  chisel 
or  rongeur. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

GENERAL  PROGNOSIS. 

The  prognosis  after  fracture  involves  consideration  of  the  effects  of 
the  injury  in  respect  of  the  prolongation  of  life,  the  preservation  of  the 
limb,  its  usefulness  if  preserved,  and  the  time  required  for  recovery. 
The  factors  in  the  prognosis  have  been  considered  in  detail  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapters  and  will  only  be  grouped  here  for  a  more  convenient 
general  review. 

The  prognosis  varies  with  the  age  and  condition  of  the  patient,  the 
position  and  character  of  the  fracture,  and  the  complications  present  or 
possible. 

The  Patient.  Sex  does  not  affect  the  prognosis.  Age  has  a  con- 
siderable influence;  the  younger  the  patient  the  better  the  prognosis, 
because  in  the  young  fractures  unite  more  easily  and  promptly  than 
in  the  adult,  and  advancing  years  increase  the  probability  of  dimin- 
ished vitality  and  of  the  presence  of  constitutional  dyscrasise.  But  in 
fractures  involving  or  in  close  proximity  to  joints  the  prognosis  in 
respect  of  function  is  unfavorably  affected  by  the  greater  tendency  in 
youth  to  excessive  formation  of  callus  when  the  displacement  is  not 
entirely  corrected  or  the  periosteal  irritation  is  extensive  and  long 
maintained.  In  the  old  the  prognosis  is  worse  in  respect  of  life  because 
of  their  diminished  ability  to  withstand  the  shock  and  to  bear  prolonged 
confinement  to  bed  and  pain,  and  worse  in  respect  of  function  because 
of  the  greater  difficulty  with  which  the  affected  soft  parts  and  joints 
regain  their  original  conditions.  The  reduction  of  vitality  by  degen- 
eration or  disease  of  various  organs  may  have  a  similar  effect.  Chronic 
alcoholism  exposes  to  an  outbreak  of  delirium  tremens  and,  as  does 
also  advanced  age,  to  the  so-called  hypostatic  pneumonias. 

Sudden  death  by  fat  or  pulmonary  embolism  is  possible,  but  very  rare, 
at  any  age  and  witli  almost  any  form  of  fracture. 

The  Fracture.  In  compound  fracture  the  prognosis  is  worse  in  every 
respect  than  in  simple  fracture,  and  worse  when  by  direct  violence  than 
by  indirect  violence  because  of  the  usually  greater  extent  and  severity 
of  the  associated  lesions  of  the  soft  parts.  In  gunshot  fractures  the 
prognosis  is  usually  bad,  the  laceration  of  the  soft  parts  and  the  shat- 
tering of  the  bone  being  often  such  as  to  necessitate  amputation  or 
greatly  to  limit  the  usefulness  of  the  limb  if  it  is  preserved. 

The  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  a  long  bone  generally  heals  with  some 
shortening,  the  chief  exceptions  being  the  incomplete  and  subperiosteal 
fractures  of  the  young  aod  transverse  fractures  in  which  lateral  and 
angular  displacements  can  be  reduced  or  prevented. 

Fractures  of  the  short,  or  spongy,  bones  heal  promptly,  but  the  dis- 
placement, with  or  without  crushing,   cannot   usually    be   corrected. 


G  ENER  AL  PROGN  OS  IS.  \  \  7 

Fracture  of  the  spongy  end  of  a  long  bone  usually  heals  more  quickly 
than  fracture  of  the  shaft,  but  occasionally  delay  is  occasioned,  or  even 
failure  of  union,  by  exaggeration  of  the  preliminary  rarefactive  pro- 
cess. Fracture  of  a  flat  bone  seems  specially  likely  to  be  followed  by 
exaggerated  formation  of  callus. 

Fracture  of  one  of  two  parallel  and  connected  bones  (leg,  forearm) 
is  more  easily  managed  and  has  a  better  prognosis  than  fracture  of  both 
or  of  a  single  bone,  because  the  unbroken  one  acts  as  a  splint;  an 
exception  to  this  is  found  when  the  fracture  is  accompanied  by  a  loss 
of  substance  which  creates  a  gap  between  the  fragments. 

Articular  fractures  and  fractures  near  the  joints  are  especially  liable 
to  be  followed  by  limitation  of  motion  in  the  joint;  at  the  knee  and 
elbow,  and  to  a  less  extent  the  shoulder  and  hip,  this  is  the  rule. 

No  general  statement  of  value  can  be  made  as  to  the  time  required 
to  reach  the  final  result  after  fracture  or  as  to  the  completeness  of  resto- 
ration of  function,  and  the  statistics  that  have  been  collected  are  prac- 
tically valueless  because  they  do  not  completely  discriminate  between 
the  different  forms  and  ages  of  the  patients.  Each  fracture  or  at  least 
each  class  of  fracture  must  be  judged  by  itself,  and  in  many  a  given 
case  there  can  be  no  great  certainty  that  it  will  not  vary  widely  from 
the  average.  As  1  write  this  paragraph,  I  have  just  visited  a  patient 
who  broke  the  outer  portion  of  the  head  of  the  tibia  seven  months  ago; 
I  predicted  great  loss  of  motion  and  was  gratified  when  at  the  end  of 
about  four  months  a  range  of  45°  had  been  obtained,  and  yet  within 
the  last  two  months  that  range  has  been  increased  to  90°  under  natural 
use  of  the  limb.  I  think  it  can  properly  be  said  that  an  uncompli- 
cated fracture  of  the  shaft  of  the  long  bone  of  the  arm,  forearm,  or 
leg  will,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  heal  without  any  diminution  of 
the  earning  capacity  of  the  patient  after  six  months,  and  that  almost 
all  the  remainder  will  have  reached  the  same  condition  in  a  year.  In 
fractures  of  the  shaft  of  the  femur  more  time  is  required,  and  the 
number  of  those  who  will  remain  more  or  less  disabled  is  greater.  As 
middle  life  is  passed,  the  ability  of  the  patient  to  adapt  himself  to 
changed  conditions  is  less,  the  joints  are  more  likely  to  be  stiffened, 
and  pain  in  the  limb  after  fatigue  or  when  the  weather  is  cold  and 
damp  is  more  common.  The  latest  statistics  I  have  seen  are  those  of 
Loew^  and  Ramsperger,^  collected  from  the  records  of  Aid  Societies. 
Loew's  were  of  167  simple  fractures  of  the  leg;  only  one  was  perma- 
nently disabled,  the  others  regained  their  earning  capacity  in  an  average 
of  101  days,  70  per  cent,  in  91  days  each. 

Ramperger's,  of  145  fractures  of  the  leg,  given  in  more  detail, 
show  complete  earning  capacity,  after  simple  fracture  of  the  shaft 
of  both  bone  shealed  without  deformity,  restored  in  most  during  the 
first  six  months,  in  a  ^qsy  not  until  the  third  or  fourth  year;  in  those 
that  healed  with  deformity  (36  per  cent.)  the  restoration  was  complete 
in  29  per  cent.,  in  the  remainder  the  loss  was  generally  less  than  25 
per  cent.      Of  the  compound  fractures  of  the  shaft  complete  restora- 

1  Loew  :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  f.  Chir.,  vol.  xliv.    Abstr.  in  Centralb.  f.  Chir.,  1897,  p.  855. 

2  Ramsperger  :  Korresp.  des  WUrtemb.  arzt.  Landesvereins.    Abstr.  in  Centralb.,  1897,  p.  735. 


118  FRACTURES. 

tioa  followed  in  32  per  cent.,  the  loss  in  the  remainder  was  usually  less 
than  25  per  cent. 

Of  the  simple  fractures  of  the  malleoli  there  was  recovery  without 
deformity  in  61  per  cent.,  with  deformity  in  39  per  cent.;  of  the 
former,  restoration  was  complete  in  75  per  cent.,  of  the  latter  in  23  per 
cent.  Two-thirds  of  all  resumed  work  during  the  first  six  months, 
one-third  during  the  second  six  months.  After  compound  fracture 
there  was  always  some  loss. 

After  fracture  of  the  fibula  restoration  was  always  complete,  but 
sometimes  much  delayed. 

The  more  unfavorable  estimates  of  results  in  respect  of  earning 
capacity,  notably  those  of  Lane,  are  entirely  out  of  accord  with  my 
own  experience  and  observation.  I  recently  sent  letters  to  all  the 
patients  who  had  been  treated  in  the  New  York  Hospital  for  fracture 
of  the  lower  limb  during  the  previous  year  and  received  answers  from 
twenty-six  as  follows  :  Neck  of  femur,  3;  limb  nearly  useless.  Shaft 
of  the  femur,  4;  limb^as  useful  as  before  the  injury.  Leg,  10;  in  7 
as  good  as  ever,  in  3  good  but  with  some  pain.  Pott's  fracture,  9;  in 
6  as  good  as  ever,  in  2  fairly  good,  in  1  bad. 


CHAPTER    X. 

FRACTURES   OF   THE  SKULL. 

The  function  of  the  cranium  is  so  largely  limited  to  mechanical 
protection  of  the  brain  and  its  annexa  from  external  violence,  its  frac- 
ture in  a  great  majority  of  cases  involves  after  recovery  so  slight  an 
interference  with  this  function,  and  treatment  can  do  so  little  to  dimin- 
ish this  interference,  that  the  importance  of  the  injury  lies  almost 
wholly  in  the  associated  injury  of  the  brain  and  in  the  later  inflam- 
matory or  degenerative  processes  therein  to  which  that  injury  or  that 
of  the  overlying  soft  parts  may  give  rise,  and  its  consideration  falls  in 
the  majority  of  cases  rather  under  the  rubric  of  injury  of  the  brain 
than  under  that  of  fractures.  It  is  unfortunate  that  these  injuries 
should  be  so  universally  classed  as  fractures,  for  this  leads  to  an 
undue  fixing  of  the  attention  upon  the  lesion  of  the  bone  to  the  exclu- 
sion or  minimizing  of  that  of  the  brain  and  to  undeserved  reproach  for 
occasional  failure  to  recognize  the  presence  of  fracture.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  the  violence  which  causes  fatal  injury  of  the  brain 
together  with  fracture  of  the  skull  may,  under  slightly  changed  con- 
dition, cause  the  former  without  the  latter,  and  that  in  a  large  propor- 
tion of  fatal  cases  the  fracture  is  merely  an  incident  without  any  direct 
relation  to  the  fatal  result  or  only  with  that  of  having  made  the  causa- 
tive lesion  possible.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  class  of  fractures 
in  which  the  lesions  are  entirely  local  and  limited  to  the  bone  and  the 
overlying  soft  parts,  or  in  which,  if  the  contents  of  the  cranium  are  at 
all  injured,  the  injury  is  limited  to  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
fracture.  In  these  the  fracture  is  the  essential  lesion,  and  the  treatment 
is  almost  wholly  directed  to  it.  Between  these  two  forms — generalized 
contusion  of  the  brain  and  its  envelopes,  with  or  without  fracture,  and 
circumscribed  fracture  with  or  without  localized  injury  of  the  brain  or 
meninges — there  are  others  in  which  the  character  of  the  fracture  and 
its  mode  of  production  are  exaggerations  of  those  of  the  second  group, 
and  the  effect  upon  the  contents  of  the  cranium  those  of  the  first  group. 
In  the  first  group  the  fracture  is  usually  fissured  and  almost  always 
occupies  or  extends  to  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  hemorrhages  covering 
a  large  area  though  limited  in  amount  of  extravasated  blood  are  found 
upon  the  surface  of  the  brain  and  sometimes  within  it  and  the  medulla, 
indicating  contusion;  in  the  second  the  type  is  a  compound  circum- 
scribed depressed  fracture,  possibly  with  a  rent  in  the  underlying  dura; 
in  the  intermediate  class  there  are  the  comminution  of  the  second  (but 
more  extensive  and  associated  with  fissure)  and  the  hemorrhages  and 
the  contusion  of  the  first.  In  the  production  of  the  first  the  causative 
violence  acts  broadly  upon  the  skull,  modifying  its  shape  through  its 
elasticity  and  perhaps  splitting  it  by  exceeding  the  limits  of  that  elas^ 


120 


FRACTURES. 


ticity,  and  bruising  its  contents  by  that  modification  o£  the  shape  and 
by  the  jar,  as  in  a  fall;  in  the  second,  as  in  a  blow  of  a  hammer,  the 
fotce  is  consumed  in  breaking  the  bone  at  the  point  of  impact,  there  is 
no  general  change  in  the  shape  of  the  skull,  no  diffused  effect  upon 
the  brain  as  a  whole.  Because  of  the  mode  of  production  fractures  of 
the  second  group  are  usually  compound.  In  the  intermediate  group 
the  violence  is  greater  than  in  the  others,  it  breaks  a  larger  area  of 
bone  and  is  not  exhausted  in  producing  the  fracture.  This  difference 
in  the  mode  of  production  and  in  the  effects  of  the  violence  dominates 
the  whole  subject  and  determines  the  treatment  and  the  prognosis. 
All  this  appears  plainly  in  study  of  the  mechanism,  pathology,  and 
cause  of  the  injury  in  the  various  forms. 

Mechanism  and  Pathology.  In  studying  the  mechanism  of  fracture 
certain  anatomical  features  of  the  cranium  must  be  borne  in  mind.  Of 
the  vault  and  base  of  which  it  is  composed  in  unequal  parts,  the  former 
is  globular,  thick,  and  elastic;  the  latter  is  flattened,  irregular,  thick  in 
places,  thin  in  others,  and  perforated  at  many  points  for  the  passage  of 
nerves  and  vessels.  From  the  occipital  condyles,  by  which  it  rests 
upon  the  spinal  column,  pass  outward,  backward,  and  forward  various 
thick  portions  or  ridges  constituting  a  strong  framework  to  connect 
them  with  the  vault:  the  basilar  process  and  body  of  the  sphenoid,  the 
occipital  crest,  and  the  petrous  portions  of  the  temporal  bones;  further 
forward  are  the  thicker  portions  of  the  greater  and  lesser  wings  of  the 
sphenoid  and  the  frontal  crest.  To  a  certain  extent  these  ridges  direct 
lines  of  fracture  of  the  base  to  the  thinner  intermediate  segments,  but 


Fig.  47. 


Sword  cut ;  fissured  fracture.    (Konig.) 


all  can  be  crossed  by  them.  The  vault,  wliich  varies  greatly  in  thick- 
ness at  different  points  and  in  different  individuals,  has  a  thick  outer 
and  a  thin  inner  table  of  dense  bone  separated  by  the  spongy  diploe. 
The  physical  characteristic  of  the  vault  which  most  concerns  us  is  its 
elasticity,  which  is  sufficient  to  permit  a  considerable  change  of  shape 
without  fracture — that  is,  a  diameter  of  the  skull  can  be  shortened  and 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SKULL. 


121 


Fig.  48. 


those  at  ri^ht  angles  to  it  lengthened  by  compressing  it  in  a  vise,  or  a 
portion  of  its  surface  can  be  momentarily  flattened  by  a  blow. 

The  effect  of  violence  acting  upon  tlie  skull  varies  with  its  character 
and  the  size  and  shape  of  tiie  vulnerant  body,  and  appears  in  all  the 
gradations  between  a  sliglit  crush  or  cut  of  the  outer  table  or  of  the 
entire  thickness  of  the  bone,  througii  circumscribed  depressed  areas 
to  single  or  multiple  fissures  running  completely  around.  A  cutting 
instrument,  as  a  chisel  or  sword,  cuts  partly  or  entirely  through  the 
bone  and  by  its  wedge-action  may  produce  long  fissures  running  from 
each  end  of  the  cut  if  the  weapon  is  heavy  and  the  blow  powerful 
(Fig.  47),  or,  if  the  instrument  changes  its  direction,  it  may  break  off 
a  piece  of  the  bone  and  raise  it  above  its  level. 

A  moderate  blow  with  a  pointed  or  edged  weapon  may  simply  break 
the  outer  table,  where  the  bone  is  thick,  and  depress  it  by  crushing  the 
underlying  diploe,  or,  if  the  bone  is  thin,  it  may  make  a  small  rounded 
hole  in  it  without  spliutering  or  Assuring  of  the  side.  If  the  in.stru- 
ment  is  not  sharp  or  edged  the  bone  is  bent  inward  and  the  effect  varies 
with  the  force  of  the  blow  and  the  prolongation  of  its  action.  In  the 
slightest  form  the  elasticity  of  the  skull  takes  up  and  distributes  the 
force  without  recognizable  injury  to  the  bone.  If  the  force  is  a  little 
greater  the  iuner  table,  which  is  over^gnt  in  the  movement,  splits  away 
from  the  diploe  and  is  broken  (frac- 
ture of  the  inner  table  alone),  the 
unbroken  portion  springing  back  to 
its  original  position  and  leaving  the 
fragment  more  or  less  removed  and 
changed  in  position.  The  same  effect 
has  been  produced  in  the  outer  table 
by  a  blow  from  within,  as  by  a  bullet 
that  has  traversed  the  skull  from  the 
opposite  side. 

If  the  force  is  still  greater  the 
bone  is  broken  entirely  through  to 
an  extent  and  in  directions  that  vary 
widely  and  the  circumscribed  por- 
tion remains  more  or  less  depressed. 
If  the  lines  of  fracture  do  not  en- 
tirely circumscribe  the  affected  area  the  elasticity  of  the  unbroken 
portion  brings  back  the  depressed  piece  toward  or  to  its  place  (Fig. 
49),  sometimes  imprisoning  in  the  fissure  a  few  hairs  or  a  portion  of 
the  head  covering.  If  the  circle  of  fracture  is  complete  the  enclosed 
portion  remains  depressed,  either  bodily  or,  more  commonly,  with 
sloping  sides  (Fig.  50).  From  the  edge  of  the  opening,  small  fissures 
or  circumscribed  lines  of  fracture  frequently  run.  The  inner  table  is 
always  more  extensively  broken  than  the  outer  one,  and  the  two  are 
largely  separated  from  each  other  by  planes  of  fractures  through  the 
diploe  (Fig.  51).  These  fractures  are  almost  always  compound 
because  of  the  character  of  the  causative  violence,  the  skin  yielding 
under  it  as  the  bone  does.  They  are  part  of  the  so-called  ''  compound 
comminuted  depressed  fractures  of  the  skull." 


Mechanism  of  fracture  of  the  internal  table 
by  bending  of  the  bone. 


122 


FRACTURES. 


All  of  the  injuries  thus  far  described  belong  in  what  are  termed  the 
second  group  in  the  opening  paragraph  of  this  chapter,  those  in  which 
the  dominant  feature  is  the  fracture  and  in  which  injury  to  the  brain 


Fig.  49. 


Circumscribed  fracture  with  inclusion  of  hair.    (Konig.) 

is  usually  absent  or  strictly  localized.  This  feature  is  of  so  great  prac- 
tical importance  that  I  wish  it  might  be  indicated  in  the  classifying 
nomenclature,  to  the  exclusion,  or  at  least  the  great  subordination,  of 


v--^ 


K\  i5?^Vj  V  *   1  r^-^  v'  'I'll 

ri'lPi     ivv  "*   It-.*, 


Circumscribed  depressed  fracture.    (Konig.) 


"  depression,"  which  has  long  held  the  attention  of  the  surgeon,  to  the 
hopeless  confounding  of  radically  different  cases  and  the  useless  or 
harmful  generalization  of  therapeutic  measures  tlie  value  of  which  is 
strictly  limited.     I  have  long  sought  such  a  name  that  would  be  dis- 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SKULL. 


123 


tinctivc  and  short;  possibly  '^circumscribed  fracture  of  the  vault" 
would  serve  the  purpose,  although  it  is  far  from  meeting  all  the  indi- 
cations. 

The  vast  majority  of  fractures  of  this  class  involve  the  vault,  but 
they  occasionally  occur  at  the  base,  the  vulnerant  body  reaching  it 
through  the  mouth  or  orbit,  and  in  a  very  few  cases  even  the  condyle 
of  the  lower  jaw  has  been  driven  through  the  roof  of  its  socket,  or  the 
ethmoid  driven  in  by  a  blow  on  the  nose.  The  prognosis  is  worse  in 
these  basal  cases  because  important  parts  of  the  brain  are  usually 
injured,  efficient  treatment  is  impracticable,  and  infection  is  more 
likely  to  occur. 


Fig.  51. 


Circumscribed  depressed  fracture,  iuner  side ; 
healed.    (Konig.) 


Fracture  of  internal  table. 
(Bergmann.) 


The  other  group  of  fractures,  those  produced  by  a  force  acting 
broadly  upon  the  cranium  to  modify  its  shape  as  a  whole,  include 
almo.st  all  fractures  of  the  base,  and  all  so-called  "  indirect  fractures  " 
and  '^  fractures  by  contrecoup"  which  have  had  so  large  a  part  in  the 
discussion  of  this  subject.  In  these,  I  repeat,  the  important  lesion  is 
that  produced  in  the  brain;  the  fracture  is  an  incident,  it  usually  has 
no  influence  upon  the  progress  of  the  case  and  gives  rise  to  no  thera- 
peutical indications.  Similar  brain  lesions  can  be  produced  without 
fracture,  and  the.se  cases  belong  among  injuries  of  the  brain  rather  than 
among  fractures.  This  makes  a  detailed  account  of  the  many  forms, 
their  relative  frequency,  and  their  more  or  less  hypothetical  relations 
to  different  forms  of  violence  unnecessary  in  a  work  of  the  scope  of 
this  one. 

The  mode  of  production  of  these  fractures  has  been  the  subject  of 


124  FRACTURES. 

close  observation,  experiment,  and  study  by  many,  among  whom  I 
shall  mention  only  Aran,  Felizet,  Messemer,  and  Von  Wahl.  Another, 
Daret, '  deserves  to  be  remembered,  perhaps  above  all  others,  for  his 
remarkable  investigations  and  his  theory  of  mechanism  by  which  the 
changes  of  shape  of  the  cranium  produce  the  often  distant  lesions  of 
the  brain  and  meninges,  a  theory  which,  even  if  carried  in  its  details 
somewhat  further  than  it  can  readily  be  followed,  and  possibly  even 
incorrect,  has  yet  been  most  valuable  in  fixing  the  attention  upon  the 
intracranial  lesions  and  clearing  away  a  large  amount  of  nebulous  the- 
ories concerning  distant  effects  and  their  hypothetical  causes. 

The  theory  of  these  fractures  as  now  apprehended  is  based  in  part 
upon  the  shorteniug  of  the  diameter  in  the  direction  of  the  violence 
and  the  consequent  lengthening  of  those  at  right  angles  to  it,  and  in 
part  upon  the  overbending  of  the  bone  under  a  like  strain.  In  a 
globular  body  of  uniform  elasticity  the  shortening  of  one  diameter 
under  pressure  is  necessarily  accompanied  by  the  enlargement  of  the 
mass  in  the  line  of  the  equator  and  in  the  corresponding  separation 
of  the  meridians.  If  the  limit  of  cohesion  is  passed,  separation  (frac- 
ture) necessarily  takes  place  between  two,  or  more,  meridians,  and  the 
line  of  fracture  runs  approximately  from  pole  to  pole — that  is,  from 
the  point  struck  to  one  diametrically  opposite — along  a  meridian.  To 
these  Messemer  gave  the  name  of  ^'  bursting  fracture."  Thus,  in  the 
skull,  a  blow  received  in  the  centre  of  the  frontal  bone  and  directed 
backward  would  shorten  the  antero-posterior  diameter  and  enlarge  the 
skull  in  the  central  transverse  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  force, 
and,  if  strong  enough,  produce  one  or  more  fissured  fractures  running 
from  before  backward  along  the  summit  or  side  of  the  cranium.  If 
the  blow  were  received  upon  the  side  the  lines  of  fracture  would  be 
transverse  through  the  vault  or  base  or  both. 

Under  other  circumstances  not  fully  understood,  but  probably  de- 
pendent upon  lack  of  uniformity  in  or  differing  degrees  of  elasticity,  the 
yielding  along  the  line  of  impact  is  not  so  fully  or  so  promptly  met  by 
expansion  in  the  other  plane,  and  the  bone  breaks  at  the  point  of  maxi- 
mum curvature  at  the  periphery  of  the  depressed  area  and  along  what 
may  be  termed  a  parallel  of  latitude,  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  force, 
producing  what  Von  Wahl  names  a  ''  bending  fracture."  Thus,  a  force 
acting  from  before  backward  upon  the  centre  of  the  frontal  bone  would 
produce  this  form  of  fracture  along  a  line  crossing  the  cranium  from 
side  to  side. 

The  lines  of  fracture  produced  in  these  two  ways  are  modified  by 
lack  of  uniformity  iu  the  shape  and  structure  of  the  cranium  and  by 
the  degree  of  the  fracturing  force;  the  majority  of  those  involving  the 
base  and  limited  to  a  single  zone  occupy  the  middle  fossa,  and  in  those 
not  limited  to  a  single  zone  the  violence  appears  to  have  been  greater, 
and  the  portion  of  the  vault  which  has  received  the  blow  shows  ex- 
tensive splintering  (Von  Bergmann).  The  direction  of  fissures  lim- 
ited to  the  middle  fossa  is  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  transverse, 
following  one  of  two  paths,  either  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  petrous 

1  Dnret:  Etudes  Experimeutales  et  Cliniques  sur  les  Traumatismes  Cert>braux.    Paris,  1878. 


FEA  CT  URES  0  F  THE  SK  ULL.  1 2  5 

portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  parallel  to  its  long  axis  and  opening  into 
the  middle  ear,  or  further  forward  in  tlie  great  wing  of  the  sphenoid. 
The  cause  is  a  blow  upon  the  vertex  or  the  side  of  the  skull,  and  the 
fracture  ends  in  the  foramen  lacerum  anterius  or  in  the  sphenoidal 
fissure.  If  the  force  is  greater  the  fracture  may  extend  across  the 
sella  turcica  into  the  opposite  middle  fossa,  or  obliquely  through  the 
sphenoid  into  the  opposite  anterior  fossa,  or  into  tlie  anterior  fossa  of 
the  same  side.  Fractures  of  the  posterior  fossa,  caused  by  a  blow  on 
the  occiput,  are  rarely  limited  to  it,  but  cross  the  petrous  portion  to 
the  middle  fossa,  but  never  cross  the  occipital  ridge;  and  those  of  the 
anterior  fossa  usually  pass  through  the  upper  margin  of  the  orbit  and 
run  back  to  the  optic  or  sphenoidal  foramen,  extending  sometimes  across 
the  middle  into  the  posterior  fossa,  sometimes  also  across  the  cribriform 
plate  to  the  other  orbit  (Konig).  In  crushing  fracture  of  the  bones  of 
the  face  longitudinal  fracture  of  the  base  along  the  body  of  the  sphe- 
noid appears  to  be  frequent. 

That  most  of  the  fractures  produced  in  this  manner  occupy  the  base 
with  but  little  or  no  extension  to  the  vault  is  to  be  explained  by  the 
less  resistance  of  the  base  due  to  its  relative  thinness  and  its  irregu- 
larity of  shape  and  also,  possibly,  in  part  to  the  impinging  force  or  the 
resistance  of  the  body  exerted  upon  the  base  by  the  spinal  column 
through  the  occipital  condyles.  When  the  vault  is  more  extensively 
involved  the  line  of  fracture  may  cross  it  completely  in  any  direction 
either  as  a  long  fissure  with  little  change  of  place  or  with  a  separation 
so  free  that  the  two  halv^es  of  the  skull  can  be  freely  moved  upon  each 
other.  The  internal  table  shows  no  splintering.  The  short  isolated 
fissures  distant  from  the  point  struck,  which  are  seen  not  infrequently 
in  the  base  and  occasionally,  but  very  rarely,  in  the  vault,  are  produced 
in  a  variety  of  ways  and  will  be  considered  in  the  following  paragraph 
among  the  exceptional  forms.  Most  of  the  extensive  fissures  of  the 
vault  belong  in  what  was  spoken  of  in  the  opening  paragraph  of  this 
chapter  as  the  group  of  fractures  intermediate  between  the  two  main 
groups,  those  in  which  the  causative  violence  is  great  and  produces 
extensive  crushing  fracture  at  the  point  struck,  with  radiating  fissures 
and  generalized  lesion  of  the  brain.  They  are  sometimes,  but  not 
always,  compound. 

Exceptional  forms  of  fracture,  the  mode  of  production  of  some  of  which 
is  very  obscure,  are  found  at  many  points.  '  The  small  isolated  fissures 
at  a  distance  from,  or  even  directly  opposite,  the  point  struck,  to  which 
the  name  ^'fracture  by  contrecoup"  was  given,  belong  almost  all 
among  the  ''bursting"  or  "bending"  fractures,  those  of  the  base 
(when  the  blow  has  been  received  upon  the  vertex)  being  due  to  the 
resistance  of  the  spinal  column  acting  through  the  occipital  condyles. 
The  cases  in  which  the  fracture  is  directly  opposite  the  point  struck 
are  so  few  and  so  doubtful  that  their  existence  has  been  denied,  yet 
Perrin  produced  experimentally  a  fracture  of  the  frontal  bone  by 
throwing  a  skull  upon  its  occiput,  and  therefore  the  possibility  must 
be  admitted.  Inclusion  in  this  group  of  fractures  at  such  a  point  pro- 
duced by  a  second  blow  directly  upon  it,  as  when  a  fracture  of  the 
occiput  is  caused  by  a  fall  upon  the  back  of  the  head  following  a  blow 


126  FRACTURES. 

upon  the  forehead,  is,  of  course,  unjustifiable.  A  special  group  of 
nine  cases  collected  by  Von  Bergmann^  in  which  the  orbital  plate  was 
broken  is  of  great  interest.  In  four  cases  the  primary  violence  was 
by  a  glancing  bullet,  in  the  others  a  bullet  penetrating  the  temporal 
(3),  the  occipital  (1),  and  the  parietal  (1).  In  some  only  one  orbital 
plate  was  broken,  in  others  both;  the  fracture  was  either  a  straight 
fissure  or  circular;  in  President  Lincoln's  case"^  (perforation  of  the 
occipital  by  a  bullet)  both  plates  were  broken  and  the  fragments 
"  pushed  up  toward  the  brain;"  in  two  the  fragments  were  depressed 
a  few  millimetres  into  the  orbit.  In  an  allied  case  a  perforating  bullet 
wound  of  the  right  parietal  was  accompanied  by  a  fissure  extending 
from  the  sella  turcica  through  the  great  wing  of  the  sphenoid.  The 
explanation  offered  by  Longmore^  and  Von  Bergmann  is  by  momen- 
tary excessive  intracranial  pressure  produced  by  the  penetration  of  the 
ball  or  the  bending  inward  of  the  vault. 

Fracture  of  the  posterior  clinoid  processes  is  occasionally  observed, 
evidently  produced  by  traction  upon  them  by  the  attached  tentorium 
during  elongation  of  the  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  skull. 

The  so-called  ''  ring  fractures"  about  the  foramen  magnum  caused 
by  a  fall  upon  the  feet  or  buttocks  are  due  to  the  impact  of  the  skull, 
through  the  occipital  condyles,  upon  the  upper  end  of  the  spinal  col- 
umn, just  as,  to  use  Felizet's  comparison,  the  head  of  a  hammer  is 
driven  firmly  down  upon  its  handle  by  striking  the  other  end  of  the 
latter  against  the  ground. 

Exceptional  isolated  fractures  of  the  base  by  direct  violence  have 
been  referred  to,  such  as  those  produced  by  the  passage  of  a  bullet,  a 
stick,  or  a  knife  through  the  orbit  or  the  mouth,  fracture  of  the 
ethmoid  by  a  blow  upon  the  nose,  or  fracture  of  the  temporal  by  the 
pressure  of  the  condyle  of  the  inferior  maxilla  in  a  blow  upon  the 
chin.  Fracture  of  the  anterior  wall  of  the  auditory  canal  by  the  same 
cause  deserves  mention  because  of  the  bleeding  from  the  ear  which  it 
occasions  and  which  may  be  mistaken  for  that  following  fracture  of  the 
petrous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone.  These  fractures  owe  their  impor- 
tance to  the  associated  injuries  of  the  contents  of  the  cranium,  espe- 
cially of  the  carotid  artery  and  cavernous  sinus  in  wounds  through  the 
orbit,  and  to  the  possibility  of  the  spread  of  infection  from  the  outside 
to  the  interior. 

Fractures  of  the  Internal  Table.  These  are  apparently  extremely  rare. 
In  the  Medical  cmd  Surgical  History  of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion  twenty 
cases  observed  during  the  war  are  recorded  and  brief  notes  are  given 
of  twenty-nine  cases  reported  during  the  preceding  two  hundred  years. 
Von  Bergmann  describes  three  additional  specimens.  In  the  great 
majority  of  the  reported  cases  the  cause  was  a  blow  by  a  glancing 
bullet  which  exposed  the  bone  but  left  the  outer  table  uninjured  or 
only  grooved  or  contused;  among  the  other  causes  are  blows  with  small 
round  objects,  such  as  a  hammer,  a  cricket-ball,  a  beer  glass;  in  only 
one  case  was  the  cause  a  fall  upon  the  head.  The  alleged  greater 
brittleness  of  the  internal  table  appears  to  be  entirely  foreign  to  this 

1  Von  Bergmann  :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  30,  p.  211. 

2  Surg.  Hist.  War  of  the  Rebellion,  vol.  i.  p.  305.  s  Lancet,  1865,  vol.  ii.  p.  649. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SKULL.  127 

limitation  of  the  effect  of  the  blow,  the  cause  of  which  is  the  over- 
bending  of  the  table  as  described  above. 

The  fracture  may  be  a  simple  fissure,  one  side  of  which  is  slightly 
depressed,  or  circumscribing  and  detaching  a  scale  of  bone,  or,  more 
coramoaly,  a  comminuted  one  with  a  marked  central  depression  (Fig. 
52).  The  dura  may  be  torn  or  the  small  fragment  may  be  forced 
entirely  through  it.  In  one  case  the  middle  meningeal  artery  was  torn. 
In  some  of  the  cases  close  examination  after  death  has  shown  a  slight 
fissure  of  the  outer  table  and  diploe.  As  almost  all  the  reported  cases 
have  ended  fatally,  usually  in  consequence  of  suppuration  of  the  super- 
ficial wound  and  extension  of  the  infection  to  the  interior  of  the  cra- 
nium, it  is  possible  that  many  other  cases  not  thus  complicated  have 
ended  in  recovery  and  passed  unrecognized;  the  inference  then  would 
be  that  the  danger  to  life  lay  not  in  the  fracture  or  in  the  displacement 
of  a  fragment  but  in  the  coexisting  wound  and  the  spread  of  infection 
from  it. 

The  coincident  injuries  of  the  contents  of  the  cranhwi  are  rupture  of 
the  dura  and  pia,  laceration  and  contusion  of  the  brain,  rupture  of 
arteries,  venous  sinuses,  and  cranial  nerves,  and  multiple  extravasations 
of  blood  from  the  smaller  vessels  on  the  surface  of  the  brain  and  ven- 
tricles and  less  frequently  in  its  substance. 

The  dura  is  rarely  torn  except  when  the  fragments  are  notably  driven 
inward,  and  then  only  to  a  moderate  extent.  Direct  contusion  and 
laceration  of  the  brain,  recognizable  macroscopically,  is  found  only 
under  the  same  circumstances,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  even 
in  the  slighter  cases  it  receives  a  contusion  which  makes  it  peculiarly 
liable  to  be  secondarily  affected  by  infection  proceeding  from  suppura- 
tion of  the  adjoining  scalp;  that  is,  central  abscesses  and  cysts  which 
are  probably  not  the  remains  of  hemorrhages  are  occasionally  observed, 
the  former  after  suppuration  of  the  scalp,  the  latter  after  even  simple 
fracture. 

The  hemorrhages  from  the  vessels  of  the  pia  which  are  constant  in 
the  "  bursting"  and  ''  bending"  fractures  are  attributed  by  Duret  to 
rupture  of  the  smaller  vessels  by  the  sudden  forced  shifting  of  the 
cerebro-spinal  liquid  under  the  influence  of  the  blow  and  the  change 
in  the  shape  of  the  skull  thereby  produced,  by  which  certain  portions 
of  the  space  in  which  it  is  contained  are  sharply  distended  and  the 
connected  vessels  torn.  The  effects  are  seen  not  only  on  the  surface 
of  the  brain  or  in  the  subarachnoid  space  but  also  within  the  cortex 
and  in  the  ventricles,  especially  the  fourth,  and  it  is  to  these  that  many 
of  the  cerebral  symptoms  are  to  be  attributed.  This  also  is  the  expla- 
nation of  the  presence  of  the  hemorrhages  found  at  points  distant  from 
the  one  struck. 

Rupture  of  the  middle  meningeal  artery  is  followed  by  increasing 
extravasation  of  blood,  usually  between  the  dura  and  the  skull,  with 
quite  characteristic  symptoms  and  the  possibility  of  relief  by  operation. 

Rupture  of  the  cavernous  sinus,  and  more  rarely  of  the  carotid  artery 
where  it  lies  within  it,  is  seen  in  some  fractures  of  the  base  and  espe- 
cially in  those  due  to  the  entrance  of  the  vulnerant  body  through  the 
orbit.      Occasionally  an  arterio- venous  aneurysm  results.     The  other 


128  FRACTURES. 

sinuses  may  also  be  torn  when  the  line  of  fracture  crosses  them,  but 
the  complication  seems  rarely  to  be  important. 

Laceration  of  a  cranial  nerve  is  rare;  the  facial  most  frequently. 
But  interference  with  function  by  hemorrhage  into  the  sheath  of  a 
nerve  is  more  common. 

Pathological  and  Reparative  Processes  following  Fracture. 

These  differ  radically  according  as  infection  is  present  or  absent,  and 
while  this  difference  does  not  exactly  coincide  with  that  of  simple  and 
compound  fractures  yet  the  existence  of  an  open  wound  in  communi- 
cation with  or  even  near  the  fracture  creates  dangers  which  are  almost 
wholly  absent  from  simple  fractures. 

Repair  of  the  fracture  is  effected  largely  by  the  diploe,  and  although 
the  pericranium  and  dura  can  each  produce  bone  they  usually  do  so  to 
only  a  slight  extent,  and  consequently  an  overgrown  callus  is  rare. 
Moreover,  the  osteogenetic  action  is  rarely  sufficient  to  close  even  a 
small  gap  in  the  bone,  so  that  gaps  created  by  the  removal  of  frag- 
ments or  trephining  are  habitually  closed  only  by  fibrous  tissue  with 
at  the  most  a  small  margin  of  new  bone  along  the  edge  of  the  opening. 
Depressed  fragments  heal  in  the  position  in  which  they  are  left  (Fig. 
51),  and  large  broad  depressions  in  infants  will  often  be  diminished 
by  intracranial  pressure. 

Persistent  depression  in  the  motor  area  may  maintain  a  correspond- 
ing paralysis  by  its  local  pressure  upon  the  cortex,  but  the  weight  of 
surgical  opinion  at  the  present  time  is  opposed  to  the  belief  that  it  has 
any  marked  influence  in  producing  irritation  or  other  functional  dis- 
turbances, such  as  epilepsy.^  It  has  been  abundantly  shown  clinically 
and  by  experiment  that  the  brain  readily  accommodates  itself  to  a 
marked  diminution  of  the  cranial  capacity,  and  that  even  a  sudden 
diminution  must  amount  to  about  two  cubic  inches  in  the  adult  skull 
before  it  can  of  itself  produce  permanent  symptoms  of  general  com- 
pression. In  very  few  fractures  is  the  depression  as  great  as  that,  and 
the  symptoms  which  accompany  it  rarely  differ  from  those  of  other 
fractures  with  little  or  no  depression.  That  cerebral  symptoms  have 
been  promptly  relieved  by  the  removal  of  a  depressed  portion  of  bone 
does  not  prove  that  the  depression  was  their  cause,  for  similar  relief 
has  often  been  given  by  the  removal  of  portions  that  were  not  depressed 
or  in  any  way  altered,  and  even  by  operations  on  distant  parts  of  the 
body.  The  clinical  grounds  for  the  belief  that  the  scar  following 
removal  of  a  portion  of  the  skull  is  able  to  cause  functional  disorders 
are  as  good  as  those  that  a  persistent  depression  can  do  so.  It  seems 
probable  that  if  the  dura  is  torn,  and  intrameningeal  adhesions  thereby 
produced,  the  chances  of  chronic  irritation  and  functional  derangement 
are  greater  than  if  such  adhesions  do  not  exist. 

Contusion  of  the  brain  and  laceration  of  its  vessels  and  of  those  of 
the  pia,  in  uncomplicated  cases  in  which  the  patient  survives  the  pri- 
mary injury,  heal  kindly,  and  the  cases  in  which  they  give  rise  to  a 

1  See  Von  Bergmann,  Koiiig,  Hutchinson,  in  London  Hospital  Reports,  Yoi.  vi. :  Echeverria,  Arch. 
G6n.  de  Mfid.,  1878. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SKULL.  129 

meningitis  of  any  extent  or  importance  are  very  exceptional.  The 
extravasated  blood  is  absorbed,  or  occasionally  remains  as  a  cyst. 
Occasionally,  but  very  rarely,  suppuration  takes  place  beneath  a  simple 
fracture,  just  as  it  does  in  closed  injuries  in  otlier  parts  of  the  body. 

Generalized  contusion  of  the  brain,  as  seen  in  the  ''  bursting"  and 
^'  bending"  fractures  and  in  those  of  the  intermediary  group,  is  gen- 
erally fatal,  but  not  through  meningitis.  The  lesions  are  more  exten- 
sive than  those  of  most  apoplexies  and  apparently  they  kill  in  like 
manner.  Even  in  fractures  of  the  base  with  rupture  into  the  middle 
ear  the  cases  in  which  an  intracranial  infection  has  originated  through 
this  commnnication  with  the  exterior  are,  in  my  experience,  very  rare. 
It  is  the  cerebral  lesion  that  kills,  not  the  fracture  or  any  secondary 
result  of  the  fracture. 

In  compound  fractures  when  infection  is  avoided  repair  goes  on  in 
the  same  manner;  but  if  the  wound  suppurates  the  infection  may  spread 
not  only  to  the  bone  but  also,  as  in  cases  of  phlegmon  without  fracture, 
to  the  interior  of  the  cranium  by  lymph  channels,  connective  tissue, 
and  thrombi  in  the  veins,  and  thus  give  rise  to  suppurative  meningitis 
and  pysemia.  In  short,  the  progress  of  a  case  is  determined  mainly 
by  the  character  and  extent  of  the  intracranial  lesions  and  the  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  infection,  and  the  fracture  as  such  usually  has  but 
little  influence  upon  it. 

Symptoms,  Diagnosis,  and  Treatment.  The  distinction  which  has  been 
made  between  those  cases  in  which  the  fracture  is  an  important,  perhaps 
the  principal,  lesion  and  those  in  which  it  is  only  a  comparatively  unim- 
portant accompaniment  of  grave  lesions  of  the  brain  and  its  annexa 
must  here  be  kept  constantly  in  mind.  Fortunately,  in  the  former,  in 
which  the  recognition  of  the  fracture  is  important  because  of  the  thera- 
peutic indications  which  arise  from  it,  the  diagnosis  is  usually  easy; 
and  in  the  latter,  in  which  the  fracture  seldom  demands  or  can  receive 
any  direct  treatment  or  affects  in  any  way  the  prognosis,  and  in  which 
the  practical  interest  is  limited  to  the  intracranial  injuries,  the  fact  that 
the  existence  of  a  fracture  can  only  be  inferred,  and  not  be  demonstrated, 
does  not  leave  us  less  able  to  do  all  that  can  be  done  for  the  patient. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  following  the  usual  division  of  the  subject — 
fractures  of  the  vault  and  fractures  of  the  base — I  shall  use  that  of 
cirGumscribed  fixiclures  of  the  vault  and  fissured  fractures  ivith  generalized 
brain  injury,  with  separate  consideration  of  the  rarer  forms  which  lie 
outside  of  this  grouping.  Furthermore,  as  diagnostic  and  therapeutic 
measures  in  many  cases  run  closely  together  or  even  coincide,  I  shall 
at  the  same  time  consider  the  treatment. 

Circumscribed  Fractures  of  the  Vault. 

As  these  fractures  are  produced  by  a  blow  from  a  relatively  small 
body  or  from  one  having  an  edge  or  corner,  the  fracture  is  often  com- 
pound and  the  diagnosis  is  made  by  direct  inspection  and  palpation  of 
the  bone.  In  most  cases  there  is  no  difficulty;  the  fragments  can  be 
seen  and  felt  at  the  bottom  of  the  wound,  and  it  remains  only  to  deter- 
mine the  extent  of  the  fracture  and  apply  the  appropriate  treatment. 

9 


130  FRACTURES. 

In  the  doubtful  cases  the  bone  has  to  be  carefully  examined  in  search 
of  a  fissure,  or  its  condition  and  the  character  of  the  violence  con- 
sidered as  bearing  upon  the  probability  of  a  fracture  of  the  internal 
table. 

In  respect  of  a  fissure  the  edge  of  the  torn  periosteum  can  easily  be 
mistaken  for  one  by  touch,  or  a  cranial  suture  by  the  eye.  The  error 
in  the  first  case  is  so  easily  made,  even  when  one  is  on  his  guard  against 
it,  that  the  finger  should  not  be  trusted;  in  the  second  the  fissure  can 
generally  be  recognized  by  its  bleeding,  when  fresh  or  when  rubbed. 
The  importance  of  its  recognition  comes  from  its  possible  indication  of 
more  extensive  fracture  beneath  and  from  the  frequent  advisability  of 
enlarging  it  for  thorough  disinfection. 

When  the  bone  is  distinctly  broken  and  depressed,  even  when  the 
area  is  small,  the  depressed  portion  should  be  raised.  If  it  proves  to 
be  only  a  fracture  and  depression  of  the  outer  table  the  operation  needs 
to  be  carried  no  further;  the  wound  is  washed  and  closed.  If  the 
entire  thickness  of  the  bone  is  broken  the  deeper  as  well  as  the  super- 
ficial fragments  must  be  removed.  It  is  rarely  necessary  to  use  a 
trephine  for  this  purpose,  for  the  corner  of  a  chisel  or  elevator  can  be 
engaged  under  the  edge  of  a  fragment  and  thus  raise  it,  and  after  one 
piece  has  been  removed  the  removal  of  the  deeper  ones  is  easy,  for 
they  can  be  grasped  with  forceps  and  withdrawn  by  careful  traction; 
the  amount  of  internal  table  removed  is  greater  than  that  of  the  outer 
table.  If  the  dura  is  torn,  and  there  is  no  bleeding  from  the  pia,  the 
opening  in  the  dura  should  be  closed  with  catgut  sutures;  if  there  is 
free  bleeding  from  the  pia  the  wound  should  be  packed  with  gauze  for 
a  few  hours,  after  which  the  opening  in  the  dura  may  be  closed.  The 
overlying  soft  parts,  including  the  pericranium  as  far  as  possible,  should 
be  closed  with  sutures,  a  small  gauze  drain  being  inserted  and  main- 
tained for  a  day  or  two.  The  scalp  should  be  shaved  for  some  distance 
about  the  wound  and  thoroughly  disinfected  by  scrubbing  and  washing 
with  bichloride  before  anything  is  done  to  the  bone. 

When  the  gap  left  by  the  removal  of  bone  is  large  and  the  wound 
is  clean  a  thin  sheet  of  aluminum,  celluloid,  rubber  tissue,  or  foil  cut 
to  fit  it  may  be  inserted  in  it.  The  softer  materials  seem  to  answer  as 
well  as  the  firmer  ones  by  leading  to  the  formation  of  a  thick  and 
tough  cicatrix.  Gold  foil  or  rubber  tissue  has  sometimes  been  placed 
beneath  the  torn  dura  to  prevent  meningeal  adhesions,  but  either  is 
liable  to  induce  exaggerated  cicatricial  formation.  Freeman  has  lately 
recommended  the  use  of  the  lining  membrane  of  an  egg. 

In  small  'perforations,  as  by  a  nail  or  even  by  the  end  of  a  small 
stick  (the  handle  of  a  paint-brush  in  one  of  my  own  cases),  the  open- 
ing must  be  enlarged  by  the  chisel  or  trephine  for  the  better  cleaning 
of  the  deeper  parts  of  the  wound;  and  in  pistol-shot  fractures  this  is 
also  necessary,  but  only  for  the  same  purpose  and  for  the  removal  of 
the  ball,  if  it  is  within  easy  reach,  and  of  small  fragments.  Bullets 
can  heal  in,  and  without  giving  rise  to  late  consequences;  and  I  think 
the  risks  of  attempts  to  remove  a  bullet  are  greater  than  those  of  leav- 
ing it  in  place  if  the  orifice  of  entry  is  the  only  communication  with 
the  exterior  and  can  be  thoroughly  cleaned.     If  the  bullet  in  its  pas- 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SKULL.  131 

sage  has  opened  the  ethmoid  cells  or  the  frontal  sinus  infection  from 
that  side  is  probable  and  the  bullet  should  be  removed  if  possible,  but 
whether  it  is  removable  or  not  the  prognosis  is  thoroughly  bad. 

In  any  of  these  cases  there  may  be  free  hemorrhage  from  witliin  the 
cranium  and  escape  of  brain  tissue,  or,  very  rarely,  a  flow  of  cerebro- 
spinal liquid  coming  from  the  subarachnoid  space  or  even  from  the 
lateral  ventricle.  Bleeding  from  a  wounded  sinus  can  be  arrested  by 
lateral  ligature  or  suture  or  by  packing. 

Circumscribed  depression  without  wound  of  the  soft  parts  may  be  recog- 
nized by  the  finger,  which  when  carried  firmly  along  from  the  adjoining 
bone  appreciates  the  change  in  level,  but  a  very  similar  sensation  is 
given  by  the  swollen  circular  margin  of  a  deep  contusion ;  that  is,  the 
finger  passes  over  a  firm  rim  to  a  soft  central  area  which  suggests 
depression.  Error  can  be  avoided  by  making  firm  pressure  on  the 
hard  margin  and  then  passing  slowly  toward  the  centre;  the  margin 
yields  under  the  pressure  and  the  finger  recognizes  the  level  resistance 
of  the  bone  throughout. 

In  these  cases,  as  in  the  preceding,  general  symptoms — cerebral  shock 
or  contusion — may  be  slight,  transient,  or  absent;  the  stunning,  the 
partial  or  complete  unconsciousness  passes  and  is  perhaps  followed  by 
nausea  and  headache;  if  they  are  more  than  this  they  indicate  gener- 
alized lesions  that  bring  the  case  into  the  intermediate  group,  to  be 
subsequently  considered.  If  the  depression  is  immediately  over  a  por- 
tion of  the  motor  area  or  a  special  centre  there  may  be  a  corresponding 
paralysis  or  abolition  of  function.  Very  rarely  a  fluctuating  tumor 
may  form  under  the  skin  which  on  puncture  proves  to  contain  cerebro- 
spinal liquid  that  has  escaped  through  the  torn  dura.  This  has  been 
observed  only  in  young  children. 

In  the  treatment  of  these  simple  circumscribed  fractures  with  depres- 
sion there  are  two  things  to  be  considered  :  the  efPect  upon  the  brain  and 
meninges  if  the  depression  persists,  and  the  risks  involved  in  relieving 
it.  The  reasons  have  been  given  above  for  the  belief  that  persistent 
depression  is  not  often  responsible  for  the  late  functional  disturbances 
that  have  been  attributed  to  it,  and  that  consequently  it  does  not,  in 
the  absence  of  special  indications,  imperatively  require  relief.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  although  it  is  properly  urged  that  the  unbroken 
skin  is  a  safer  protection  against  infection  than  the  strictest  asepsis 
(K5nig),  yet  the  danger  incurred  in  makiug  an  opening  in  the  vault  of 
the  cranium,  especially  if  the  dura  is  not  wounded,  is  so  slight  that  I 
cannot  criticise  those  who  act  upon  the  conviction  that  it  is  less  than 
those  of  persistent  displacement  even  when  the  disadvantages  of  the 
resultant  gap  are  taken  into  account.  This  applies  only  to  small  areas 
of  depression  and  the  removal  of  only  a  small  portion  of  bone.  The 
special  indications  referred  to,  which  call  for  operation,  are  found  in 
the  evidences  of  localized  pressure  or  of  hemorrhage  from  a  branch  of 
the  middle  meningeal  artery.  (See  below.)  The  value  of  a  localized 
symptom  (as  monoplegia,  etc.)  is  much  greater  in  a  fresh  injury  than 
when  it  occurs  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  days,  for  in  the  latter  case  it 
may  be  due  to  the  spread  of  inflammation  from  a  primary  focus  at 
some  little  distance  from  the  centre  which  corresponds  to  the  paralysis. 


132  FRACTURES. 

Fissured  Fractures  with  G-eneralized  Brain  Injury. 

These,  let  me  repeat,  are  the  ^'  bending'^  and  ^'  bursting"  fractures 
produced  by  violence  acting  broadly  upon  the  skull,  changing  its  shape 
temporarily  beyond  the  limits  of  its  elasticity,  and  causing  contusion 
of  the  brain  with  larger  or  smaller  hemorrhages  especially  upon  its 
surface.  In  the  great  majority  the  fracture  occupies  or  extends  to  the 
base  of  the  skull,  and  the  injury  is  hence  generally  spoken  of  as  fracture 
of  the  base.  The  principal  injury  is  the  lesion  of  the  brain,  and  the 
associated  fracture  is  mainly  of  importance  as  indicating  that  the  injury 
to  the  brain  is  probably  extensive  and  grave.  The  opinion  long  held 
that  fractures  of  the  base  were  necessarily  fatal  has  been  shown  to  be 
exaggerated,  but  yet  the  percentage  of  mortality  is  high,  and  similarly 
produced  fractures  of  the  vault  have  a  like  gravity.  The  chief  symp- 
tom of  the  brain  injury  is  unconsciousness,  more  or  less  complete,  with 
the  history  of  a  blow,  irregularity  of  the  pupils,  and  a  moderate  rise 
of  temperature.  The  high  temperatures  which  have  been  spoken  of 
as  constant,  105°  to  107°  (Phelps),  I  have  seen  only  in  the  few  hours 
before  death.  Paralytic  symptoms  and  symptoms  connected  with  the 
circulation  and  respiration  depend  upon  the  portions  of  the  brain  and 
medulla  involved  in  the  injury. 

The  differentiation  is  with  other  forms  of  coma,  especially  the  alco- 
holic, and  is  often  extremely  difficult  or  even  impossible,  as  when 
alcoholism  coincides  with  trauma.  The  points  of  difference  (with 
many  exceptions)  are  that  in  alcoholic  coma  the  temperature  is  not 
raised,  the  unconsciousness  is  less  deep,  the  pupils  are  equal  and  respon- 
sive. It  must  always  be  remembered  that  the  two  conditions  may 
coexist. 

The  symptoms  belonging  to  the  fracture  itself  are  hemorrhages, 
ecchymoses,  occasionally  a  watery  discharge  from  the  ear  or  nose,  and 
deafness  of  the  ear  of  the  affected  side. 

Hemorrhage  from  the  ear,  nose,  or  mouth  is  frequent,  that  from  the 
ear  being  almost  pathognomonic  of  a  fracture  through  the  petrous  por- 
tion of  the  temporal  bone;  it  is  usually  slight  but  may  be  profuse. 
Konig  refers  to  a  case  in  which  the  flow  from  the  middle  ear  through 
the  Eustachian  tube  into  the  month  was  so  abundant  that  he  felt  obliged 
to  do  tracheotomy  to  prevent  suffocation.  Bleeding  from  the  ear  which 
may  be  mistaken  for  that  of  a  fracture  of  tiie  base  may  be  due  to  rup- 
ture of  the  membrana  tympani  or  to  injury  of  the  external  auditory 
canal  by  a  blow  upon  the  chin  which  has  forced  the  condyle  of  the  jaw 
backward,  or  even  to  a  fissure  of  the  vault  extending  to  the  mastoid 
process. 

Ecchymosis  at  certain  points,  not  due  to  direct  contusion,  is  signifi- 
cant of  fracture.  The  most  common  is  that  beneath  the  ocular  con- 
junctiva, spreading  to  that  of  the  lids  and  then  to  the  skin  of  the  latter; 
it  is  most  constant  and  marked  in  fractures  of  the  orbital  plate  and 
sphenoid.  A  slight  ecchymosis  behind  the  ear  is  often  found  after  a 
day  or  two. 

A  watery  discharge  from  the  ear  after  fracture  of  the  base  is  not 
infrequent  and  is  sometimes  very  profuse  (in  one  case  63  ounces  in 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SKULL.  13;3 

four  and  one-half  days).  Four  varieties  differing  in  the  amount  and 
character  of  the  discharge  have  been  observed  :  (1)  The  flow  is  abun- 
dant and  prolonged,  the  liquid  contains  a  large  proportion  of  chloride  of 
sodium  and  but  little  albumin,  and  is  then  doubtless  the  cerebro-spinal 
liquid  of  the  subarachnoid  space  and  sinuses  escaping  through  frac- 
ture of  the  internal  auditory  canal  and  rupture  of  the  tympanum.  (2) 
The  flow  is  similar,but  the  liquid  is  highly  albuminous  and  Avithout  chlo- 
ride of  sodium;  autopsy  in  some  cases  has  shown  a  fracture  through  the 
middle  and  internal  ear  but  not  through  the  internal  auditory  canal; 
the  liquid  is  probably  lymph  coming  from  the  large  arachnoid  lymph- 
space  which  normally  communicates  with  that  occupied  by  the  peri- 
lymph of  the  labyrinth  or  liquor  Cotunnii.  (3)  The  flow  is  abundant 
and  albuminous,  becoming  scanty  and  purulent;  probably  an  inflam- 
matory discharge  from  tlie  surface  of  the  cavity  of  the  tympanum. 
(4)  The  flow  is  scanty,  appears  late,  is  albuminous  and  reddish,  and  is 
probably  the  serum  of  extra vasated  blood.  ^ 

Deafness  of  the  ear  of  the  affected  side  is  due  to  injury  of  the  middle 
or  internal  ear  or  of  the  acoustic  nerve  in  its  passage  through  the  bone. 

Paralysis  of  other  cranial  nerves  is  occasionally  observed,  the  result 
of  direct  injury  of  the  nerve  or  of  pressure  upon  it  by  extra  vasated 
blood.  Paralysis  of  the  limbs  is  caused  by  intracranial  hemorrhage. 
Slowing  of  the  pulse  and  irregularity  of  the  respiration  indicate  hem- 
orrhage in  the  medulla. 

Fissured  fractures  of  the  vault  are  sometimes  recognizable  by  a  differ- 
ence in  the  level  of  the  two  sides  and  even  in  rare  cases  by  the  inde- 
pendent mobility  of  the  two  parts  of  the  cranium.  Auscultatory 
percussion  has  been  alleged  to  be  a  means  of  recognition  of  a  fissure, 
but  I  have  found  it  wholly  untrustworthy.  The  general  symptoms  are 
the  same  as  when  the  fracture  occupies  the  base  and  are  dependent  upou 
similar  lesions  of  the  brain. 

Emphysema  of  the  scalp  is  a  rare  symptom  and  is  due  to  the  escape 
of  air  into  it  after  fracture  opening  the  mastoid,  frontal,  or  ethmoid 
sinuses. 

The  treatment  of  these  fractures  is  medicinal  and  expectant:  absolute 
quiet,  light  diet,  laxatives,  and  cold  to  the  head  if  indicated  by  rest- 
lessness, headache,  or  other  symptoms  of  cerebral  irritation.  In  frac- 
tures of  the  base  with  bleeding  from  the  ear  a  light  plug  of  iodoform 
gauze  may  be  placed  in  the  external  meatus,  but  more  active  measures 
to  disinfect  this  region  seem  to  me  wholly  uncalled  for  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  a  route  for  infection  from  the  mouth  through  the  Eustachian 
tube  remains  and  cannot  be  protected. 

When  the  fracture  involves  the  vault  and  is  compound  the  wound 
should  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  and  to  this  end  it  is  proper  to  chisel 
away  the  sides  of  the  fissure,  but  I  do  not  think  it  judicious  to  enlarge 
the  wound  in  the  scalp  in  order  to  follow  up  the  fissure  and  treat  it 
thus  throughout  its  entire  length.  The  interference  is  solely  for  disin- 
fection, and  in  fresh  cases  we  may  be  confident  that  infection  has  not 
passed  much  beyond  the  limits  of  the  external  wound.     Depression  of 

1  For  interesting  details  of  these  symptoms  the  reader  is  referred  to  Hewett,  in  Holmes's  System, 
vol.  i. ;  Von  Bergmann,  in  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  30,  Roswell  Park. 


X34  FRACTURES. 

one  side  of  a  fissure  of  the  vault  is  not  a  justification  for  making  an 
incision  through  the  unbroken  skin. 

Tlie  same  principles  apply  to  the  treatment  of  the  intermediary 
group — extensive  comminuted  fractures  with  marked  general  cerebral 
symptoms.  The  important  lesion  is  that  of  the  brain,  and  it  is  not 
probable  that  good  can  be  got  by  removal  of  fragments  or  relief  of 
depression  that  will  compensate  for  the  risks  incurred  in  dividing  the 
unbroken  scalp.  Possibly  the  relief  of  tension  by  draining  away  the 
exudate  throngh  an  incision  may  be  an  important  advantage,  but  it 
has  not  been  demonstrated.  If  the  fracture  is  compound  the  wound 
must  be  cleaned  and  protected,  and  advantage  may  be  taken  of  it  to 
do  whatever  the  condition  of  the  bone  requires,  but  this  cannot  be 
expected  to  have  any  important  influence  upon  the  progress  and  out- 
come of  the  injury. 

Certain  exceptional  forms  of  injury  require  separate  description. 

Possible  Fracture  of  the  Internal  Table.  When  the  skull  has  been 
contused  (compound)  by  a  blow  of  the  kind  known  sometimes  to  pro- 
duce fracture  of  the  internal  table,  such  as  a  glancing  bullet  or  a  sharp 
blow  by  some  small  object,  there  can  be  no  serious  objection  to  tre- 
phining in  order  to  insure  cleanliness  and  determine  the  condition  of 
the  internal  table,  if  care  is  taken  not  to  open  the  dura;  and  even  when 
the  skin  is  not  broken,  if  well-marked  symptoms  of  localized  cere- 
bral injury  are  present,  a  similar  interference  would,  I  think,  be  justi- 
fiable as  an  attempt  to  relieve  a  local  and  limited  injury.  But,  I  repeat, 
the  known  instances  of  fracture  of  the  internal  table  alone  are  very 
few,  and  almost  all  of  them  compound  and  fatal  by  infection  through 
the  scalp  wound.  If  it  is  claimed  that  there  are  many  simple  ones 
which  pass  unrecognized  because  the  patient  recovers,  it  must  be  added 
that  that  then  is  proof  that  an  operation  is  not  always  necessary.  The 
diagnosis  of  probable  fracture  of  the  internal  table  has  been  not  infre- 
quently made  for  no  better  reason  than  that  no  other  could  be  positively 
made.  Such  mistakes  would  be  less  frequent  and  officious  treatment 
would  be  rarer  if  the  fact  was  fully  appreciated  that  early  general 
cerebral  symptoms  mean  generalized  cerebral  lesions,  and  that  such 
cannot  be  relieved  by  local  measures.  For  the  latter  there  must  be 
local  indications. 

Rupture  of  the  middle  meningeal  artery  or  of  one  of  its  branches  by 
a  fracture  crossing  its  course,  or  even  without  fracture,  is  a  not  infre- 
quent injury  of  great  importance  and  requiring  immediate  operative 
relief.  As  the  vessel  lies  in  a  groove  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  booe 
and  is  covered  by  the  dura,  the  hemorrhage  commonly  takes  place 
between  the  dura  and  the  bone,  stripping  up  the  former  sometimes  for 
a  considerable  distance  and  causing  symptoms  of  local  and  sometimes 
of  general  compression.  Usually  there  is  an  interval,  half  an  hour  to 
three  hours  (occasionally  very  much  longer,  even  eight  days  in  one  of 
Konig's  cases),  between  the  blow  and  the  development  of  the  symp- 
toms, an  interval  during  which  the  patient  may  seem  entirely  well  but 
which  in  other  cases  may  be  masked  by  the  symptoms  of  cerebral  shock 
occasioned  by  the  primary  violence;  the  recognition  in  the  latter  case 
must  then  come  through  the  steady  increase  in  the  symptoms  and  fre- 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SKULL.  135 

quently  the  limited  paralyses  caused  by  pressure  upon  portions  of  the 
motor  area.  The  pulse  becomes  slow  (pulse  of  pressure),  and  the 
pupils  unequal,  that  on  the  side  of  the  injury  being  usually  dilated. 
The  paralyses,  of  course,  are  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body;  if  lim- 
ited they  indicate  a  hemorrhage  between  the  dura  and  the  jjone;  if 
diffuse,  a  hemorrhage  into  the  arachnoid  space. 

Left  to  itself  the  injury  terminates  fatally  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases.  Relief  must  be  given  by  removal  of  the  extravasated  blood 
and  arrest  of  the  bleeding.  The  difficulty  may  be  to  determine  the 
point  at  which  the  trephine  is  to  be  applied  to  meet  the  indications,  the 
guides  thereto  are  furnished  by  external  evidences  of  injury,  the  seat 
of  the  fracture,  the  situation  of  the  centres  corresponding  to  the  paral- 
yses, the  anatomical  relations  of  the  artery,  and  the  relative  frequency 
of  hemorrhage  at  different  points.  The  artery  runs  from  the  foramen 
spinosum  across  the  middle  fossa  and  upward  along  the  greater  wing 
of  the  sphenoid  and  divides  into  two  branches,  of  which  the  anterior 
runs  forward  near  the  outer  part  of  the  lesser  wing  of  the  sphenoid  to 
be  distributed  under  the  frontal  and  anterior  portion  of  the  parietal; 
the  posterior  runs  horizontally  backward  across  the  base  of  the  petrous 
portion  of  the  temporal  to  the  posterior  inferior  angle  of  the  parietal 
and  the  occiput.  The  most  frequent  seat  of  rupture  and  hemorrhage 
corresponds  to  the  lower  anterior  portion  of  the  parietal  bone  (anterior 
branch  of  the  artery);  the  next,  but  much  less  frequent,  corresponds 
to  the  lower  posterior  portion  of  the  parietal  and  the  adjoining  por- 
tion of  the  occipital  (posterior  branch). 

The  size  of  the  extravasation  varies  greatly;  I  have  seen  one  of  less 
than  an  ounce  directly  above  the  ear  in  which  the  symptoms — stupor 
and  limited  paralysis — were  well  marked  and  which  was  cured  by 
operation. 

If  the  exact  position  of  the  extravsation  cannot  be  determined  and 
if  no  indication  is  furnished  by  a  line  of  fracture,  an  opening  made  near 
the  point  where  the  frontal,  parietal,  and  temporal  bones  meet,  say  two 
finger-breadths  above  the  zygoma  and  an  inch  behind  the  external 
angular  process  of  the  frontal,  will  expose  the  most  frequent  seat  and 
also  the  anterior  branches  of  the  artery.  An  opening  about  three  inches 
directly  behind  this  will  expose  the  posterior  region. 

The  opening  should  be  made  with  the  ti'ephine  or  by  removing  a 
broken  fragment,  and  if  the  extravasation  is  not  at  once  encountered 
the  dura  should  be  carefully  separated  from  the  bone  in  different  direc- 
tions in  search  of  it.  When  found  the  blood  should  be  picked  or 
washed  out  if  clotted,  and  bleeding  points  should  be  secured  if  possi- 
ble, or,  failing  that,  the  wound  should  be  packed  in  their  neighborhood. 
The  artery  is  often  difficult  to  secure,  especially  when  its  point  of  rup- 
ture is  not  within  the  opening  made  by  the  trephine.  Temporary 
pressure  with  the  finger,  an  artery  clamp,  or  even  a  pad  of  gauze  has 
been  successfully  employed.  In  all  my  own  cases  the  bleeding  has 
stopped  spontaneously  before  the  removal  of  the  clot. 

Perforating  fractures  of  the  base  through  the  orbit  are  extremely  grave 
and  rarely  accessible  to  treatment,  the  important  lesion  being  usually 
that  of  the  brain.    In  the  extent  of  these  lesions  and  their  consequences 


136  FBAOTURES. 

the  variatioDS  are  very  great.  I  have  seen  the  breech-piece  of  a  shot- 
gun, about  six  inches  long,  driven  into  the  brain  through  the  nose  and 
orbit  and  carried  there,  unrecognized,  for  more  than  two  months,  the 
patient  recovering  sufficiently  to  take  a  railway  trip  to  the  city  in  order 
to  have  the  deformity  of  his  face  relieved;  and  in  another  a  single  bird- 
shot  (No.  7)  which  entered  just  above  the  tendo  oculi  and  passed 
through  the  lower  part  of  the  frontal  lobe  directly  back  nearly  to  the 
Sylvian  fissure  caused  death  in  a  week  without  any  evidence  of  inflam- 
mation and  with  only  a  trifling  intracranial  hemorrhage.  Sometimes 
an  important  feature  is  the  wounding  of  the  cavernous  sinus  or  of  a 
large  artery.  Another,  and  frequent  one,  is  the  infection  of  the  deeper 
portion  of  the  wound  by  the  vulnerant  body  even  if  the  superficial 
portion  of  the  wound  is  small  and  heals  kindly.  The  conamon  cause 
is  the  passage  of  a  small  body — a  bullet,  cane,  pencil — through  or  even 
between  the  eyelids.  I  have  seen  two  cases  in  which  a  slender  stick 
(the  end  of  an  umbrella  in  one)  had  thus  penetrated  and  had  broken 
off;  both  patients  died,  one  after  removal  to  another  hospital  and  opera- 
tion there  by  the  large  omega-flap  to  expose  the  base  of  the  brain,  pro- 
fuse venous  bleeding  which  could  not  be  arrested  was  encountered  and 
the  patient  died  shortly  after  removal  from  the  table. 

Similar  wounds  through  the  nose  and  mouth  are  even  more  exposed 
to  infection. 

Summary.  The  principles  of  treatment  may  be  thus  summarized  : 
Danger  to  life  and  function  comes  mainly  from  generalized  contusion 
of  the  brain,  large  or  small  intracranial  hemorrhages,  and  intracranial 
infection  througli  an  open  wound;  the  fracture  itself,  as  such,  even 
when  associated  with  depression,  is  rarely  a  factor  in  the  fatal  result. 

Against  generalized  cerebral  injury  the  only  treatment  is  medical — 
rest,  sedatives,  laxatives,  cold  to  the  head.  Against  infection  we  have 
prevention  and  disinfection;  after  it  is  fairly  established  disinfection 
and  drainage  have  a  restricted  availability.  Consequently,  fractures 
of  the  base  and  fissured  fractures  of  the  vault  not  compound  do  not 
require  operation.  When  compound,  the  wound  may  be  enlarged  suffi- 
ciently to  permit  disinfection  of  the  area  already  exposed  to  infection; 
and  for  the  purpose  of  this  disinfection  a  fissure  may  be  enlarged,  but 
this  enlargement  should  not  be  carried  much  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
original  wound. 

Depression  of  a  portion  of  the  skull  below  its  normal  level  is  not  a 
condition  which  always  needs  to  be  corrected.  The  associated  condi- 
tions which  indicate  its  correction  are  limited  paralyses  due  to  pressure 
of  the  depressed  portion  upon  the  underlying  portion  of  the  brain. 
Conditions  which  justify  its  correction  are  an  associated  wound  of  the 
scalp  and,  in  simple  fractures  with  a  well-defined  small  area  of  depres- 
sion, the  absence  of  symptoms  of  generalized  injury  of  the  brain  and 
consequently  of  fissures  radiating  from  the  depressed  area  which  would 
favor  the  extension  of  infection  if  it  should  occur  in  the  wound  made 
for  the  relief  of  the  depression. 

Epidural  hemorrhage  (rupture  of  the  middle  meningeal  artery) 
requires  operation  for  the  removal  of  the  extravasated  blood  and  the 
arrest  of  hemorrhage. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SKULL.  137 

A  monoplegia  promptly  following  a  blow  upon  the  head  is  an  indi- 
cation for  the  a])plication  of  the  trephine  over  the  corresponding  cor- 
tical centre,  with  the  expectation  of  thereby  removing  a  clot  or  a 
fragment  which  is  making  pressure  on  that  portion  of  the  brain. 

Late  functional  cerebral  disturbances  (epilepsy,  etc.)  appear  to  be 
so  much  more  closely  connected  with  injury  of  the  brain  and  meninges 
which  cannot  be  corrected  by  a  primary  operation  than  with  traumatic 
irregularities  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  skull  which  can  be  thus  cor- 
rected, that  an  early  operation  for  their  prevention  is  not  indicated. 

Severe  meningeal  or  cortical  inflammation,  not  connected  with  an 
external  wound,  is  so  rare  that  operation  for  its  prevention  is  not  indi- 
cated, and  is,  indeed,  more  likely  to  produce  it  than  to  prevent  it. 


CHAPTEE    XI. 

FEACTUEES   OF   THE   VEETEBE^. 

Fractures  of  the  vertebrse  have  this  in  common  with  fractures  of 
the  skull,  that  most  of  their  importance  depends  upon  the  associated 
injury  of  the  nerve-centres  and  trunks  contained  within  their  canal, 
but  they  have  in  addition  the  importance  due  to  the  function  of  the 
spine  as  a  support  for  the  head  and  trunk.  Upon  the  integrity  of  this 
support  depend  not  only  the  power  of  locomotion,  but  also  grace  of 
carriage  and  dexterity  in  the  use  of  the  limbs. 

The  spinal  cord,  occupying  the  centre  of  the  vertebral  column,  is 
efficiently  protected  against  any  external  violence  that  is  not  sufficient 
to  break  the  bones  that  constitute  the  latter,  or  the  ligaments  and  mus- 
cles that  bind  those  bones  together;  and  the  column  itself  is  constituted 
in  a  manner  that  combines  elasticity  and  mobility  with  the  necessary 
firmness  and  rigidity.  The  bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  increasing  in  size 
from  above  downward  in  correspondence  with  the  variations  in  the 
weight  and  strain  which  the  different  ones  are  called  upon  to  bear,  are 
composed  of  spongy  tissue  and  separated  from  each  other  by  the  elastic 
intervertebral  cartilages,  and  prevented  from  changing  their  positions 
by  the  interlocking  of  the  articular  processes  upon  the  sides.  The 
general  form  of  the  column  is  that  of  a  long  slender  cone  with  a  double 
antero-posterior  curve,  and  its  component  parts  are  strongly  bound 
together  by  ligaments  and  muscles  allowing  a  range  of  motion  which, 
while  small  between  each  pair  of  vertebrae,  is  in  the  aggregate  consid- 
erable. Mechanically,  therefore,  the  spine  is  exposed  to  fracture  by 
direct  violence,  like  other  bones,  and  by  indirect  violence  through 
exaggeration  or  straightening  of  its  normal  curves. 

In  the  displacements  following  fracture  the  corresponding  joints  may 
be  dislocated,  and  as  in  dislocation  there  may  be  associated  fracture,  and 
as  the  symptoms  in  the  two  forms  of  inj  ury  are  in  many  respects  the  same, 
they  are  sometimes  grouped  as  "  fracture-dislocations"  of  the  spine. 

Fractures  of  the  vertebras  are  relatively  rare,  0.5  per  cent,  in  my 
statistics  (Chapter  I.).  Gurlt  collected  270  cases,  with  444  fractures, 
and  found  that  fractures  of  the  cervical  and  dorsal  vertebrae  are  about 
equally  frequent,  178  and  184  respectively,  while  those  of  the  lumbar 
vertebrae,  82,  are  much  less  common;  that  the  fatal  cases  of  fracture 
of  the  cervical  vertebrae  are,  however,  considerably  more  numerous, 
actually  and  relatively,  than  those  of  the  two  other  regions;  that  the 
fifth  and  sixth  cervical,  the  last  dorsal,  and  the  first  lumbar  are  more 
frequently  broken  than  any  of  the  others;  and  that  it  is  common  in 
fractures  of  the  cervical  and  dorsal  regions  for  more  than  one  vertebra 
to  be  broken  at  the  same  time.  They  are  extremely  rare  in  childhood 
and  old  age,  and  relatively  infrequent  in  women. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  VERTEBRA. 


139 


The  part  most  frequently  fractured  is  the  body  of  the  vertebra — 
that  is,  in  about  two-thirds  of  all  cases,  or  in  more  than  half  of  the 
fractures  of  the  cervical  vertebrae,  in  about  seven-eighths  of  those  of 
the  dorsal  vertebrae,  and  in  about  all  those  of  the  lumbar  vertebne. 
Or,  in  general  terms,  fractures  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  begin  at 
about  the  middle  of  the  cervical  region  and  increase  in  frequency  down- 
ward. Simultaneous  fracture  of  two  or  more  vertebrae  is  common  in 
the  cervical  and  upper  dorsal  regions,  less  common  in  the  lower  dorsal, 
and  rare  in  the  lumbar  region.  Fracture  of  one  or  more  of  the  ver- 
tebral processes  either  of  the  same  or  of  adjoining  vertebrae  is  common. 

Pathology. 

The  fracture  of  the  body  of  a  vertebra  may  be  complete  or  incom- 
plete; the  line  of  fracture  may  extend  only  partly  through  it  or  en- 
tirely across  it,  or  it  may  be  broken  into  several  fragments,  or  com- 
pressed, or  impacted.  The  line  of  fracture,  if  single,  may  be  vertical, 
horizontal,  or  oblique  in  any  direction;  the  first  being  found  almost 
exclusively  in  the  cervical  and  upper  dorsal  regions,  the  two  latter 
and  multiple  fractures  occurring  everywhere.  The  transverse  and 
oblique  fractures   lie,    as   a   rule,  nearer  the  upper  than    the  lower 


Fig.  53. 


Fig.  54. 


Transverse  fracture  of  vertebra. 


Displacement  of  the  vertebrse  causing  compression 
of  the  spinal  cord. 


border  of  the  bone,  and  may  pass  from  the  upper  to  the  anterior  sur- 
face, leaving  the  posterior  and  lower  surfaces  unbroken,  and  in  these 
cases  the  upper  fragment  preserves  its  relations  to  the  overlying  ver- 
tebra and  is  displaced  with  it  forward  and  downward,  producing  a 
change  in  the  long  axis  of  the  spine  characterized  by  an  angle  having 
its  apex  directed  backward  at  the  seat  of  fracture.  This  displacement 
narrows  the  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  spinal  canal  and  lacerates 
or  compresses  the  spinal  cord  within  it.  If  the  line  of  fracture  is 
oblique,  and  if  fracture  or  dislocation  of  the  articular  processes  is  asso- 


140 


FRACTURES. 


Fig.  55. 


ciated  with  it,  the  displacement  is  inclined  to  the  corresponding  side 
either  directly  or  by  rotation. 

Compression  of  the  body  of  a  vertebra  is  found  either  in  combina- 
tion with  comminuted  fracture  or  alone,  and  involving  one  or  several 

vertebrse.  It  is  apparently  caused  by 
forcible  forward  flexion,  in  which  either 
the  posterior  portions  of  the  vertebrae 
must  separate  from  each  other  or  the 
anterior  portions  must  approximate  by 
condensation  of  the  intervertebral  disks 
or  of  the  bone. 

The  compression  may  be  so  extreme 
that  the  intervertebral  disks  above  and 
below  the  affected  vertebra  are  brought 
into  contact  with  each  other  in  front, 
the  substance  of  the  bone  being  partly 
compressed  and  partly  forced  out  upon 
the  sides  or  behind  into  the  spinal  canal 
(Figs.  56  and  57),  compressing  the  cord. 
With  this  compression  may  be  associ- 
ated fracture  or  fissure  of  the  body,  and 
especially  fracture  of  the  processes  of 
the  same  or  the  adjoining  vertebra.  The  same  shortening  of  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  body  may  be  produced  by  splintering  of  part 
of  the  bone  or  by  impaction  of  one  fragment  into  another  lying  above 
or  below  it.  This  latter  condition  was  found  in  four  of  Gurlt's  cases, 
three  times  in  the  twelfth  dorsal  and  once  in  the  first  lumbar  vertebra. 


Compression  of  the  last  dorsal  vertebra. 


Fig.  56. 


Fig.  57. 


Fracture  with  compression  of  the  third  and  fourth  lumbar  vertebrae. 

Fracture  of  the  vertebral  arches,  according  to  Gurlt,  is  found  in  about 
half  the  cases  of  fracture  of  the  cervical  vertebrse,  and  only  in  one- 
seventh  of  those  of  the  dorsal,  and  one-eighth  of  those  of  the  lumbar.* 


1  For  cases  of  doubtful  character  in  the  lumbar  vertebrse,  see  section  on  Course  and  Termina- 
tions. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  VERTEBRJE.  141 

He  attributes  the  frequency  of  this  form  of  fracture  in  the  cervical 
spine  to  the  comparatively  greater  breadth  and  less  height  of  the  arch 
and  to  the  absence  of  that  protection  which  is  furnished  in  the  dorsal 
and  lumbar  regions  by  the  larger  and  stronger  spinous,,  transverse,  and 
oblique  processes.  When  the  arch  is  broken  on  each  side  the  interme- 
diate portion  bearing  the  spinous  process  may  be  driven  into  the  spinal 
oanal  and  cause  fatal  laceration  or  compression  of  the  cord.  Gurlt's 
statistics  contain  six  such  cases,  affecting  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh 
cervical  vertebrse. 

The  spinous  processes  are  broken  most  frequently  at  those  points 
where  they  are  longest  and  thinnest,  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  cases 
occurring  in  the  cervical  spine,  more  than  half  in  the  dorsal,  and 
about  one-eighth  in  the  lumbar  ;  and  often  several  adjoining  ones 
are  broken  at  the  same  time.  In  the  dorsal  region  this  fracture  is 
usually  found  only  in  combination  with  fracture  of  the  body  of  one 
of  the  vertebrae  above  or  below  it.  Isolated  fracture  of  a  spinous 
process  may  occur  as  the  result  of  direct  violence,  or  of  muscular 
action,  and  the  displacement  is  either  directly  downward  or  to  one 
side. 

Fracture  of  the  transverse  or  articular  processes  occurs  in  combina- 
tion with  other  fractures  in  about  one-sixth  of  all  cases,  but  is  rare 
except  in  such  combination.  In  the  few  instances  in  which  it  has 
occurred  alone  it  was  the  result  of  gunshot  injury.  As  a  complication 
of  other  fractures  the  proportion  of  its  occurrence  for  the  transverse 
process  is  greatest  in  the  cervical  and  next  in  the  lumbar  and  dorsal 
regions;  for  the  articular  processes  it  is  greatest  in  the  cervical  and 
smallest  in  the  lumbar.  Fracture  of  a  transverse  process  of  a  dorsal 
vertebra  may  lead  to  fracture  of  the  rib  which  articulates  with  it,  and 
fracture  of  the  transverse  process  of  a  cervical  vertebra  may  seriously 
injure  the  vessels  contained  in  the  vertebral  canal.  Fracture  of  an 
articular  process  exposes  to  dislocation  of  the  vertebra  with  all  its 
accompanying  dangers. 

The  ligaments  which  bind  the  different  vertebrae  together  are  torn 
in  fracture  to  an  extent  which  varies  with  the  severity  of  the  injury 
and  the  degree  of  the  displacement,  and  the  intervertebral  disks  may 
be  torn,  displaced,  or  compressed.  In  rare  cases  the  injury  may  be 
confined  to  the  ligaments  and  disks,  real  dislocation  or  diastasis  with- 
out fracture,  although  the  distinction  cannot  be  made  during  life. 

The  muscles  and  tendons,  too,  are  usually  torn,  especially  those  lying- 
nearest  the  bones  and  ligaments;  and  extravasations  of  blood  form  as 
after  other  fractures  and  extend  along  the  cellular  interspaces  between 
the  muscles  and  in  front  of  the  spine,  sometimes  into  the  posterior  medi- 
astinum, and  sometimes  into  the  retroperitoneal  tissues  surrounding 
the  kidneys  and  the  iliacus  and  psoas  muscles.  Ecchymoses  may  appear 
on  the  face  or  chin  after  fracture  of  the  cervical  vertebrae,  and  as  low 
even  as  the  loins  in  other  cases. 

The  spinal  cord,  the  diameter  of  which  is  considerably  less  than  that 
of  the  canal  in  which  it  lies,  is  suspended  within  the  dura  mater,  which 
is  itself  loosely  connected  with  the  bones  and  separated  from  direct  con- 
tact with  them  in  most  places  by  a  rich  venous  plexus.     The  medul- 


142  FRACTURES. 

lary  portion  of  the  cord  ends  at  the  first  or  second  lumbar  vertebra,  and 
its  lower  portion  is  enveloped  by  the  numerous  nerve  trunks  which 
pass  downward  to  form  the  cauda  equina  and  the  lumbar  and  sacral 
plexuses.  The  cord  is  injured  directly  only  when  the  lumen  of  the 
canal  is  considerably  encroached  upon  by  the  displacement  of  a  frag- 
ment or  of  a  vertebra,  but  it  can  be  compressed  by  extravasated  blood 
or  by  inflammatory  exudations,  or  torn  by  elongation.  I  have  seen 
it  so  injured  in  fracture  of  both  laminae  of  the  sixth  cervical  without 
displacement,  by  anterior  flexion  of  the  neck,  as  to  cause  immediate 
paraplegia  and  death  in  a  week.  Occasionally  the  cord  is  penetrated 
by  a  sharp  fragment,  but  usually  the  dura  mater  is  untorn  and  the  cord 
is  crushed  between  the  anterior  portion  of  one  fragment  or  vertebra, 
usually  the  lower,  and  the  posterior  portion  of  another,  usually  the 
upper.  This  crushing  presents  all  degrees,  from  a  slight  flattening  to 
complete  disorganization. 

Hemorrhage,  without  division  of  the  cord,  may  be  extra-  or  intra- 
dural, or  within  the  substance  of  the  cord  (hsematomyelia).  The  last- 
named  condition  may  also  be  traumatically  produced  without  recogniza- 
ble lesion  of  the  spinal  column.  The  extravasation  in  hsematomyelia, 
which  is  sometimes  very  extensive,  principally  occupies  the  gray  mat- 
ter, and  if  the  patient  survives  it  may  end  in  the  formation  of  cavities 
within  the  cord  corresponding  presumably  to  the  spaces  occupied  by 
the  extravasated  blood.  Bailey^  thinks  it  probable  that  the  symptoms 
under  such  conditions  are  those  of  syringomyelia. 

Etiology. 

The  immediate  causes  are  muscular  action  and  external  violence. 
The  former  is  very  rare  and  acts  either  by  a  direct  pull  of  the  muscle 
upon  the  process  to  which  it  is  attached  or  by  the  momentum  given 
by  the  head  in  sudden  dorsal  flexion  of  the  neck  or  rotation  of  the 
head.  The  most  frequent  examples  of  the  latter  (producing  either 
fracture  or  dislocation  of  the  cervical  spine)  have  been  in  cases  in 
which  the  patient  has  dived  into  shallow  water  and  has  thrown  his 
head  backward  to  escape  contact  with  the  bottom. 

The  commonest  cause  is  the  forcible  bending  of  the  spine  in  a  fall 
or,  less  frequently,  by  the  weight  of  a  falling  object  or  by  the  com- 
pression of  the  body  in  a  narrow  space,  as  in  driving  under  an  archway 
(indirect  fracture).  The  relative  frequency  of  the  injury  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  cervical  spine  and  at  the  junction  of  the  dorsal  and  lumbar 
segments  seems  to  be  associated  with  the  fact  that  at  these  points  the 
more  flexible  and  the  more  rigid  portions  of  the  column  meet,  such 
meeting  points  being  specially  liable  to  break  in  all  combinations  of 
flexible  and  rigid  bodies. 

Fractures  by  direct  violence  are  infrequent  and  are  usually  found  in 
the  posterior  portion  of  the  vertebra. 

1  Bailey  :  Accident  and  Injury,  1897,  p.  79. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  VERTEBRJS.  143 

Symptoms  and  Diagnosis. 
(See  also  Dislocations  of  the  Vertebrae. ) 

The  symptoms  of  fracture  of  the  spine  vary  with  the  position  and  the 
portion  of  the  vertebra  involved,  and  therefore  need  a  separate  and 
detailed  consideration  in  connection  with  the  different  groups  of  frac- 
tures. But  there  are  certain  general  symptoms  common  to  most  which 
may  first  be  mentioned.  After  the  first  shock  of  the  injury, which  usually 
passes  off  without  permanent  impairment  of  the  intelligence,  the  patient 
complains  of  a  localized  pain  at  the  seat  of  fracture  increased  by  manip- 
ulation or  movements.  There  is  usually  a  recognizable  deformity  con- 
sisting of  a  change  in  the  direction  of  the  spine,  a  more  or  less  marked 
angular  projection  backsvard  with  or  without  swelling  of  the  surround- 
ing soft  parts;  crepitus  can  sometimes  be  made  out  by  the  surgeon,  but 
more  commonly  it  is  appreciable,  if  at  all,  only  by  the  patient  himself 
when  his  body  is  moved.  The  most  important  and  constant  symptom 
is  paralysis,  motor  and  sensory,  more  or  less  complete,  of  the  limbs  and 
the  portion  of  the  body  lying  below  the  fracture.  If  complete  its 
upper  limit  is  usually  sharply  defined  by  a  line  crossing  the  trunk  and 
corresponding  to  the  adjoining  limits  of  the  regions  supplied  by  the 
nerves  that  leave  the  column  immediately  above  and  below  the  point 
at  which  the  cord  has  been  injured.  The  consequences  of  this  paralysis, 
if  it  involves  the  abdominal  muscles,  bladder,  and  rectum,  are  reten- 
tion of  urine  and  feces,  followed  by  incontinence  of  one  or  both,  by 
alkaline  fermentation  of  the  former,  and  cystitis.  Respiratory  diffi- 
culties, sometimes  severe  enough  to  cause  death,  appear  when  the  frac- 
ture involves  the  upper  portion  of  the  spine,  the  result  of  the  paralysis 
either  of  the  abdominal  muscles  or  of  the  diaphragm,  or  of  vasomotor 
injury.  There  is  also  a  great  tendency  to  sloughing  at  all  points  of 
pressure  within  the  paralyzed  region,  especially  over  the  sacrum  and 
trochanters  and  along  the  back.  The  sloughs  appear  promptly,  some- 
times within  two  or  three  days,  are  usually  symmetrical,  and  often 
hasten  death  even  if  they  are  not  its  immediate  cause. 

Paralysis  is,  of  course,  only  a  symptom  of  injury  to  the  cord  and 
may  follow  violence  that  has  caused  neither  fracture  nor  dislocation. 
Thus,  a  diastasis  of  two  vertebrae,  followed  by  immediate  return  to 
their  normal  relations,  may  cause  hemorrhage  into  the  canal  or  may 
even  injure  the  cord  by  elongation  and  thus  cause  paralysis.  A  paral- 
ysis appearing  shortly  after  an  injury,  and  increasing,  generally  indi- 
cates hemorrhage  into  the  canal  or  within  the  cord,  but  I  have  seen  it 
caused  by  displacement,  with  pressure,  occurring  during  the  transfer  of 
the  patient  to  hospital,  the  condition  being  shown  by  autopsy. 

Extension  of  paralysis  indicates  hemorrhage  or  an  ascending  mye- 
litis. 

Priapism,  more  or  less  complete,  was  observed,  according  to  Gurlt, 
in  31  of  96  cases  of  fracture  of  the  cervical  and  two  upper  dorsal  ver- 
tebrse,  16  times  in  133  cases  of  fracture  between  the  third  dorsal  and 
second  lumbar  vertebrae,  and  never  in  fracture  below  the  latter.  It 
appears  promptly,  usually  on  the  first  or  second  day,  and  seldom  lasts 


144 


FRACTURES. 


Fig. 


longer  than  a  fortnight.  Notwithstanding  the  insensitiveness  of  the 
penis  it  may  be  caused  or  increased  by  the  use  of  the  catheter.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  one  case  the  erect  organ  became  relaxed  as  soon  as  the 
catheter  had  passed  over  half  the  length  of  the  urethra.  Ejaculations 
are  very  exceptional,  there  being  only  four  instances  in  Gurlt's  collec- 
tion, all  of  them  in  cases  of  fracture  of  the  cervical  spine. 

Fracture  of  Atlas  and  Axis.  The  intimate  relations  existing  between 
these  two  bones  and  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  their  position  above 
the  roots  of  the  phrenic  nerve  as  well  as  above  those  of  the  other 
nerves  supplying  other  muscles  which  aid  in  respiration,  make  their 
injury  especially  dangerous,  and  have  probably  led  to  the  generally 
received  opinion  that  their  fracture  is,  as  a  rule,  immediately  fatal. 
■Gurlt's  cases  show,  however,  that  this  opinion  is  not  correct,  for  in  the 
eleven  in  which  the  nature  of  the  injury  was  demonstrated  by  the 
autopsy,  death  occurred  immediately  in  only  two,  and  in  only  two 
others  within  an  hour  after  the  injury  was  received.  In  the  other 
cases  the  patients  survived  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  thirteen 
days  in  one,  although  some  of  them  at  the  last  died  suddenly,  appar- 
ently by  displacement  of  the  vertebrae  due  to  incautious  movements. 
The  fractures  were  all  caused  by  external  violence,  sometimes  slight, 
as  a  fall  from  the  bed  while  trying  to  reach  down  to  the  floor. 

The  parts  broken  in  ten  of  these  eleven  cases  were  :  the  odontoid 
process  alone  once;  the  odontoid  process  and  posterior  arch  of  the  atlas 

three  times;  the  posterior  arches  of  the 
atlas  and  axis  three  times;  the  poste- 
rior arch  of  the  axis  alone  once;  the 
spinous  process  of  the  axis  twice.  In 
six  of  the  cases  there  was  associated 
fracture  of  other  cervical  or  dorsal  ver- 
tebrse,  and  in  no  case  was  the  trans- 
verse ligament  torn.  Figure  58,  taken 
from  a  specimen  in  the  museum  at 
Braunschweig,  shows  a  fracture  of  the 
superior  articular  surface  of  the  axis. 
The  patient  was  twenty-four  years  old, 
and  died  in  a  few  hours  after  falling 
out  of  a  wagon  upon  his  head. 

The  symptoms  of  this  fracture  are 
so  variable  and  so  indefinite  and  have 
so  much  in  common  with  simple  dis- 
location of  one  bone  upon  the  other, 
or  of  the  atlas  upon  the  skull,  that  the  diagnosis  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult. On  the  one  hand,  the  patient  may  die  instantly;  on  the  other, 
he  may  survive  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  either  completely  paralyzed 
or  presenting  no  important  symptoms,  and  then  die  suddenly  by  dis- 
placement of  the  fragments  or  gradually  by  extension  of  the  symp- 
toms, or  in  consequence  of  other  injuries,  or,  if  the  diagnosis  in  some 
such  cases  may  be  accepted,  may  even  get  well.  The  symptoms  of 
local  pain  and  stiffness  of  the  neck  are  too  indefinite  to  be  of  any  ser- 
vice, and  paralytic  symptoms  may  be  entirely  absent,  as  in  Gurlt's 


Fracture  through  the  superior  articular 
surfaces  of  the  axis.    (Gurlt.) 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  VEBTEBRjE.  145 

second  case,  where  the  patient  walked  for  two  hours  after  the  accident  to 
reach  home  and  developed  no  paralysis  until  the  following  day.  Death 
took  place  suddenly  on  the  eiglith  day,  and  the  autopsy  showed  fracture 
of  both  arches  of  the  atlas  and  of  the  odontoid  process. 

The  symptoms  in  those  of  Gurlt's  eleven  cases  which  survived  long 
enough  to  present  any,  or  in  which  any  are  recorded,  were  complete 
paralysis  of  all  the  parts  below  the  fracture  in  some,  partial  paralysis 
in  others,  only  a  slight  diminution  of  sensibility  in  the  left  arm  in  one, 
pain  in  the  neck  or  occiput  in  six,  rigidity  of  the  neck  in  most,  absence 
of  recognizable  deformity  in  all,  distinct  crepitus  in  one,  and  falling 
forward  of  the  head  upon  the  breast  in  one.  All  of  these  symptoms 
— pain,  rigidity,  paralysis,  sudden  death — may  be  the  result  of  dislo- 
cation as  well  as  of  fracture,  and,  as  dislocation  has  in  addition  no 
characteristic,  general  or  local,  symptoms  which  serve  to  distinguish  it. 
the  differential  diagnosis  must  usually  remain  in  doubt. 

Fractures  of  the  Lower  Five  Cervical  and  First  Two  Dorsal  Vertebrae. 
The  special  characteristics  of  fractures  of  this  region  are  duo  to  the 
inclusion  within  it  of  the  roots  of  the  phrenic  nerve  and  brachial  plexus. 
The  former  passes  out  through  the  intervertebral  foramen  between  the 
third  and  fourth  cervical  vertebrae,  either  coming  from  the  fourth  cer- 
vical pair  alone,  or  receiving  branches  also  from  the  third  and  fifth 
pairs.  The  brachial  plexus  is  formed  by  the  four  lower  cervical  and 
the  first  dorsal  pairs.  Consequently,  if  the  fracture  is  accompanied  by 
displacement  of  the  fragments  and  injury  to  the  spinal  cord,  paralysis 
of  the  upper  limbs  also  is  caused,  and  if  the  fracture  is  high  enough 
in  the  region  to  involve  the  phrenic  nerve  directly  or  by  extension 
death  follows  promptly,  preceded  by  the  respiratory  symptoms  peculiar 
to  lesion  of  this  nerve. 

Here,  too,  as  after  fracture  of  the  atlas  and  axis,  are  found  cases  in 
which  the  patients  present  only  symptoms  of  paralysis  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  time,  and  then  die  suddenly  of  asphyxia  in  consequence  of 
some  accidental  or  intentional  movement  of  the  head,  which  probably 
causes  compression  of  the  phrenic  nerves  by  displacement  of  the  frag- 
ments. 

The  paralysis  in  fractures  of  the  portion  of  this  region  below  the 
fourth  cervical  vertebra  shows  many  variations.  From  the  relations 
of  this  part  to  the  brachial  plexus  it  might  be  expected  that  paralysis 
of  the  upper  limbs  would  be  a  constant  symptom,  excluding  those  cases 
in  which  there  is  no  displacement,  but  Gurlt's  tables  show  this  paral- 
ysis to  have  been  present  in  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  cases,  that  in 
the  majority  complete  paralysis  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  body 
extended  upward  at  first  only  to  the  middle  of  the  breast,  the  second 
rib,  rarely  to  the  neck,  clavicle,  or  shoulders,  and  sometimes  not  even 
to  the  umbilicus,  although  it  often  advanced  to  a  higher  point  later  in 
the  progress  of  the  case.  Paralytic  symptoms  appeared  in  the  arms, 
as  a  rule,  either  later  on  the  day  of  the  accident  or  on  the  following 
day.  The  paralysis  may  be  complete  in  one  arm  and  partial  or  absent 
in  the  other;  it  may  be  complete  of  motion  and  incomplete  of  sensa- 
tion, or  the  reverse;  it  may  be  limited  to  the  arm  or  to  the  forearm; 
or  the  injury  to  the  nerves  may  be  evidenced  by  abnormal  sensations, 

10 


146  FRACTURES. 

such  as  numbness  or  prickling  in  the  limb.  Hypersesthesia  affecting 
the  whole  or  part  of  the  limb  is  occasionally  observed,  and  is  some- 
times associated  with  sharp,  lancinating,  continuous  or  intermittent 
pain,  which  may  be  spontaneous  or  may  be  excited  or  increased  by  the 
slightest  touch  of  the  surface.  Tonic  or  clonic  spasms  are  seen  some- 
what more  frequently  than  hypersesthesia,  sometimes  limited  to  the 
arms  alone,  sometimes  involving  other  muscles  also. 

An  important  consequence  of  the  paralysis  is  the  change  in  the  respi- 
ratory act  due  to  the  withdrawal  of  the  aid  of  the  accessory  muscles 
when  the  phrenic  nerve  is  uninjured.  As  a  consequence  of  the  paral- 
ysis of  the  intercostal  and  abdominal  muscles,  inspiration  is  effected  by 
the  diaphragm  alone,  and  expiration  by  the  weight  of  the  abdominal 
walls  and  viscera  which  sink  back  to  the  positions  from  which  they 
have  been  displaced  by  the  contraction  of  the  diaphragm.  As  the 
expiration  is  thus  purely  passive  the  patient  cannot  sneeze  or  cough 
strongly,  and  as  he  is  thus  prevented  from  clearing  his  lungs  of  the 
mucus  which  collects  in  them  it  gives  rise  to  plentiful  moist  rales. 
If  the  phrenic  nerve  shares  in  the  injury  the  diaphragm  acts  very 
slowly,  perhaps  not  oftener  than  twice  or  thrice  in  the  minute,  the 
breathing  is  noisy  or  sighing,  and  the  shoulders  may  be  slightly  raised 
at  each  inspiration.  Sometimes  a  change  in  the  position  increases 
or  diminishes  the  difficulty  by  modifying  the  pressure  upon  the  cord. 
A  noticeable  slowing  of  the  pulse  accompanies  this  defective  respi- 
ration. 

The  local  symptoms  are  usually  few  and  obscure,  often  nothing  more 
than  the  pain  that  is  felt  at  the  seat  of  fracture  and  is  increased  by 
pressure  or  motion.  Sometimes  there  are  positive  objective  signs  :  an 
abnormal  projection  or  depression  of  one  or  more  spinous  processes, 
an  irregularity  on  the  posterior  wall  of  the  pharynx  produced  by  the 
displaced  body  of  a  vertebra,  lateral  displacement  of  one  or  more 
spinous  processes,  irregularity  in  the  line  of  the  transverse  processes, 
and  possibly  crepitus  or  abnormal  mobility. 

The  position  and  mobility  of  the  head  vary  greatly  in  different  cases. 
In  some  cases  they  show  nothing  abnormal,  in  others  the  head  can  be 
moved  freely  to  either  side,  but  not  forward  or  backward,  and  in  others 
it  is  held  firmly  fixed  in  some  one  position  and  any  attempt  to  change 
that  position  causes  pain.  This  rigidity  is  due  not  to  change  in  the 
relations  of  the  articular  surfaces,  but  to  the  involuntary  spasmodic 
contraction  of  the  muscles  which  is  nature's  method  of  preventing  the 
infliction  of  pain  by  movement  of  the  parts. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  diagnosis  of  fracture  of  this  region  may  be 
difficult  or  impossible.  The  most  that  can  be  done  in  many  cases  is  to 
recognize  approximately  the  seat  of  the  injury.  Thus,  paralysis  or 
symptoms  of  irritation  in  the  arms,  even  if  they  first  appear  after  some 
delay,  indicate  a  lesion  above  the  second  dorsal  vertebra,  although  in 
a  few  exceptional  cases  this  symptom  has  existed  when  the  injury  was 
lower  on  the  spine,  and  was  then  due  probably  to  an  associated  brain 
lesion  or  a  large  collection  of  blood  within  the  spinal  canal.  If  all 
local  and  functional  signs  are  absent  the  diagnosis  is,  of  course,  impos- 
sible, and  the  real  nature  of  the  injury  may  be  entirely  overlooked 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  VERTEBRA.  147 

until  the  progress  of  the  inflammation  or  a  chance  displacement  of  tlie 
fragments  brings  it  to  light. 

The  prognosis  is  extremely  unfavorable.  Gurlt's  tables  contain  9G 
fatal  cases,  and  only  8  which  ended  in  recovery,  and  in  one  of  these 
the  symptoms  reappeared  after  a  fall  and  the  patient  died  in  conse- 
quence. In  one-third  of  the  cases  death  took  place  within  the  first 
four  days;  in  20  between  the  fifth  and  twelfth  days;  in  11  between  the 
thirteenth  and  thirty -sixth;  and  in  one  case  the  patient  survived  five 
months. 

Fractures  of  the  Lower  Ten  Dorsal  and  First  Two  Lumbar  Vertebrae. 
This  region  includes  another  point  at  which  fractures  are  very  common, 
the  lower  dorsal  and  the  first  lumbar  vertebrae.  Its  position  be- 
low the  original  of  the  brachial  plexus  prevents  the  involvement  of 
the  arms  in  the  paralysis  except  in  rare  cases  where  this  unusual  exten- 
sion is  due  apparently  to  the  spread  of  inflammatory  softening  of  the 
cord  or  to  the  pressure  of  extravasated  blood.  Paralysis  of  the  lower 
limbs,  the  bladder,  and  rectum,  which  is  one  of  the  common  results  of 
fracture  in  this  division  as  well  as  in  the  higher  ones,  may  be  entirely 
absent  at  the  beginning,  especially  after  fracture  of  the  second  lumbar 
vertebra,  or,  more  frequently,  may  be  incomplete,  the  motor  paralysis 
being,  as  a  rule,  more  marked  than  the  paralysis  of  sensation.  The 
latter  may  extend  as  high  as  the  lower  part  of  the  heart,  or  may  stop 
at  the  groin,  and  sometimes  even  does  not  reach  above  the  lower  part 
of  the  thigh,  A  common  result  of  the  paralysis  is  the  immediate 
retention  of  urine  and  feces,  followed,  as  before  mentioned,  by  incon- 
tinence and  by  alkaline  decomposition  of  the  urine  and  cystitis.  This 
incontinence  persists  until  death  takes  place  or  improvement  begins. 
The  disturbance  in  the  function  of  the  bowels  aided  by  the  flaccidity 
of  the  abdominal  muscles  produces  tympanites,  which  makes  its  appear- 
ance usually  within  a  day  or  two  and  may  be  sufficiently  marked  to 
interfere  with  respiration  by  crowding  the  diaphragm  upward  and 
opposing  its  contraction.  In  other  cases,  even  of  apparently  severe 
injury  to  the  body  of  a  vertebra,  there  may  be  an  entire  absence  of  par- 
alytic symptoms  and  even  of  those  of  meningeal  irritation. 

The  diagnosis  is  aided  by  objective  symptoms,  which  are  more 
marked  and  distinctive  than  those  found  after  fractures  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  column,  because  as  the  fracture  in  the  great  majority 
of  the  cases  involves  the  body  of  the  vertebra,  and  is  comminuted  or 
accompanied  by  displacement,  there  is  usually  a  recognizable  deformity 
consisting  in  an  angular  change  in  the  long  axis  of  the  spine,  with  pro- 
jection of  the  spinous  process  of  the  broken  vertebra  or  of  the  one 
immediately  above  it.  This  change  in  the  position  of  the  spinous  pro- 
cess is  sometimes  so  marked  that  the  finger  can  be  pressed  deeply  in 
between  it  and  the  next  lower  one. 

The  prognosis,  as  regards  both  life  and  recovery  of  function,  is  more 
favorable  than  after  fracture  at  a  higher  point.  Gurlt's  statistics  con- 
tain 145  cases,  of  which  39  recovered  more  or  less  completely;  in  18 
additional  ones  the  patients  survived  more  than  three  months,  with  a 
fair  prospect  of  recovery,  but  died  in  consequence  of  some  complica- 
tion that  had  no  necessary  connection  with  the  fracture.     In  23  of  the 


148  FRACTURES. 

fatal  cases  other  severe  injuries  or  complications  were  present,  and 
apparently  caused  death.  Of  the  83  fatal  cases  which  remain  after 
excluding  these  23,  one  died  in  the  first  twenty-four  hours,  33  in  the 
first  month,  23  in  the  second,  8  in  the  third,  and  2  in  the  fourth;  in 
16  the  patients  survived  for  periods  varying  between  four  and  fifteen 
months. 

Fractures  of  the  Lower  Three  Lumbar  Vertebrae.  Fractures  of  this 
portion  of  the  spine  appear  to  be  exceedingly  rare.^  The  absence  of 
paralytic  symptoms  and  recognizable  displacement  would  make  the 
diagnosis  during  life  practically  impossible. 

As  this  portion  of  the  spinal  canal  contains  only  nerve  trunks,  which 
are  better  fitted  by  their  texture  and  comparative  independence  of  each 
other  to  resist  or  escape  damaging  pressure  by  displaced  fragments  than 
the  spinal  cord  itself  is,  paralysis  may  be  absent  even  when  the  dis- 
placement is  marked;  in  some  cases  it  has  been  complete,  both  of 
motion  and  sensation,  over  the  limbs  and  abdomen.  The  patient  may, 
however,  be  unable  to  walk  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  support  occa- 
sioned by  the  fracture,  or  he  may  walk  only  feebly  and  in  a  bent  pos- 
ture. But  if  union  takes  place,  even  if  the  deformity  persists,  he  may 
be  as  strong  and  capable  as  before.  In  short,  the  prognosis  is  favor- 
able as  regards  both  life  and  function. 

Course  and  Terminations. 

The  course  and  terminations  of  fracture  of  the  spine,  with  their 
many  variations  as  regards  both  the  life  and  principal  functions  of 
the  patient,  have  been  indicated  in  the  preceding  section;  we  have 
now  to  consider  the  changes  effected  in  the  broken  bone  by  the  process 
of  repair,  and  to  describe  some  of  the  later  symptoms  with  more 
detail,  r: 

Repair  takes  place,  as  after  fracture  of  other  spongy  bones — that  is, 
by  a  callus  which  may  remain  fibrous  or  become  bony,  and  may  be 
larger  or  smaller  according  to  circumstances.  As  the  displacement 
cannot  be  reduced  the  fragments  must  unite,  if  at  all,  in  the  positions 
in  which  they  are  left  by  the  accident,  and  although  the  normal  rela- 
tions may  be  thus  notably  altered  and  the  union  remain  fibrous  the 
solidity  is  quite  sufficient.  In  fractures  that  have  been  healed  for  a 
long  time  is  found  the  same  absorption  of  projecting  angles  and  sur- 
faces which  has  been  noticed  in  connection  with  other  fractures,  and 
this  absorption  is  especially  marked  in  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrse. 
If  several  adjoining  vertebrae  are  broken  at  the  same  time  the  inter- 
vertebral disks  disappear  in  part  by  absorption,  and  the  remaining 
portions  undergo  partial  or  complete  ossification,  uniting  structurally 
with  the  vertebrae,  and  thus  forming  a  more  or  less  extensive,  rigid, 
bony  mass.  The  length  of  time  required  for  consolidation  appears  to 
be  greater  than  for  that  of  other  spongy  bones. 

1  If  the  specimens  of  supposed  ununited  fracture  of  the  arch  of  these  bones,  which  have  been 
found  upon  the  dissecting-table,  in  museums,  and  in  old  Indian  graves,  are  accepted  as  such,  they 
raise  the  question  whether  similar  fractures  are  not  more  common  than  has  been  supposed,  and 
whether  they  may  not  be  present,  without  displacement,  in  some  of  the  severe,  so-called  strains  of 
this  region. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  VERTEBRJE.  I49 

A  number  of  instances  of  complete  pseudarthrosis  have  been  recorded, 
and  their  oriti;in  differently  interpreted.  Giirlt  has  collected  21  such 
cases  :  1  of  the  odontoid  process,  4  of  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
cervical,  dorsal,  and  lumbar  vertebrae,  and  of  the  sacrum,  3  of  the 
transverse  processes  of  lumbar  vertebrae,  11  of  the  arches  of  lumbar 
vertebrae,  aud  2  of  the  side  of  the  upper  false  vertebra  of  the  sacruQi. 
Meckel  considered  the  11  cases  involving  the  arches  of  lumbar  ver- 
tebrae as  instances  of  arrest  of  development,  comparing  them  to  the 
vertebrae  of  some  reptiles,  which  consist  normally  of  a  separate  body 
aud  arch,  and  in  which  many  of  the  processes  also  remain  ununited. 
Otto  opposed  this  view,  because  the  position  of  the  false  joint  does  not 
correspond  to  that  of  the  line  between  the  diaphysis  and  epiphysis,  and 
Wyman,^  who  reported  eleven  additional  cases  and  did  not  know  of 
these  earlier  ones,  held  the  same  opinion  for  the  same  reason.  Gurlt 
accepted  Meckel's  opinion  concerning  the  arches  of  the  lumbar  verte- 
brae, and  claims  that  it  is  probably  true  also  of  the  other  cases.  His 
reasons  are  that  there  is  no  trace  of  injury  to  other  parts,  and  that  it 
is  known  that  fracture  limited  to  a  vertebral  arch,  a  spinous  or  trans- 
verse process,  is  exceedingly  rare;  that  most  of  the  cases  relate  to  the 
lowest  lumbar  vertebrae,  fractures  of  which,  of  any  kind,  are  rare,  and 
in  the  case  of  the  fifth  unknown;  and  that  the  identity  of  the  position 
of  the  joint  in  all  corresponding  cases,  and  its  perfect  structure,  point 
strongly  to  an  arrest  of  development,  and  are  incompatible  with  a  frac- 
ture by  external  violence.  Shepherd^  reports  another  of  the  fifth 
lumbar  vertebra  found  in  the  dissecting-room. 

Suppuration  at  the  seat  of  fracture,  which  is  very  rare  in  other  bones, 
seems  to  be  more  common  after  simple  fracture  of  the  spine,  and  is 
attributed  by  Gurlt  to  the  greater  complexity  of  the  anatomical  condi- 
tions and  to  the  less  perfect  immobility  maintained  during  the  progress 
of  the  case.  His  statistics  contain  eight  cases  in  which,  excluding 
instances  of  suppurative  meningitis,  more  or  less  pus  was  found  after 
death  at  the  seat  of  fracture;  in  four  of  the  cases  the  abscess  was  large, 
and  its  walls  were  formed  in  part  by  the  unbroken  ligaments;  in  one  of 
them  the  wall  of  the  abscess  had  ossified.  Usually  the  intervertebral 
disks  are  partly  destroyed,  the  articular  surfaces  eroded,  and  some- 
times the  bone  carious.  In  most  cases  the  suppuration  was  limited 
to  the  fracture,  but  in  one  the  pus  had  made  its  way  out  by  several 
channels  through  to  the  muscles  and  tendons,  and  had  collected  in  the 
back. 

As  to  the  recovery  of  the  cord  after  injury,  with  restoration  of  func- 
tion, nothing  definite  is  known  beyond  the  fact  that  a  number  of  autop- 
sies made  at  various  periods  after  injury  have  shown  the  cord  more  or 
less  completely  divided,  or  reduced  to  pulp  at  the  compressed  part,  or 
replaced  by  fibrous  tissue.  There  is  nothing  to  prove  that  a  disinte- 
grated portion  can  be  restored,  or  that  divided  cords  can  be  reunited, 
and  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  proof  of  such  a  fact  could  be  furnished 
except  by  experiment.  In  those  cases  in  which  paralysis  has  disap- 
peared after  a  time,  it  is   impossible  to  know  exactly  what  was  the 

1  Wyman  :  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  August  14, 1869. 

2  Shepherd  :  Montreal  Medical  Journal,  June,  1892. 


150  FRACTURES. 

nature  of  the  lesion  of  the  cord  that  caused  it,  but  probably  most  of 
them  are  cases  of  moderate  hsematomyelia. 

The  troubles  created  by  paralysis  of  the  bladder  are  very  serious, 
and  often  hasten  a  fatal  termination.  They  begin,  usually  promptly, 
with  retention,  which  if  not  looked  for  by  the  surgeon  may  pass  unno- 
ticed, since  it  gives  the  patient  no  pain,  until  the  distention  of  the 
bladder  has  become  so  great  that  the  urine  begins  to  dribble  away 
through  the  urethra.  This  distention  is  of  itself  sufficient  to  cause 
cystitis.  If  the  retention  is  noticed  and  the  catheter  used  regularly 
the  appearance  of  the  cystitis  will  be  delayed;  the  urine  gradually 
becomes  turbid,  ammoniacal,  and  charged  with  mucus,  and  remains  so 
until  death  or  until  improvement  has  taken  place  in  the  paralysis. 
After  a  period  that  is  usually  short,  the  retention  passes  into  inconti- 
nence, either  complete  or  by  overflow.  The  symptoms  and  usual  con- 
sequences of  the  cystitis  are  such  as  are  commonly  observed  when  the 
same  affectioQ  is  excited  by  other  causes,  and  do  not  require  a  detailed 
description  here;  but  in  addition  to  these  common  ones  there  are  occa- 
sionally observed  others  of  great  gravity,  such  as  sloughing  of  the  wall 
of  the  bladder,  and  pericystitis  with  formation  of  abscesses. 

Every  effort  should  be  made  to  delay  the  appearance  of  this  compli- 
cation and  to  diminish  its  severity,  and  with  this  object  the  water  must 
be  regularly  drawn  as  soon  as  the  first  signs  of  retention  appear.  It 
is  usually  sufficient  to  use  the  catheter  twice  a  day;  it  must  be  steril- 
ized and  passed  with  even  more  than  the  usual  precautions  and  gentle- 
ness because  the  patient's  insensitiveness  creates  an  additional  risk  of 
doing  damage  unwittingly  to  the  urethral  wall.  After  cystitis  has 
appeared  and  the  urine  has  become  turbid,  the  bladder  should  be 
washed  once  or  twice  a  day.  Permanent  drainage  of  the  bladder 
through  a  perineal  or  suprapubic  incision  has  been  employed  with 
advantage. 

Bed-sores  appear  promptly  after  any  fracture  that  has  caused  para- 
plegia, sometimes  as  early  as  the  second  day.  The  skin  at  first  becomes 
white,  then  mottled,  and  then  separates  as  after  blistering;  then  the 
deeper  part  sloughs,  and  the  slough  spreads  peripherally  and  in  depth. 
The  commonest  seat  is  the  skin  covering  the  convexity  of  the  sacrum, 
then  other  prominent  points  upon  the  back  and  legs.  Not  infrequently 
when  the  slough  over  the  sacrum  separates  the  bone  underneath  is 
found  necrosed.  The  cause  of  this  early  sloughing  has  been  thought 
to  lie  in  injury  to  nerves  or  nerve  centres  presiding  over  the  nutrition 
of  the  parts;  but  Mr.  Shaw^  explains  it  by  the  pressure  which  is  con- 
tinued for  a  length  of  time  and  with  an  absence  of  interruption  un- 
known except  in  connection  with  paralysis.  Not  only  is  the  patient 
unable  to  move,  but  he  is  insensitive  to  the  prolonged  pressure,  and 
does  not  seek  to  change  his  position  or  to  have  it  changed.  He  lies 
absolutely  motionless  in  one  settled  position;  the  pressure  interrupts 
the  circulation  at  certain  points,  and,  if  this  interruption  continues 
unrelieved,  the  part  dies.  The  presence  of  urine  or  liquid  feces  may 
prove  an  additional  source  of  irritation,  as  may  also  creases  or  irregu- 

1  Shaw :  Holmes's  System  of  Surgery,  Am.  ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  810. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  VERTEBRJE.  151 

larities  in  the  bed-clothing,  and  lack  of  attention  and  scrupulous  clean- 
liness. The  rapid  improvement  which  sometimes  takes  place  in  these 
sloughs,  even  when  the  paralysis  remains  complete,  as  soon  as  the  con- 
solidation of  the  fracture  is  sufficiently  advanced  to  allow  the  patient 
to  be  readily  moved,  is  an  additional  demonstration  that  they  are  due 
to  the  pressure  and  not  to  the  paralysis.  Some  cases  which  have  recov- 
ered with  permanent  paraplegia  have  shown,  on  the  other  hand,  a  very 
marked  tendency  to  the  formation  of  sloughs  on  slight  provocation, 
and  in  one  case'  the  tarsal  bones  of  both  feet  became  necrotic. 

In  those  cases  in  which  the  patients  survive  the  injury  and  its  more 
immediate  consequences,  it  is  sometimes  found  that  the  paralysis  grad- 
ually diminishes  and  may  even  disappear  entirely.  The  beginning  of 
the  improvement  is  sometimes  marked  by  the  appearance  of  sharp 
darting  pains  in  the  limbs  and  of  muscular  twitchings  excited  by  slight 
causes,  such  as  pinching  or  touching  the  skin;  then  the  power  of  vol- 
untary motion  returns,  first  in  one  muscle,  then  in  another.  Sensation 
returns  usually  before  motion;  the  bladder  is  found  to  be  again  able  to 
retain  a  certain  quantity  of  urine  and  to  expel  it  with  some  force;  and 
a  similar  improvement  is  presented  by  the  rectum,  although,  as  a  rule, 
even  in  the  best  cases,  the  functions  of  the  rectum  and  bladder  remain 
partially  and  permanently  disabled.  The  improvement  in  the  paralysis 
may  be  very  slight,  or  it  may  go  on  to  complete  restoration  of  function, 
or  it  may  be  arrested  at  any  intermediate  stage.  Cases  have  been 
referred  to  in  which  a  permanent  deformity  existed,  but  the  functions 
of  the  body  and  limbs  were  in  no  manner  disturbed  by  it.  Finally, 
after  a  short  period  of  apparent  recovery,  symptoms  of  progressive 
degeneration  of  the  cord  or  of  pachymeningitis  may  appear. 

Treatment. 

The  indications,  as  in  other  fractures,  are  to  reduce  displacement 
and  to  immobilize  until  repair  shall  have  taken  place,  but  the  limita- 
tions which  exist  in  so  many  other  fractures  exist  here  to  an  even 
greater  extent  because  of  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  character  of  the 
displacement,  the  difficulty  in  modifying  it  as  desired,  and  the  fre- 
quent association  of  dominant  lesions  of  the  cord  which  cannot  possibly 
be  remedied.  The  condition  of  the  cord,  as  indicated  by  the  symp- 
toms, should  usually  determine  the  measure  of  benefit  to  be  expected 
from  treatment,  but  unfortunately  we  cannot  distinguish  with  certainty 
between  a  complete  division  or  crush  of  the  cord  which  cannot  be 
repaired  and  compression  by  bone  or  extravasated  blood  which  will  be 
recovered  from  if  the  pressure  is  relieved,  although  we  know  that  in 
the  great  majority  of  cases,  a  majority  which  is  greater  the  higher  the 
injury  is  situated  in  the  vertebral  column,  the  condition  of  the  cord  is 
hopeless  or  at  the  most  can  only  be  mitigated. 

In  the  first  care  of  the  patient — transport,  undressing,  examination 
— he  must  be  handled  with  constant  watchfulness  to  avoid  producing 
or  increasing  displacement.  Then,  if  the  fracture  is  of  a  spinous  pro- 
cess alone  or  of  the  column  without  recognizable  displacement  and 

1  Courier  Medical,  November  11, 1882. 


1 52  FRACTURES. 

without  symptoms  of  injury  of  the  cord,  confinemeut  to  the  bed,  pref- 
erably aided  by  a  plaster-of-Paris  corset,  is  all  that  is  required. 

If  there  is  recognizable  displacement — gibbosity  of  the  spine — with- 
out cord  symptoms  immobilization  in  the  plaster  corset  is  indicated, 
with  or  without  an  attempt  to  correct  the  displacement. 

If  symptoms  of  pressure  on  or  injury  of  the  cord  coexist  an  attempt 
should  be  made  to  relieve  the  condition  by  correcting  the  displacement. 

The  means  of  accomplishing  this  are  traction  upon  the  trunk  to 
straighten  it  by  elongation,  direct  pressure  forward  upon  the  projecting 
angle,  and  open  operation. 

When  the  injury  is  in  the  cervical  or  upper  dorsal  region  traction 
can  be  made  by  turning  the  patient  upon  his  side  and  pulling  by  the 
chin  and  occiput;  and  by  gradually  changing  the  direction  of  the  trac- 
tion by  moving  the  head  backward  while  pressure  is  made  against  the 
spine  below  the  fracture  the  angular  displacement  can  sometimes  be 
completely  corrected.  But  when  the  injury  is  at  a  lower  point,  and 
especially  if  the  patient  is  large  and  heavy,  traction  thus  made  is  not 
sufficient  even  with  the  aid  of  anaesthesia;  and  even  pressure  with  the 
knee  or  hand  against  the  angle  (the  patient  being  on  his  side)  while 
the  hips  and  shoulders  are  pressed  backward  may  fail  to  make  any 
change  in  the  condition. 

Suspension  by  the  apparatus  used  in  disease  of  the  spine  has  been 
employed  by  some  with  advantage,  but  1  have  not  ventured  to  try  it. 
Instead,  I  have  used  a  long  plank,  placing  the  patient  upon  it,  securing 
his  shoulders  to  one  end,  and  then  gradually  raising  that  end  so  that 
the  lower  limbs  would  make  the  desired  traction  by  their  weight. 
While  the  patient  is  thus  supported  pressure  forward  upon  the  angle 
can  be  made  by  a  bandage  or  stick  passed  between  it  and  the  plank. 
If  the  materials  for  a  plaster  corset  have  been  previously  prepared,  in 
the  form  of  broad  strips  of  muslin  or  canton-flannel  soaked  in  plaster 
cream,  and  placed  at  the  proper  point  upon  the  plank  before  the  patient 
has  been  laid  upon  it,  the  dressing  can  be  easily  and  rapidly  completed 
while  the  patient  remains  suspended  by  bringing  forward  the  ends  of 
the  strips  around  the  body  on  each  side. 

Dandridge  recommends  horizontal  suspension  on  a  narrow  strip  of 
stout  muslin,  like  a  hammock,  which  is  then  included  in  the  plaster 
jacket.  The  method  is  praised  by  those  who  have  employed  it  in 
Pott's  disease  of  the  spine. 

In  a  few  cases  an  existing  paraplegia  has  immediately  disappeared 
during  suspension,  and  although  in  others  the  symptoms  have  been  tem- 
porarily aggravated  I  think  we  are  justified  in  deeming  the  method 
safe  and  probably  efficient  to  correct  an  angular  displacement  due  to 
fracture  or  crushing  of  the  body  of  a  vertebra  or  of  the  pedicles  or 
articular  processes  and  also,  though  less  certainly,  a  forward  displace- 
ment of  one  segment.  It  cannot  correct  the  much  less  common  dis- 
placement forward  into  the  canal  of  the  posterior  portion  of  the  verte- 
bral arch,  the  spinous  process  with  one  or  both  laminae,  or  probably  a 
fracture-dislocation  in  which  one  or  both  inferior  articular  processes  of 
the  upper  vertebra  have  lodged  in  front  of  the  corresponding  superior 
processes  of  the  next  lower  one. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  VERTEBRJE.  153 

In  reduction  by  open  operation  a  longitudinal  incision  is  made  along 
the  median  line  with  its  centre  at  the  a]>ex  of  the  angle  of  the  fracture, 
and  the  soft  parts  separated  on  each  side  from  the  spinous  process  and 
laminae  of  the  vertebra  forming  the  upper  part  of  the  angle,  cutting 
through  both  laminse,  if  unbroken,  and  removing  them  with  the  spinous 
process.  If  indicated  the  opening  in  the  s])inal  canal  is  enlarged  up- 
ward or  downward  by  removal  of  the  adjoining  spinous  ])rocess  and 
laminae,  and  the  displacement  of  the  body  of  the  vertebra  is  corrected 
by  manipulation  guided  by  the  eye  and  perhaps  aided  by  traction  with 
a  blunt  hook  passed  into  the  spinal  canal.  Hemorrhage  beneath  tiie 
dura  is  relieved  by  evacuation  through  an  incision. 

A  large  number  of  cases  have  been  thus  operated  upon  during  the 
last  few  years,  and  apparently  with  marked  benefit  in  some,  but  it  is 
still  too  early  to  formulate  a  rule  of  practice.  It  is  admitted  by  all 
that  the  operation  can  do  good  in  only  a  small  proportion  of  cases,  and 
it  is  probable  even  that  that  proportion  is  less  than  is  indicated  by  the 
statistics  because  it  is  not  clear  that  the  improvement  which  has  some- 
times followed  was  the  result  of  the  operation ;  similar  improvement  has 
been  noted  in  apparently  identical  cases  not  operated  upon.  It  must  also 
be  admitted,  I  think,  that  the  operation  is  not  likely  to  do  harm  and 
that  occasionally  it  discloses  an  important  condition  which  could  not 
otherwise  be  recognized  and  corrected.  My  own  inclination  is  strongly 
toward  reliance  upon  traction  and  the  plaster  jacket,  systematic  use  of 
which  might  show  a  gain  as  great  as  that  which  BurrelP  found  in  the 
Boston  City  Hospital :  33  per  cent,  of  recoveries  as  against  22  per  cent, 
under  expectant  treatment.  I  believe,  for  reasons  above  given,  that 
in  the  common  form  of  injury  with  angular  displacement — gibbosity 
— reduction  can  almost  always  be  accomplished  as  well  in  this  way  as 
by  operation,  and  that  the  latter  may  find  its  special  indications  in 
cases  of  intraspinal  hemorrhage  and  those  rare  ones  in  which  the  pos- 
terior portion  of  the  arch  is  driven  into  the  canal  and  presses  upon  the 
cord.  Thorburn,^  after  a  personal  experience  of  seven  cases  of  opera- 
tion and  study  of  about  200  published  cases,  says  he  has  found  no  clear 
evidence  of  benefit  from  it.  Nevertheless,  he  deems  laminectomy  justi- 
fiable ''  (1)  in  compound  fractures;  (2)  in  injuries  of  the  laminae  and 
spinous  processes  with  lesion  of  the  cord  when  the  crush  is  probably 
incomplete;  (3)  when  the  symptoms  are  mainly  or  entirely  due  to 
thecal  or  peritheeal  hemorrhage;  (4)  in  pachymeningitis  or  peripachy- 
meningitis, which  may  follow  an  injury  after  a  very  long  period;  and 
(5)  in  cases  of  compression  of  the  cauda  equina." 

Of  the  great  value  of  the  plaster  jacket,  applied  during  suspension, 
in  aiding  consolidation  of  the  fracture  in  cases  in  which  the  disability 
is  due  to  the  fracture  rather  than  to  injury  of  the  cord,  there  can  be  no 
question.^ 

The  general  treatment,  when  paraplegia  is  present,  is  to  place  the 
patient  upon  a  water-bed,  carefully  prevent  irritation  of  the  skin  by 
moisture  or  creases  in  the  sheets,  and  regularly  empty  the  bladder  and 
bowels.     Later  in  the  case  electricity  may  render  some  service. 

1  Burrell ;  Annals  of  Surgery,  February,  1895.  =  Thorburn  :  Lancet,  August  11,  1894. 

3  See  Papail,  De  I'emploi  du'corset  piritri}  dans  les  lesions  de  la  colonne  vertc^brale,  Paris,  1887. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FACE. 

1.  Fractures  of  the  Nose. 

Under  this  term  we  include  not  only  the  two  nasal  bones,  but  also 
those  upon  which  they  rest,  the  septum,  the  nasal  process  of  the  supe- 
rior maxillary,  and  the  nasal  spine  of  the  frontal.  The  fracture  may 
involve  one  or  both  nasal  bones  or  adjoining  processes;  it  may  be  simple 
or  compound,  multiple  or  comminuted;  and  it  may  be  associated  with 
other  fractures  of  neighboring  bones,  the  most  important  of  which  is 
fracture  of  the  cribriform  plate  of  the  ethmoid.  In  the  great  majority 
of  cases  the  fracture  is  a  more  or  less  comminuted  one,  occupying  the 
lower  half  of  the  nasal  bones,  the  main  line  of  fracture  running  trans- 
versely or  obliquely,  and  the  fragments  are  displaced  backward  or  back- 
ward and  to  one  side,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  force  that  has 
produced  the  injury.  In  rare  cases  the  fracture  involves  only  one 
nasal  bone,  or  there  may  be  dislocation  of  one  or  both  bones.  The 
cartilages  which  form  the  alee  may  be  broken  or  torn  from  their  attach- 
ments to  the  bone,  and  that  which  forms  the  septum  is  frequently 
broken  in  connection  with  fractures  of  the  bones  themselves,  or  sepa- 
rated from  the  vomer. 

The  symptoms  by  which  fracture  may  be  recognized  are  deformity, 
mobility,  and  crepitus.  If  the  nose  is  grasped  by  the  thumb  and  finger 
lateral  mobility  with  crepitus  can  usually  be  recognized,  and  displace- 
ments may  at  the  same  time  be  appreciated.  The  separation  of  the 
septum  is  recognized  by  exploration  within  the  nostrils.  The  swelling 
of  the  soft  parts,  which  appears  promptly,  will  mask  any  but  an 
extreme  displacement. 

Other  symptoms  which  may  be  present,  but  which  are  by  no  means 
pathognomonic,  are  free  bleeding  from  the  nose,  and  occasionally 
emphysema  of  the  eyelids  and  face.  Bleeding  is  often  severe  and 
sometimes  recurrent  and  difficult  to  arrest,  but  rarely  endangers  life. 
Emphysema  generally  has  its  origin  in  an  effort  of  the  patient  to  blow 
his  nose;  the  air  is  forced  into  the  subcutaneous  cellular  tissue  through 
a  rent  in  the  mucous  membrane  and  periosteum  and  spreads  promptly 
to  the  eyelids  and  sometimes  over  the  rest  of  the  face. 

An  occasional  symptom,  when  the  fracture  has  extended  into  the 
adjoining  portion  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone,  is  obstruction  to  the 
flow  through  the  lachrymal  duct  in  consequence  of  its  inclusion  in  the 
line  of  fracture.  Another  and  more  common  one  is  the  difficulty  or 
impossibility  of  breathing  through  the  nose,  the  result  of  inflammatory 
swelling  of  the  mucous  membrane;  and,  finally,  in  the  comminuted 
fractures  that  are  or  have  become  compound,  suppuration  may  be 
maintained  for  weeks  or  months  until  all  the  necrosed  fragments  have 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FACE.  ]  55 

worked  their  way  out  or  have  been  removed.  It  occasionally  happens, 
too,  that  after  a  simple  fracture  a  tendency  is  manifested  toward  inflam- 
matory complications  in  the  neighborhood,  al)scesses  form  in  and  about 
the  nose,  portions  of  bone  or  cartilage  become  necrosed  and  are  exfoli- 
ated, and  a  constant  purulent  discharge  from  the  nostrils  is  maintained. 

It  is  so  important  that  displacement  should  be  corrected,  that  an 
anaesthetic  should  be  used  if  a  thorough  exploration  cannot  be  made 
without  its  aid,  and  the  surgeon  should  spare  no  pains  to  satisfy  him- 
self as  to  the  condition  and  position  of  the  bones.  The  examination 
cannot  prudently  be  long  postponed,  for  the  bones  of  the  face  unite 
promptly,  and  more  than  once  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  correct 
a  displacement  after  eight  or  ten  days  had  elapsed;  firm  union  may  be 
expected  within  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks. 

The  prognosis  as  regards  life  is  favorable,  except  in  those  cases  in 
which  the  skull  is  at  the  same  time  broken,  and  in  those  few  others  in 
which  recurrent  hemorrhages,  of  which  no  satisfactory  explanation  is 
given,  show  themselves.  But  as  regards  the  avoidance  of  deformity 
the  outlook  is  not  so  favorable,  because  it  is  not  always  easy  to  recog- 
nize or  correct  a  displacement  through  the  swollen  tissues,  and  the 
persistence  of  even  a  slight  one  is  likely  to  be  a  noticeable  blemish. 

The  treatment  consists  mainly  in  the  reduction  of  the  displacement, 
for  it  is  seldom  possible  to  apply  any  apparatus  or  dressing  that  will 
prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  displacement  if  there  is  any  tendency 
toward  it.  The  reduction  when  there  is  depression  is  accomplished  by 
pressure  made  from  within  the  nostril,  aided  by  manipulation  or  mod- 
elling of  the  fragments  on  the  outside.  The  interval  between  the  sep- 
tum and  the  side  of  the  nose  at  the  part  of  the  nostril  corresponding 
to  the  nasal  bone  is  so  small  that  a  small  strong  instrument,  such  as 
a  steel  director,  must  be  used,  one  that  is  small  enough  to  work  within 
the  narrow  space  next  the  nasal  bone,  and  strong  enough  to  transmit 
considerable  pressure.  The  fingers  of  the  left  hand  placed  upon  the 
nose  serve  to  guide  the  instrument  and  to  recognize  the  degree  of  reduc- 
tion that  has  been  obtained.  Cocaine  may  be  used  to  diminish  the  sen- 
sitiveness of  the  mucosa.  Ordinarily  there  is  but  little  tendency  to 
recurrence  of  the  displacement,  except  when  the  fracture  is  comminuted 
and  the  septum  badly  broken;  the  only  forces  that  tend  to  change  the 
position  of  the  fragments  are  the  swelling  of  the  external  soft  parts 
and  the  pressure  of  the  air  when  the  patient  seeks  to  clear  his  nose  by 
snuffing  or  blowing. 

The  idea  of  supporting  the  fragments  by  pressure  from  within  the 
nostrils  suggests  itself  so  readily  that  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  recorded 
many  instances  and  several  varieties  in  the  methods  of  its  use.  The 
simpler  ones  consist  of  plugs  of  lint  crowded  into  the  nostrils,  with  or 
without  tubes  to  permit  breathing;  the  more  elaborate  ones  are  arrange- 
ments of  rods  supported  by  straps  crossing  the  upper  lip,  and  capable 
of  adjustment  in  length  and  direction  within  the  nostril  so  as  to  hold 
the  fragments  in  place;  they  are  said  to  have  been  efficient  in  some 
difficult  cases.  On  the  other  hand,  I  can  find  no  evidence  that  the 
plugs  of  lint  serve  any  useful  purpose. 

The  use  of  plaster  or  gutta-percha  splints  moulded  upon  the  outside 


156 


FRACTURES. 


seems  to  me  to  1)6  entirely  illusory;  if  swelling  takes  place  under  them 
it  will  tend  to  reproduce  the  displacement  by  pressure,  if  it  is  present 
when  the  mould  is  applied  its  subsidence  soon  creates  a  gap  between 
the  splint  and  the  skin.  The  best  plan  appears  to  be  repetition  of  the 
reduction  as  often  as  the  displacement  recurs.  Occasionally  the  bridge 
has  been  held  up  by  transfixion  with  a  pin  which  rests  upon  the  solid 
bone  on  each  side.  Recurrence  of  a  lateral  displacement  may  be 
opposed  by  a  pad  of  gauze  secured  against  the  side  of  the  nose  by  a 
strip  of  adhesive  plaster  crossing  both  cheeks. 

Separation  of  the  cartilaginous  septum  from  the  vomer  can  be  treated 
with  a  pair  of  forceps,  one  branch  of  which  is  passed  into  each  nostril, 
lapping  and  grasping  the  bone  and  cartilage  so  as  to  hold  them  in  line. 


Fig.  59. 


Correction  of  "saddle  nose.' 


The  depression  of  the  bridge,  the  ''saddle  nose,"  which  so  often  is  seen 
after  this  fracture,  constitutes  so  marked  a  disfigurement  that  many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  correct  it.  Operations  upon  the  bone, 
designed  to  detach  and  raise  the  bridge,  have,  as  a  rule,  failed  so  com- 
pletely that  1  was  led  to  try  to  meet  the  indication  by  introducing  a 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FACE.  I57 

suitably  shaped  foreign  body  between  the  skin  and  the  bone.  Jt  proved 
entirely  successful  in  restoring  the  profile,  and  tiie  pieces  of  ahirninuni 
and  gutta-percha  have  remained  in  place  for  several  years  without 
causing  irritation.  I  have  always  introduced  them  tlirough  a  small 
cut  on  the  side  of  the  ala  of  the  nose  and  prepared  a  place  for  them 
by  subcutaneously  freeing  the  skin  with  a  knife  introduced  through  the 
small  cut  and  swept  freely  across  the  bridge.  Fig.  59  shows  the  pro- 
file after  introduction  of  a  piece  of  gutta-percha  one  and  a  quarter 
inches  long  and  one-quarter  inch  wide.  A  year  later  I  removed  it  at 
the  patient's  request  and  inserted  a  piece  one  and  three-quarters  inches 
long  in  order  to  lessen  the  notch  at  the  root  of  the  nose.  (See  Amin/s 
of  Surgery,  June,  1896.) 

2.  Fractures  of  the  Malar  Bone  and  Zygoma. 

Isolated  fractures  of  this  bone  are  rare,  and,  so  far  as  can  be  inferred 
from  the  small  number  of  cases  in  which  a  direct  examination  has  been 
possible,  single  fractures  are  rarer  than  multiple  ones,  and  the  rarest  is 
that  which  is  almost  a  simple  diastasis,  a  separation  at  the  sutures  with 
some  splintering.  Partial  fractures  involving  the  lower  and  outer  por- 
tion of  the  bone  or  the  margin  of  the  orbit  have  been  observed,  and 
also  single  fractures  of  the  frontal  and  zygomatic  processes,  extending 
possibly  into  the  bones  with  which  they  articulate.  In  most  cases  there 
is  depression  of  the  entire  bone  with  fracture  of  the  malar  process  of 
the  superior  maxilla  and  crushing  of  the  anterior  wall  of  the  antrum, 
the  malar  bone  being  displaced  inward  toward  the  antrum  or  sometimes 
backward  into  the  zygomatic  fossa.  Pure  diastasis  of  the  malar  bone 
probably  does  not  exist;  it  has  never  been  demonstrated  by  autopsv, 
and  attempts  to  produce  it  upon  the  cadaver  have  always  resulted  in 
more  or  less  fracturing. 

Fractures  of  the  zygomatic  arch  alone  have  been  caused  by  external 
violence  acting  from  without  inward,  and  in  two  cases  from  within 
outward,  the  patient  having  fallen  forward  upon  a  stick  held  in  the 
mouth.  In  some  of  those  I  have  seen  a  portion  of  the  arch  has  been 
separated  by  two  lines  of  fracture  and  depressed;  in  one  of  them  one 
of  the  lines  of  fracture  extended  into  the  temporo-maxillary  joint. 
The  displacement  follows  the  direction  of  the  fracturing  force. 

The  symptoms  upon  which  the  diagnosis  must  be  made  are  deformitv, 
mobility,  and  crepitus.  Unless  there  is  much  inflammatory  swelling 
the  deformity,  which  consists  usually  in  a  depression  or  flattening  of  the 
cheek  just  below  the  outer  half  of  the  eye,  can  be  recognized  by  sight 
and  touch,  and  the  irregularity  of  the  line  of  fracture  can  be  readily 
felt  on  the  margin  of  the  orbit,  or,  if  it  extends  to  the  malar  process 
of  the  superior  maxillary  bone,  on  the  under  and  anterior  surface  of 
this  process  by  the  finger  within  the  mouth.  Mobility  and  crepitus 
are  perceived  more  rarely;  the  latter  can  be  sometimes  produced  by  the 
movement  of  the  jaw. 

Ansesthesia  or  a  sense  of  formication  in  the  cheek,  nose,  upper  lip, 
and  gum  of  the  corresponding  side  is  sometimes  observed,  and  is  due 
to  an  extension  of  the  fracture  along  the  floor  of  the  orbit,  involving 


158  FRACTURES. 

the  infra-orbital  canal  and  tearing  or  bruising  the  superior  maxillary 
nerve.  This  symptom  may  be  associated  with  an  extravasation  of 
blood  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  orbit  sufficient  to  force  the  eye  for- 
ward and  showing  itself  also  under  the  conjunctiva  and  in  the  eyelids. 
Bleeding  from  the  mouth  or  nose  is  occasionally  seen  as  the  result  of 
the  extension  of  the  fracture  through  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth  or  antrum. 

When  the  fracture  involves  the  zygomatic  arch,  and  the  fragments, 
as  is  usually  the  case,  are  driven  inward,  movement  of  the  jaw  may  be 
difficult  or  impossible,  either  because  the  masseter  has  been  injured,  or 
because  the  depressed  fragments  of  the  arch  are  forced  against  the 
coronoid  process  of  the  inferior  maxilla,  or  into  the  tendon  of  the  tem- 
poral muscle.  In  one  case  the  tip  of  the  coronoid  process  was  broken 
off  by  the  same  blow  that  fractured  the  arch.  Swelling,  discoloration, 
and  pain  are  the  natural  and  constant  results  of  the  fracture  and  the 
bruising  of  the  soft  parts. 

The  natural  course  of  these  fractures  is  toward  rapid  repair  without 
excessive  callus,  and  with  gradual  disappearance  of  any  difficulty  that 
may  exist  at  first  in  the  movements  of  the  jaws.  It  is  seldom  possible 
to  reduce  the  displacement  completely,  because,  as  has  been  said,  it  is 
generally  inward  and  there  is  no  way  of  acting  very  efficiently  upon 
the  bone,  except  through  a  wound  of  the  skin.  The  attempt  must  be 
made  to  move  the  bone  in  the  desired  direction  by  engaging  the  end 
of  the  thumb  or  finger  uoder  it  in  the  zygomatic  fossa,  introducing  it 
through  the  mouth  if  the  cheek  is  swollen.  It  has  been  proposed,  and 
occasionally  practised,  to  cut  down  upon  the  bone  opposite  the  zygo- 
matic process,  divide  the  fascia  overlying  the  masseter  muscle,  pass  a 
stout  hook  under  the  process,  and  raise  the  bone  by  drawing  upon  it, 
or  to  make  a  smaller  incision  over  the  body  of  the  bone  and  screw  an 
elevator  into  it,  by  which  it  could  then  be  raised. 

Inward  displacement  of  the  zygomatic  arch  cannot  be  directly  acted 
upon  except  by  a  hook  introduced  through  the  skin  or  an  incision.  In 
only  one  of  the  recorded  cases  has  the  displacement  interfered  seriously 
and  for  any  length  of  time  with  the  movement  of  the  jaws;  in  this 
one  the  difficulty  increased  steadily  for  some  time  until  the  patient 
could  barely  separate  the  teeth,  and  then  one  morning  while  yawning 
he  felt  something  snap,  and  the  motion  of  the  jaw  at  once  became  and 
remained  free. 

3.  Fractures  of  the  Superior  Maxilla. 

While  the  body  of  this  bone,  protected  as  it  is  by  outlying  processes 
and  other  bones,  is  rarely  fractured,  its  own  processes  are  not  infre- 
quently broken  or  involved  in  the  fractures  of  those  bones  with  which 
they  are  continuous.  Thus,  a  blow  upon  the  nose  breaks  not  only  the 
nasal  bones  but  also  the  nasal  process  of  the  superior  maxilla,  and  a 
blow  upon  the  malar  bone  may  force  in  the  anterior  wall  of  the  antrum 
on  which  it  rests.  The  fractures  are  always  produced  by  direct  vio- 
lence, and  present,  consequently,  considerable  variety  in  their  extent 
and  the  parts  involved,  but  a  fissure  may  extend  to  this  bone  from  a 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FACE.  159 

fracture  of  the  cranium.  The  alveolar  process  may  be  broken  off  iu 
part  or  entirely  by  a  blow  received  on  it  or  on  the  teeth.  A  blow 
received  in  front,  at  or  below  the  level  of  the  nostrils,  may  produce  a 
horizontal  line  of  fracture  separating  the  alveolar  and  palatal  processes 
from  the  body  of  the  bone,  and  including  also  the  pterygoid  plates. 
Falls  from  a  height  have  caused  a  vertical  line  of  fracture  or  diastasis 
between  the  two  bones  along  the  median  line  of  the  mouth,  extending 
even  through  the  soft  palate  and  associated  with  fracture  of  the  malar 
or  nasal  bones.  In  a  very  few  cases  a  line  of  fracture  on  each  side  at  the 
canine  tooth  has  separated  the  intermediate  portion,  with  marked  dis- 
placement and  mobility.  Fractures  of  the  alveolar  process,  even  with 
much  displacement  and  mobility,  present  but  little  gravity,  for  they 
heal  rapidly  and  without  necrosis  except  of  small  pieces  of  the  sockets 
of  teeth  displaced  at  the  saine  time. 

It  occasionally  happens  that  one  or  both  bones  are  driven  in  with 
multiple  and  comminuted  fracturing  of  them  and  of  the  adjoining 
ones.  The  earliest  known  case  of  the  kind  was  reported  by  Wiseman, 
and  has  been  extensively  quoted.  The  upper  jaw  was  driven  in  so 
far  that  the  finger  could  not  be  introduced  between  the  palate  and  the 
posterior  wall  of  the  pharynx.  Wiseman  inserted  a  blunt  hook  through 
the  mouth  and  easily  drew  the  bone  forward  into  place;  as,  however, 
the  displacement  recurred  very  easily,  he  left  the  hook  behind  the 
palate  and  had  it  drawn  upon  constantly  by  the  patient  or  his  friends 
until  consolidation  had  taken  place.  Quite  a  number  of  similar  cases 
(Gurlt  has  collected  upward  of  twenty)  have  been  reported,  all  the 
result  of  great  violence,  either  by  falls  from  a  height  or  the  passage 
across  the  face  of  a  heavy  wagon,  or  a  violent  blow.  In  one  case  the 
bones  of  the  face  were  so  movable  that  they  moved  up  and  down  when 
the  patient  sv/allowed,  as  if  they  were  restrained  only  by  the  skin.  In 
most  of  them  the  patients  recovered,  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that, 
notwithstanding  the  degree  of  the  violence  and  the  extent  of  the  injury, 
it  seldom  happens  that  the  fracture  involves  the  skull.  The  reason  lies 
apparently  in  the  direction  in  which  the  fracturing  force  is  applied,  a 
direction  outside  of  and  more  or  less  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the 
skull,  and  not  in  the  line  of  one  of  its  diameters.  The  bones  of  the 
face  are,  as  it  were,  torn  off  the  skull  rather  than  driven  back  upon  it. 

Very  extensive  mutilation  of  the  face  has  been  caused  by  gunshot 
wounds,  especially  in  attempts  at  suicide  when  the  muzzle  of  the  gun 
has  been  placed  within  the  mouth,  but  it  is  rare  for  ordinary  violence 
to  lead  to  much  loss  of  tissue.  Malgaigne  speaks  of  the  following  case 
as  unique  in  this  respect  in  his  experience.  A  lad  was  kicked  in  the 
face  by  a  horse;  the  superior  maxillary,  nasal,  and  palatal  bones  were 
extensively  comminuted,  and  the  skin  torn  and  bruised.  Recovery 
took  place,  but  with  much  deformity.  The  nasal  bones,  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  alveolar  arch,  and  the  greater  part,  if  not  all,  of  the 
hard  palate  had  disappeared.  There  was  no  longer  either  nose  or 
mouth;  the  lips  were  united  by  a  firm  cicatrix,  and  the  mouth  and 
nostrils  were  represented  by  an  oval  opening  between  the  nasal  pro- 
cesses of  the  superior  maxillae.  Through  this  opening  the  patient 
breathed,  spoke,  drank,  and  ate. 


160 


FRACTURES. 


The  diagnosis  of  fracture  is  ordinarily  made  without  any  difficulty, 
since  large  portions  of  the  bone  are  open  to  direct  examination  with 
the  finger  through  the  mouth  and  on  the  cheek.  Irregularity  of  out- 
line, mobility,  displacements,  and  crepitus  can  be  readily  recognized. 
In  some  few  cases  where  there  was  no  displacement  the  diagnosis  has 
been  in  doubt,  and  Guerin^  has  pointed  out  a  symptom  which  might 
be  useful  under  such  circumstances.  It  has  been  said  that  the  ptery- 
goid apophysis  is  always  broken  when  the  line  of  fracture  crosses  the 
jaw  horizontally  between  the  alveolar  process  and  the  malar  bone,  and 
Gu^rin  found  that  pressure  with  the  finger  upon  the  inner  plate  of  this 
process  caused  pain  and  sometimes  showed  mobility  when  there  was  no 
other  sign  of  fracture.  Ecchymosis  of  the  hard  or  soft  palate  indicates 
fracture. 

Repair  in  cases  of  average  severity  takes  place  in  from  thirty  to 
forty  days  with  a  scanty  formation  of  callus,  and  not  infrequently  in 
less  time.  The  vitality  of  the  bone  is  exceptionally  great,  hence  the 
rule  laid  down  by  Malgaigne  and  some  of  his  predecessors,  and 
repeated  by  all  subsequent  writers,  to  leave  every  fragment  that  is  not 
absolutely  and  entirely  detached.  Although  the  rule  is  a  sound  one, 
it  occasionally  happens  that  fragments  become  necrosed  and  have  to  be 
removed.  This  is  thought  to  happen  more  frequently  with  fragments 
of  the  alveolar  border  than  with  any  others. 

Displacement  is  seldom  noticeable  after  repair  is  completed,  except 
in  the  nose,  but  it  usually  exists  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  and  the 
ingenuity  and  the  patience  of  the  surgeon  are 
often  severely  taxed  to  overcome  the  constant 
tendency  to  the  recurrence  of  the  displacement. 
Salivation  is  often  profuse,  and  the  discharge 
offensive.  Division  of  the  lachrymal  canal  by 
the  fracture  may  lead  to  its  obliteration. 

Displacement  of  the  entire  bone  may  be  treated 
as  in  Wiseman's  case,  or  the  retention  may  be 
aided  by  securing  the  lower  jaw  against  the  upper 
one,  with  or  without  the  intervention  of  inter- 
dental splints  or  moulds  of  gutta-percha  or  metal 
shaped  to  fit  the  teeth  and  alveolar  arch.  Lateral 
pressure  cannot  well  be  made  upon  the  cheeks  to 
overcome  separation  along  the  median  line  of  the 
palate,  but  fortunately  it  is  not  always  necessary.  In  Siraonin's  case, 
quoted  by  Malgaigne,  the  gap  began  to  contract  spontaneously  by  the 
tenth  day,  and  was  completely  closed  by  the  thirty-third,  with  no  other 
displacement  than  a  slight  difference  in  level  between  the  two  halves. 
In  another  case,  quoted  by  Hamilton,  the  gap  was  large  enough  to 
admit  the  little  finger,  and  was  still  open  six  weeks  after  the  receipt  of 
the  injury. 

After  fracture  of  the  alveolar  process  the  fragment  should  be  care- 
fully readjusted  and  fixed  by  wiring  the  teeth  to  the  adjoining  ones,  or 
by  a  splint  of  gutta-percha  or  metal.  Agnew  says  he  has  used  for  this 


Fig.  60. 


Intrabuceal  splint  for  frac 
ture  of  the  upper  jaw. 


1  Guerin  :  Archives  Generales  de  MOdecine,  July,  1866,  vol.  ii.  p.  5. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FACE.  161 

purpose  with  great  advantage  a  piece  of  cork  with  grooves  cut  in  its 
upper  and  lower  surfaces  to  receive  the  teeth  of  both  jaws.  The  reduc- 
tion is  made,  the  cork  inserted,  and  the  jaws  firmly  bound  together. 
No  attempt  should  be  made  to  remove  the  corresponding  teeth,  for  not 
only  are  the  chances  in  favor  of  their  becoming  firm  again  in  their 
sockets,  but  the  attempt  to  draw  them,  even  if  they  are  loose,  may 
bring  away  an  important  piece  of  the  bone. 

The  gutta-percha  or  metal  mould  may  be  held  in  place  by  binding 
the  lower  jaw  against  it  after  it  has  been  fitted  to  the  upper  one,  or  by 
an  apparatus  similar  to  one  devised  by  Graefe  for  the  purpose,  and 
shown  in  Fig.  60.  If  the  splint  is  to  be  supported  by  the  lower  jaw 
it  should  be  so  constructed  that  an  interval  will  be  left  through  which 
food  can  be  given  and  the  mouth  cleaned. 

4.  Fractures  of  the  Inferior  Maxilla. 

Fracture  of  the  inferior  maxilla  occurs  more  frequently  than  that  of 
any  other  of  the  bones  of  the  face.  It  is  rare  in  childhood  and  old 
age,  most  frequent  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  thirty,  and  is  appar- 
ently more  than  ten  times  as  common  in  males  as  in  females. 

Gurlt  collected  143  published  cases  in  which  the  character  and  posi- 
tion of  the  fracture  were  described  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  allow  of 
their  use  as  statistics;  of  these  80  were  single,  49  double,  and  in  14 
there  were  three  or  more  lines  of  fracture.  Of  75  single  ones  (exclud- 
ing 5  in  which  the  fracture  was  limited  to  the  alveolar  process)  the 
fracture  occupied  the  median  line  in  25,  the  region  of  the  incisor  teeth 
in  22,  that  of  the  back  teeth  in  15,  behind  the  teeth  in  8,  and  the  con- 
dyloid process  in  5.  In  35  double  fractures  both  halves  of  the  bone 
were  broken  20  times,  and  at  points  on  the  two  halves  corresponding 
closely  with  each  other;  one  side  alone  8  times,  and  the  median  line 
by  one  of  the  fractures  7  times.  One  or  both  of  the  condyloid  pro- 
cesses were  broken  in  several  of  the  multiple  fractures.  These  figures 
show  that,  exclusive  of  partial  fractures  of  the  alveolar  border,  which 
are  very  common,  and  often  caused  by  the  drawing  of  a  tooth,  the  most 
frequent  seat  of  fracture  is  at  or  near  the  median  line,  and  that  single 
fracture  of  the  ramus,  or  of  the  alveolar  or  condyloid  process  is  com- 
paratively rare.  They  differ  materially  from  the  estimates  made  by 
various  writers,  but  as  the  latter  differ  quite  as  much  among  them- 
selves, and  appear  to  have  spoken  in  most  cases  from  general  impres- 
sions rather  than  from  figures,  the  preference  should  be  given,  I  think, 
to  Gurlt. 

Double  fractures  of  the  lower  jaw  are  relatively  more  common  than 
those  of  otiier  bones,  while  multiple  and  comminuted  ones  are  rare. 
Compound  fractures  are  common,  both  because  the  gum  overlying  the 
fracture  is  frequently  torn  and  because  the  lip  and  skin  are  often 
involved  in  the  direct  injury  that  has  caused  the  fracture.  The  frac- 
ture is  complete  or  incomplete,  the  latter  rarely  except  when  the  alve- 
olar border  alone  is  involved.  A  portion  of  the  lower  border  of  the 
bone  may  be  broken  off  by  a  blow. 

The  line  of  fracture  in  the  body  of  the  bone  is  usually  vertical  or 

11 


162 


FRACTURES. 


Fig.  61. 


nearly  vertical;  at  the  angle  or  in  the  ramus  it  is  oblique  or  transverse. 
At  the  median  line  there  is  but  little  displacement,  if  any;  but,  when 
present,  it  may  be  in  either  of  three  directions  :  a  difference  in  the  hori- 
zontal level  of  the  edge  of  the  teeth,  a  displacement  forward  and  back- 
ward of  the  fragments  upon  each  other  with  lateral  overriding,  or  a 
lateral  separation  of  the  two.  In  the  fractures  between  the  median 
line  and  the  canine  tooth  the  line  is  still  much  more  frequently  vertical 
than  oblique;  but  displacement  is  the  rule,  although  no  one  form  of  it 
seems  to  be  more  common  than  the  others.  Between  the  canine  tooth 
and  the  angle  of  the  jaw  it  is  either  vertical  or  inclined  backward  and 
downward,  and  usually,  instead  of  crossing  the  bone  from  M'ithout 
inward  at  a  right  angle  to  the  surface,  it  is  inclined  backward  and 
inward,  so  that  the  anterior  fragment  is  lengthened  on  the  inner  side 
and  the  posterior  fragment  on  the  outer  side.  The  inferior  dental 
nerve  is  crossed  by  this  fracture,  and  is  sometimes  torn  or  bruised. 

Fracture  behind  the  teeth  is  comparatively  rare,  only  eighteen  cases 
being  contained  in  Gurlt's  statistics,  and  it  is  frequently  double  or 

multiple  or  associated  with  other  fractures. 
When  the  fracture  lies  at  the  junction  of  the 
body  of  the  jaw  and  the  ascending  ramus,  it 
is  usually  oblique,  running  from  behind  the 
last  tooth  backward  and  outward  toward  the 
angle  of  the  jaw  ;  but  it  may  be  vertical. 
Displacement  is  usually  slight  or  lacking,  the 
parts  being  kept  well  together  by  the  masseter 
and  internal  pterygoid  muscles  (Fig.  61). 

Fracture  of  the  condyloid  process  is  usually 
accompanied  by  other  fractures  of  the  same 
or  other  bones  of  the  face,  and  may  be  pro- 
duced by  a  blow  either  upon  the  chin  or  upon 
the  side  of  the  jaw  near  the  joint.  The  line 
of  fracture  passes  through  the  neck,  and  the 
few  specimens  furnished  by  autopsies  and  museums  do  not  show  a 
greater  frequency  at  any  point  or  in  any  direction  than  at  any  other. 

Fracture  of  the  coronoid  process  is  exceedingly  rare  and  has  been 
seen  only  in  association  with  other  fractures  of  the  same  or  adjoining 
bones. 

A  portion  of  the  alveolar  process  with  the  teeth  in  place  is  some- 
times broken  off.  The  size  of  the  piece  varies  within  wide  limits,  and 
the  displacement  is  habitually  inward.  In  one  or  two  entirely  excep- 
tional cases  a  similar  piece,  including  a  portion  of  the  body  of  the 
bone,  has  been  broken  off. 

Comminuted  fractures,  except  as  the  result  of  gunshot  wounds,  are 
comparatively  rare;  double  and  treble  fractures  are  less  so;  and  one 
case  is  on  record  in  which  there  were  five  distinct  and  separate  lines  of 
fracture. 

The  most  frequent  cause  of  fracture,  exclusive  of  partial  fractures 
produced  by  attempts  to  draw  a  tooth,  is  violence  received  upon  the 
chin;  fracture  by  pressure  upon  the  sides  is  much  less  common,  the 
other  occurring  thrice  as  frequently.      Fracture  of  the  condyloid  pro- 


Fracture  of  lower  jaw  behind 
the  teeth. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FACE.  163 

cess  may  be  produced  in  eitlier  of  the  same  two  ways — a  IjIow  upon 
the  chin  or  upon  the  cheek. 

The  objective  symptoms  of  fracture  of  the  lower  jaw  are  the  same 
as  those  of  other  fractures  :  abnormal  mobility,  crepitus,  displace- 
ment, pain.  The  bone  is  so  accessible  to  the  touch  both  within  and 
without  the  mouth  that  irregularities  in  the  outline  of  its  body  can  be 
easily  recognized  by  the  fingers  and  sometimes  by  sight.  The  teeth 
show  differences  in  level,  vertically  or  antero-posteriorly;  those  which 
adjoin  the  fracture  are  usually  loosened  and  may  be  entirely  dis- 
lodged. Mobility  and  crepitus  are  detected  by  manipulation.  When 
the  fracture  is  situated  at  or  above  the  angle  of  the  jaw  its  recognition 
is  by  no  means  so  easy;  by  passing  the  finger  within  the  mouth  along 
the  inner  and  outer  surfaces  of  the  ramus  irregularities  of  outline  and 
localized  points  of  pain  may  be  recognized,  and  pain  at  a  fixed  point 
is  caused  by  biting. 

The  degree  and  direction  of  the  displacement  vary  much.  As  a 
rule,  when  the  fracture  is  single  and  lateral,  the  anterior  fragment 
tends  toward  the  inside  of  the  mouth.  In  double  fractures,  the  inter- 
mediate piece  is  almost  invariably  drawn  downward  and  backward  by 
the  unopposed  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck  which  are  attached 
to  it. 

Fracture  of  the  condyloid  process  was  first  studied  by  Desault  and 
Bichat,  and  but  little  if  anything  has  been  added  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  subject  since  their  time.  The  symptoms  are  pain  increased  by 
motion,  diminished  mobility  of  the  jaw,  often  crepitus  on  manipulation, 
irregularities  in  the  region  of  the  condyle,  the  ease  with  which  the  con- 
dyle can  be  pushed  forward  into  the  zygomatic  fossa,  its  failure  to  share 
in  the  movements  of  the  jaw,  and  its  almost  constant  displacement 
upward  and  forward  by  the  contraction  of  the  external  pterygoid. 
Ribes  pointed  out  an  additional  symptom  which  is  sometimes  present, 
deviation  of  the  chin  toward  the  affected  side.  This  is  effected  by  the 
displacement  of  the  ramus  upward  and  backward  on  the  outer  side  of 
the  condyle  and  neck,  and  the  more  easily  if  the  fracture  is  a  double 
or  multiple  one.  Gurlt  quotes  the  description  of  a  specimen  of  this 
kind  from  a  work  by  Bonn,  published  in  1785.  The  condyle  was 
united  by  a  bony  callus  to  the  ramus  just  above  the  orifice  of  the  dental 
canal. 

Swelling  of  the  gums,  face,  and  glands  follows  promptly  upon  the 
injury,  and  is  often  increased  by  the  direct  bruising  of  the  soft  parts 
themselves;  the  secretions  of  the  mouth,  increased  in  quantity  by  the 
irritation,  mingle  with  the  pus  that  comes  from  the  fracture  if  com- 
pound or  from  the  ulcers  produced  by  the  stomatitis,  decompose,  and 
cause  an  offensive  odor  that  can  scarcely  be  kept  under  control  even  by 
the  most  careful  attention.  Abscesses  may  form  and  open  within  the 
mouth  or  upon  the  sides  of  the  jaw  or  the  neck  below  it;  they  are 
almost  invariably  associated  with  the  presence  of  detached  splinters  or 
the  exfoliation  of  portions  of  the  jaw,  which  require,  of  course,  to  be 
removed  before  a  permanent  cure  can  be  obtained.  Small  fragments 
may  long  escape  recognition,  and  the  only  indication  of  their  presence 
may  be  a  sinus  ;  larger  fragments  force  themselves  promptly  upon  the 


Ig4  FRACTURES. 

surgeon's  attention  by  the  profuseness  of  the  discharge  and  the  amount 
of  local  friction.   A  few  cases  of  extensive  necrosis  have  been  reported. 

Simple  fractures  unite  in  from  thirty  to  forty  days,  and,  even  when 
there  has  been  a  considerable  loss  of  bone  by  splintering  or  necrosis, 
the  final  result  may  be  a  very  good  one,  in  this  sense,  that  the  jaw  is 
strong  enough  to  support  artificial  teeth  in  the  place  of  those  that 
have  been  lost  by  the  accident,  is  sufficiently  regular  in  form  to  avoid 
deformity,  and  is  free  in  its  movements. 

Failure  of  union,  pseudarthrosis,  is  rare.  Gurlt's  statistics  contain 
only  two  cases  which  can  be  properly  considered  such,  and  they  were 
both  cured  by  operation.  It  is  more  common  after  gunshot  fracture 
with  much  loss  of  substance  by  elimination  of  splinters,  and  may  inter- 
fere with  mastication.  In  a  few  cases  union  in  a  faulty  position  has 
required  an  operation  to  correct  the  deformity  or  relieve  the  functional 
disability. 

The  prognosis  is  a  relatively  favorable  one;  the  probabilities  are  that 
union  will  take  place  promptly,  that  no  serious  complications  will  arise, 
and  that  no  important  deformity  or  disability  will  remain.  Danger  to 
life  may  come  from  two  quarters  :  the  proximity  of  the  bone  to  the 
cranium  carries  with  it  the  possibility  of  associated  injury  to  the  brain 
or  to  its  case;  retention  of  pus  in  a  compound  fracture  in  communica- 
tion with  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  exposes  to  the  grave  danger  of  absorp- 
tion of  the  decomposed  secretions  and,  though  rarely,  to  the  burrowing 
of  the  decomposed  pus  along  the  deeper  planes  of  the  neck  into  the 
anterior  mediastinum. 

Treatment.  Displacement  following  fracture  of  the  body  of  the  jaw 
can  usually  be  readily  overcome  by  the  pressure  of  the  thumb  and 
fingers  upon  the  teeth  and  the  lower  border  of  the  bone;  in  some 
cases  the  interlocking  or  wedging  of  the  smaller  pieces  or  of  displaced 
teeth  may  render  the  reduction  impossible  until  after  they  shall  have 
been  removed. 

In  simple  cases  where  the  tendency  to  displacement  is  slight  it  is 
sufficient  to  immobilize  the  lower  jaw  by  binding  it  against  the  upper 
one  with  a  four-tailed  bandage,  the  centre  of  which  is  at  the  chin,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  62. 

Splints  are  applied  either  to  the  front  and  under  surface  of  the  jaw 
outside  the  mouth,  or  to  the  teeth,  or  the  inner  surface  of  the  jaw,  and 
two  kinds  are  sometimes  used  in  combination.  Outside  splints  are 
available  only  in  cases  in  which  there  is  not  much  tendency  to  displace- 
ment and  in  which  the  lateral  pressure  of  a  simple  bandage  would 
cause  the  fragments  to  override  in  one  direction  or  another.  They 
may  be  made  of  leather,  pasteboard,  gutta-percha,  or  plaster  of  Paris, 
and  consist  essentially  of  a  cup-shaped  piece  embracing  the  chin  and 
extending  nearly  to  the  angle  of  the  jaw  on  each  side,  and  to  the  fold 
of  the  neck  below. 

Interdental  splints  are  made  of  metal,  gutta-percha,  or  vulcanized 
rubber;  they  are  fitted  to  the  crowns  of  the  teeth  of  both  fragments 
after  reduction  of  the  displacement,  and  are  held  in  place  either  by 
binding  the  jaws  together  with  an  outside  bandage,  or  by  braces  con- 
necting the  splint  with  a  pad  under  the  jaw,  or  by  a  special  arrange- 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FACE. 


165 


ment  of  lateral  braces  as  in  Kingsley's  apparatus  (Fioj.  63),  or  by 
fastening  thera  to  the  teeth  with  wires.  Some  are  fitted  only  to  the 
broken  jaw  and  are  intended  only  to  immobilize  the  fragments  on  each 
other;  others  are  fitted  to  both  jaws  and  enable  the  upper  one  to  be 
used  as  a  splint  for  the  lower.  Ackland'  describes  one  capable  of  ready 
adjustment  to  almost  any  fracture  of  the  body:  a  metal  gutter  partly 
filled  with  softened  gutta-percha,  pressed  down  upon  the  teeth,  and 
secured  to  a  plate  beneath  the  chin  by  two  adjustable  clamps. 


Fig. 


Four-tailed  bandage  for  fracture  of  the 
lower  jaw. 


Kingsley's  splint  applied. 


In  one  difficult  case  I  used  a  carpenter's  small  wooden  vise,  one  end 
of  which  lay  on  the  edge  of  the  teeth,  the  other  under  the  chin;  after 
a  few  days'  use  the  displacement  ceased  to  recur. 

Gutta-percha  splints  may  be  made  either  of  thin  strips  or  of  thick 
lumps  or  wedges.  The  former  have  a  length  of  three  or  four  inches, 
and  a  breadth  sufficient  to  overlap  the  crowns  of  the  teeth  from  gum  to 
gum;  they  are  softened  by  immersion  in  hot  water,  molded  to  the  teeth, 
cooled  as  rapidly  as  possible,  taken  off,  and  trimmed  suitably.  Then 
the  splint  is  reapplied  and  the  jaws  bound  together.  If  the  tendency 
to  displacement  is  slight  the  bandage  may  be  loosened  during  the  day 
to  allow  the  introduction  of  liquid  food,  or  a  wedge  may  be  kept 
between  the  jaws  so  as  to  create  an  interval  to  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
or  advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  absence  of  teeth,  especially  from  the 
upper  jaw.  In  a  case  quoted  by  Gurlt^  two  fragments  of  the  alveolar 
border  carrying  eight  teeth  were  secured  by  a  splint  of  sheet  lead 
moulded  to  the  teeth  and  fastened  down  by  silver  wire,  the  ends  of 
which  were  brought  out  under  the  chin  by  means  of  a  needle  and  tied 
over  a  roll  of  plaster.  The  wire  caused  no  irritation  and  was  left  in 
place  forty-seven  days. 


1  Ackland  :  British  Medical  Journal,  April  1,  1893. 
-  Gurlt :  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  ii.  p.  393. 


166 


FRACTURES. 


Gutta-percha  wedges  were  introduced  by  Dr.  Hamilton  to  meet  a 
doable  indication,  that  of  fixing  the  fragments  securely  and  of  allow- 
ing the  easy  introduction  of  food.  Two  pieces  of  gutta-percha  of  suit- 
able size  are  softened  and  formed  into  wedges  and  introduced  between 
the  jaws,  the  edge  of  the  wedge  directed  backward.  The  jaws  are 
closed  upon  them,  the  fragments  pressed  up  until  the  line  of  the  teeth 
is  straight,  and  the  wedges  moulded  to  the  sides  of  the  teeth  above 
and  below.  As  soon  as  the  gutta-percha  has  hardened  it  is  removed, 
trimmed  suitably,  and  reapplied,  and  the  jaws  are  bound  together  with 
a  bandasre. 


Fig.  64. 


Fig.  65. 


Kingsley's  interdental  splint. 

Yulcanized  rubber  is  a  valuable  substitute  for  gutta-percha  in  some 
difficult  cases,  but  its  employment  requires  special  skill  and  experience 
which  are  found  usually  only  among  the  dentists.  Casts  of  one  or  both 
jaws  are  first  taken  in  wax;  from  these  plaster  models  are  made,  and 
upon  these  latter  the  splint.    Figs.  63  and  64  show  the  splint  as  made 

by  Dr.  Kingsley,  of  New  York, 
with  attached  bars  by  which  the 
splint  and  jaw  can  be  bound  firmly 
together,  the  bandage  passing  from 
one  bar  to  the  other  underneath  the 
chin. 

Another  method,  which  dates  back 
to  Hippocrates,  is  to  fasten  together 
the  teeth  on  opposite  sides  of  the  frac- 
ture by  thread.  In  some  cases  I  have 
found  this  to  answer  perfectly,  in 
others  to  fail  entirely.  The  liga- 
ture should  be  attached  to  the  second 
or  third  tooth  from  the  fracture  on 
each  side,  and  should  be  drawn  very 
tight. 

A  wire  loop  exact]y  moulded  to 
the  sides  of  the  teeth  and  secured  to  them  at  several  points  by  en- 
circling loops  (Fig.  65)  has  been  found  efficient;  also  Angle's^  "  anchor 
splint,"  in  which  the  wire  is  attached  to  the  teeth  by  metal  collars 


Hammond's  wire  splint  for  fracture  of 
the  jaw. 


1  Angle  :  Medical  Record,  August,  1890. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FACE.  ]G7 

cemented  on.  In  a  few  cases  it  has  been  found  effectual  to  bind  the 
jaws  togetiier  by  ligatures  applied  to  opposing  teeth. 

Direct  suture  of  the  fragments  by  stout  wire  passed  through  holes 
drilled  well  below  the  alveolar  border  is  said  by  Konig  to  he  the 
method  which  he  has  employed  exclusively  for  several  years. 

Repair  takes  place  so  rapidly  that,  except  in  compound  fracture  with 
much  suppuration,  there  is  rarely  any  tendency  to  displacement  after 
the  tenth  day,  and,  therefore,  the  discomforts  incidental  to  the  contin- 
uous closure  of  the  jaws  do  not  need  to  be  borne  for  any  great  length 
of  time.  If  the  importance  of  the  case  warrants  it,  if  the  displacement 
can  be  prevented  only  by  keeping  the  jaws  constantly  in  contact  Avith 
each  other,  the  patient  can  be  fed  through  a  tube  passed  behind  the  last 
molar  tooth,  or  through  the  nose,  or  by  the  rectum. 

Cleansing  and  disinfecting  washes  containing  chlorate  of  potash, 
borax,  or  alum  will  be  found  to  add  much  to  the  comfort  of  the  patient 
whenever  they  can  be  used. 

After  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  condyle  the  tendency  is  to  the  dis- 
placement of  the  condyle  forward  by  the  traction  of  the  external  ptery- 
goid muscle,  and  as  the  fragment  is  too  small  to  be  acted  upon  directly 
by  any  dressing  this  tendency,  if  manifested,  cannot  well  be  overcome. 
The  treatment,  therefore,  is  to  reduce  the  displacement  if  it  exists,  and 
then  to  immobilize  the  jaw  after  having  pressed  it  upward  to  inter- 
lock the  fragments.  Ribes  reduced  the  displacement  by  passing  his 
forefinger  into  the  mouth  and  along  the  inner  side  of  the  ascending 
ramus  until  he  reached  the  condyle  and  was  able  to  press  it  back  into 
place.  Fountain  obtained  a  good  result  by  drawing  the  jaw  well  for- 
ward and  wiring  the  teeth  together,  so  as  to  maintain  the  position. 

Fracture  of  the  coronoid  process  is  not  open  to  any  treatment  except 
immobilization. 

Fractures  of  the  alveolar  border  are  best  treated,  like  fractures  of 
the  body,  by  immobilization  after  careful  reduction  of  the  displace- 
ment, and  it  is  advisable  not  to  make  haste  to  remove  loose  or  semi- 
detached teeth.  They  may  become  firmly  adherent  again,  or,  if  this 
should  fail,  they  may  be  removed  subsequently  without  having  caused 
any  serious  trouble  or  delay. 

Delayed  union  and  pseudarthrosis  are  to  be  treated  by  the  removal 
of  the  cause,  if  any  definite  local  one  exist,  or  by  operative  interference, 
freshening  of  the  surfaces  of  fracture,  and  wiring  of  the  fragments. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

FRACTURES   OF   THE   HYOID   BONE. 

This  comparatively  rare  lesion  has  received  the  attention  of  writers 
only  within  the  present  century.  Malgaigne  collected  8  cases,  Hamil- 
ton added  2,  and  Gibb  3;  in  1864  Gurlt  collected  27  cases,  21  being 
of  the  bone  alone,  while  in  6  there  was  associated  fracture  of  the  thy- 
roid or  cricoid  cartilage  or  of  the  trachea.  I  have  seen  3  of  the  greater 
cornu.  In  3  of  Malgaigne' s  cases  and  in  5  additional  of  Gurlt' s  the 
fracture  was  caused  by  hanging,  judicial  or  suicidal,  one  of  the  latter 
surviving;  in  6  of  these  one  of  the  greater  cornua  was  broken,  in  the 
remainiug  2  the  body.  In  the  other  cases  of  the  list  the  cause  was 
violent  grasping  of  the  neck,  or  a  blow,  or  fall,  and  in  two  cases  appar- 
ently muscular  action,  general  muscular  contraction  during  a  fall.  Val- 
salva reports  a  case  of  "  dislocation  of  one  of  the  greater  horns  from 
the  body,"  caused  by  the  effort  to  swallow  a  large  piece  of  food. 

In  the  great  majority  of  the  cases  the  fracture  was  of  one  of  the 
greater  cornua,  and  usually  at  or  near  its  junction  with  the  body.  In 
only  three  cases  was  the  body  of  the  bone  broken,  and  in  none  the 
lesser  horn. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  of  fracture  of  one  of  the  larger  cornua, 
without  accompanying  injury  to  the  larynx  or  trachea,  are,  according 
to  the  records,  quite  well  defined  and  characteristic:  sharp  pain  at  the 
seat  of  fracture  increased  by  pressure,  speaking,  or  swallowing;  swell- 
ing in  the  same  region  appearing  soon  after  the  accident  and  due  in 
part  to  extra vasated  blood;  recognizable  displacement  or  mobility  of 
the  fragment;  crepitus;  and  sometimes  free  bleeding  into  the  mouth, 
the  result  of  perforation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  pharynx  by 
the  bone.  Exploration  of  the  pharynx  will  enable  the  surgeon  to 
recognize  displacement  of  the  horn  inward  and  perforation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  if  they  exist.  The  patient  is  seldom  able  to  move 
the  tongue  freely  or  without  pain,  and  in  some  cases  attempts  to  depress 
it  or  put  it  out  have  caused  paroxysms  of  suffocation.  In  all  the  cases 
it  has  been  difficult  to  swallow,  even  a  drop  of  water  sometimes  causing 
the  patient  to  cough  and  choke,  and  in  many  of  them  it  was  necessary 
to  give  food  through  an  oesophageal  tube,  in  one  case  for  twenty  days. 
In  my  own  cases  there  was  localized  pain  on  pressure,  and  the  mobility 
of  the  cornu  could  be  recognized  by  grasping  the  bone  with  the  thumb 
and  finger  on  either  side  of  the  neck.  The  subjective  symptoms  were 
not  urgent  except  when  fracture  of  the  larynx  was  associated;  one  such 
died  promptly  by  sufi^ocation  while  tracheotomy  was  being  done. 

In  the  single  case  in  which  a  fracture  of  the  body  of  the  hyoid  bone 
was  observed  during  life  the  symptoms  were  severe  paroxysms  of 
coughing,  dyspnoea,  lividity  of  the  face,  and  abundant  bloody  sputa, 
and  were  relieved  by  the  reduction  of  the  displacement. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HYOID  BONE. 


169 


Fig.  66. 


The  local  and  general  reaction  after  the  injury  has  been  quite  marked, 
and  although  the  bone  appears  to  have  united  promptly  convalescence 
has  been  delayed  by  the  persistence  of  the  dysphagia  and  of  the  change 
in  the  voice.  In  two  cases  an  abscess  formed  at  the  seat  of  fracture, 
and  three  months  afterward  the  necrosed  posterior  fragment  was  cast 
out. 

The  possibility  of  repair  by  a  bony  callus  is  shown  by  three  speci- 
mens: one,  taken  from  the  body  of  an  adult  man  without  a  history  and 
presented  to  the  London  Pathological 
Society  by  Gibb,  showing  a  fracture  of 
the  right  greater  horn  which  had  united 
with  overriding  to  the  extent  of  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch,  and  displacement 
inward;  another  (Fig.  66)  in  the  path- 
ological collection  of  the  college  at 
Brunswick,  showing  a  fracture  of  the 
right  greater  horn  united  with  some 
shortening  and  displacement  down- 
ward; the  third,'  found  in  the  dissect- 
ing-room, a  fracture  at  the  junction  of 
the  left  cornu  and  body,  united  with 
angular  displacement. 

Prognosis.     The  prognosis,  so  far  as 
life  is  endangered  by  the  injury  to  the 

bone,  is  favorable,  but  the  associated  injuries  in  the  recorded  cases 
have  often  been  such  as  to  cause  death.  Among  these  associated  inju- 
ries fracture  of  the  larynx  is  prominent. 

Treatment  The  treatment  requires  the  reduction  of  displacement, 
if  possible;  and  this  might  be  facilitated  by  the  introduction  of  the 
finger  into  the  pharynx.  It  is  unlikely  that  a  bandage  would  be  of 
any  service  in  opposing  a  tendency  to  the  recurrence  of  displacement. 

The  dysphagia  may  render  nourishment  through  an  oesophageal  tube 
necessary,  and  associated  injury  of  the  larynx  may  require  tracheotomy. 


United  fracture  of  the  hyoid  bone. 

(GUELT.) 


1  Scriber :  Medical  Age,  Detroit,  January,  1892. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

FEACTURES  OF  THE  CARTILAGES  OF  THE  LARYNX  AND 

TRACHEA. 

This  injury,  although  actually  rare,  is  more  frequent  and  much  more 
dangerous  than  fracture  of  the  hyoid  bone  and  has  received  more  atten- 
tion from  writers.  Gurlt's  collection  published  in  1864  contained  47 
cases,  Dr.  Hunt^  collected  and  analyzed  27  cases  but  did  not  give  the 
details,  and  Henoque^  collected  52  cases,  to  which  Mr.  Durham^  added 
10,  making  62  in  all,  or  including  4  of  Gurlt's  in  which  the  trachea 
alone  was  injured,  66. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  frequency  with  which  the 
different  parts  are  affected  : 


Cartilage  broken. 

Cases. 

Deaths. 

Recoveries. 

Thyroid  alone         .... 

24 

18 

6 

Cricoid  alone 

11 

11 

Thyroid  and  hyoid  bone 

4 

2 

2 

"         "     cricoid 

9 

9 

"         "         "       and  hyoid  bone 

2 

2 

"          "          "          "     trachea 

2 

2 

Cricoid  and  trachea 

2 

2 

"          "         "       and  hyoid  bone 

1 

1 

"Larynx" 

7 

3 

"i 

Trachea  alone          .... 

4 

3 

1 

66  53  13 

The  causes  are  blows,  falls,  hanging,  and  the  grasp  of  the  hand  in 
a  fight,  or  in  an  attempt  to  strangle.  The  injury  is  seen  more  fre- 
quently in  males  than  in  females,  and  in  middle  life  than  at  any  other 
period,  but  youth  and  old  age  are  not  exempt.  The  mechanism  of  the 
fracture  of  the  thyroid  or  cricoid  is  usually  either  lateral  compression  on 
both  sides  or  pressure  backward  against  the  vertebral  column;  the  first 
causes  commonly  longitudinal  fracture  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  near  its 
middle,  together  with  flattening  or  depression  of  its  sides,  and  either  a 
double  lateral  fracture  of  the  cricoid  cartilage  or  a  single  fracture  in  the 
anterior  median  line;  the  second  causes  irregular  and  multiple  lines  of 
fracture.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  larynx  is  frequently  torn,  and 
extravasations  of  blood  take  place  under  the  skin  and  mucous  mem- 
brane or  among  the  muscles. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  of  fracture  of  the  larynx  are  frothy 
bloody  expectoration  with  convulsive  coughing  and  usually  much 
dyspnoea  and  its  attendant  symptoms.  The  voice  is  affected  or  lost, 
and  swallowing  often  difficult  and  painful,  although  not  so  much  so  as 

1  Hunt :  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  April,  1866,  p.  378. 

2  Henoque:  Gazette  Hebdomadaire,  Sept.  26  and  Oct.  2,  1868. 

3  Holmes's  System  of  Surgery,  American  edition,  vol.  i.  p.  697. 


FRACTURES  OF  CARTILAGES  OF  LARYNX  AND  TRACHEA.     \-\ 

after  fracture  of  the  hyoid  bone;  and  in  all  severe  cases,  when  there 
is  laceration  of  the  mucous  membrane,  emphysema  appears  promptly 
and  spreads  steadily  over  the  neck,  face,  trunk,  the  extremities,  and 
mediastinum,  being  sometimes  more  marked  in  the  intermuscular  than 
in  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue  and  sometimes  causing  jjueumo- 
thorax  without  wound  of  the  lung. 

The  additional  objective  symptoms  are  deformity  of  the  region  and 
abnormal  mobility  of  parts  of  the  larynx  upon  each  other,  but  both 
these  signs  may  be  unrecognizable  on  account  of  the  swelling.  I  have 
seen  one  case  in  which  the  only  symptom  was  the  mobility  with  crep- 
itus of  a  small  fragment  at  the  upper  posterior  angle  of  the  larynx; 
there  was  also  slight  hoarseness. 

In  some  cases  there  have  been  no  marked  symptoms  beyond  a  change 
in  the  voice,  although  the  character  of  the  injury  was  made  clear  by 
careful  examination,  and  the  difference  seems  to  be  due  to  the  absence 
in  these  cases  of  any  obstruction  or  narrowing  of  the  air-passages  by 
displaced  cartilages. 

The  course  in  the  severe  cases  is  toward  prompt  death  by  suffocation, 
either  by  gradual  increase  of  the  dyspnoea  or  by  the  sudden  intercur- 
rence  of  oedema  of  the  glottis.  Occasionally  the  dyspnoea  does  not 
make  its  appearance  until  some  days  after  the  injurv.  In  the  mild 
cases  the  symptoms  gradually  subside,  and  recovery  follows. 

It  seems  probable  that  repair  is  by  a  bony,  or  at  least  by  a  calcified, 
callus. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  in  the  milder  cases  consists  of  local  anti- 
plilogistics  and  quiet;  in  the  severer  ones,  of  tracheotomy  whenever 
the  dyspnoea  is  great  or  increasing.  It  is  not  safe  to  wait  until  it  has 
become  extreme,  for  its  increase  at  the  last  is  often  so  rapid  and  sudden 
that  death  takes  place  before  relief  can  be  given.  It  is,  therefore,  the 
part  of  prudence  to  interfere  early  and  before  the  interference  is  made 
actually  necessary  by  the  defective  breathing.  Advantage  should  be 
taken  of  the  opportunity  afforded  by  the  operation  to  reduce  any  dis- 
placement that  may  exist  and  that  can  be  overcome  by  manipulation 
through  the  wound. 

Trachea.  The  symptoms  of  fracture  of  the  trachea  are  similar  to 
those  of  fracture  of  the  larynx,  except  the  local  ones  due  to  the  dis- 
placements; the  diagnosis  is  difficult  because  of  the  lack  of  sj'mptoms 
distinctive  of  the  seat  and  character  of  the  lesion.  The  prognosis  is 
unfavorable,  and  the  treatment  has  usually  been  insufficient  to  avert 
the  fatal  termination  or  relieve  the  suffering,  because  in  the  few 
recorded  cases  the  seat  of  injury  has  been  beyond  reach  by  operation. 
The  indication  for  treatment  is  to  insert  a  tube  into  the  trachea  past 
the  point  of  fracture  so  as  to  insure  free  breathing. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

FRACTURES   OF   THE   STERNUM. 

The  sternum,  formed  originally  of  several  pieces,  has  an  irregular 
and  uncertain  development,  only  one  feature  of  which  needs  here  to 
be  mentioned.  The  upper  portion,  the  manubrium,  may  unite  by 
ossification  with  the  central  portion,  the  body,  at  some  time  during 
adult  life,  and  in  such  case  a  traumatic  separation  of  the  two  portions 
is  a  fracture,  not  a  dislocation. 

Fracture  is  rare,  almost  unknown,  before  the  age  of  twenty  years, 
and  is  frequently  associated  with  other  fractures,  especially  of  the  ribs 
and  vertebrse.  The  fracture  may  be  incomplete,  multiple,  transverse, 
oblique,  or  longitudinal.  Of  the  first  form  there  are  but  two  recorded 
instances;  in  both  the  infraction  occupied  the  posterior  surface  of  the 
bone  at  or  near  the  junction  of  the  lower  and  middle  thirds,  and  was 
accompanied  by  an  abundant  extravasation  of  blood  into  the  anterior 
mediastinum. 

Of  compound  fractures,  except  such  as  were  gunshot  or  stab  wounds, 
there  is  but  one  example,  reported  by  Duverney  in  1751.  A  quarry- 
man,  while  at  work  lying  upon  his  side,  was  caught  under  a  heavy 
stone  about  five  feet  long  which  compressed  his  chest  laterally  with 
such  force  as  to  separate  the  middle  portion  of  the  sternum  from  the 
upper  portion  and  force  it  through  the  skin.  Death  was  immediate, 
by  rupture  of  the  heart  and  lungs. 

Of  pure  longitudinal  fracture  there  is  but  one  certain  example,  but 
there  are  two  other  cases  in  one  of  which  there  was  a  longitudinal  frac- 
ture of  the  manubrium,  and  in  the  other  of  the  body  of  the  sternum 
associated  with  a  transverse  fracture  at  its  upper  end.  The  first  case 
was  that  of  a  man  who  was  overthrown  and  crushed  by  a  falling  wall; 
in  addition  to  numerous  contusions,  the  sternum  was  broken  longitu- 
dinally throughout  its  entire  length,  the  right  half  being  depressed 
from  eight  to  ten  lines  below  the  level  of  the  left  half.  There  were 
profuse  bloody  expectoration  and  difficult  breathing.  Reduction  was 
accomplished  by  drawing  the  right  arm  back  and  making  forcible  press- 
ure upon  the  middle  of  the  sternal  ribs  of  the  right  side  and  gentle 
pressure  upon  the  left  side.     The  patient  recovered  in  six  weeks. 

Cases  of  congenital  fissure  of  the  sternum  have  been  mistaken  for 
longitudinal  fractures. 

Simple  transverse  fractures  form  the  great  majority  of  fractures  of 
the  sternum,  and  occupy  most  frequently  the  junction  between  the 
manubrium  and  the  body  of  the  bone  or  its  immediate  neighborhood — 
that  is,  the  region  of  the  second  intercostal  space;  next  in  frequency 
are  fractures  at  or  near  the  middle  of  the  bone,  corresponding  to  the 
third  rib  and  the  third  intercostal  space;  they  are  rare  high  in  the 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  STERNUM. 


173 


Fig.  67 


manubrium  and  below  the  middle  of  the  body,  and  very  uncommon  as 
separations  of  the  ensiforni  appendix  from  the  body. 

Fractures  of  the  manubrium  occur  most  commonly  a  short  distance, 
two  or  three  lines,  above  its  lower  border;  the  periosteum  sometimes 
remains  untorn  upon  either  the  anterior  or  the  posterior  surface;  in 
some  cases  there  has  been  no  displacement,  in  others  either  the  upper  or 
the  lower  fragment  has  been  displaced  forward,  and  in  one  case  there  was 
angular  displacement,  the  apex  of  the  angle  being  directed  backward. 
In  several  of  the  cases  the  fracture  was  produced  by  muscular  action, 
by  straining  during  childbirth,  or  by  the  effort  to  raise  a  heavy  weight 
with  the  teeth,  the  body  being  bent  far  back.  In  a  large  proportion 
of  cases  in  which  the  lesion  was  produced  by  external  violence  there 
was  also  fracture  of  the  ribs,  clavicle,  or  vertebrae. 

Fractures  of  the  border  have  been  observed  in  three  instances,  once 
in  connection  with  fracture  of  the  ribs,  a  scale  of  bone  corresponding 
to  the  articulation  with  the  first  rib  being  broken  off;  a  second  time  in 
connection  with  dislocation  of  the  sternal  end  of  the  clavicle,  the  por- 
tion to  which  the  sterno-cleido-mastoid  was  attached  being  torn  off  and 
drawn  upward  nearly  half  an  inch;  and  in  a  third  case  in  connection 
with  a  transverse  fracture  lower  down. 

Transverse  fracture  at  or  near  the  junction  of  the  manubrium  and 
body  of  the  bone,  and  diastasis  at  this  point,  which  is  not  always  to  be 
distinguished  from  fracture,  are  the  commonest 
forms  of  injury.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the 
lower  fragment  is  displaced  so  as  to  lie  in  front  of 
the  upper  one,  and  sometimes  to  override;  it  is  ex- 
ceptional for  displacement  to  be  absent  or  for  the 
upper  fragment  to  lie  in  front  of  the  lower  one. 

There  is  reason  to  think  that  the  periosteum  is 
almost  invariably  torn  upon  the  anterior  surface, 
but  that  it  sometimes  remains  untorn  behind,  a 
fact  which  derives  considerable  importance  from 
its  bearing  upon  the  escape  of  blood  into  the  ante- 
rior mediastinum.  One  or  both  of  the  second  pair 
of  ribs  usually  remain  attached  to  the  manubrium. 

Out  of  a  total  of  105  cases  of  fracture  of  the 
sternum  collected  by  Gurlt,  27  are  described  as 
partial  or  complete  diastasis  at  the  junction  of  the 
first  and  second  portions,  the  character  of  the  lesion 
having  been  determined  by  post-mortem  examina- 
tion in  fourteen  of  them. 

Fractures  of  the  body  of  the  sternum  (Fig.  67) 
occur  most  frequently  between  the  second  and 
fourth  costal  cartilages,  are  usually  transverse,  but 
sometimes  oblique  laterally  or  from  before  back- 
ward. The  displacements  are  the  same  as  after 
fracture  at  the  junction  of  the  manubrium  and 
sternum,  and  there  is  the  same  relative  frequency  of  the  projection  of 
the  lower  fragment. 

Comminuted  fracture  of  the  body  of  the  sternum  has  been  rarely 


Transverse  fracture  of  the 
body  of  the  sternum. 


174  FRACTURES. 

seen  except  ia  connection  with  gunshot  and  punctured  wounds.  Of 
triple  fractures  Gurlt  found  only  two  cases,  and  of  double  fractures 
only  sixj  all  of  them  associated  with  fracture  of  other  bones,  usually 
the  ribs  or  vertebrae. 

Of  fracture  or  diastasis  of  the  ensiform  appendix,  Gurlt  collected 
only  four  examples,  and  the  list  does  not  appear  to  have  been  increased 
by  subsequent  writers;  one  was  a  fracture,  the  other  three  diastases. 
The  fracture  was  produced  in  a  man  sixty  years  old,  by  a  fall  upon  the 
sharp  edge  of  a  grain  measure,  and,  when  last  examined,  nine  months 
after  the  accident,  was  still  ununited,  and  crepitated  on  pressure,  but 
caused  no  inconvenience.  In  the  other  three  cases  the  prominent  symp- 
tom was  persistent  vomiting,  which  in  one  lasted  for  two  years,  recurring 
every  five  or  six  days,  and  then  ceased  spontaneously;  in  another  it 
was  cured  by  grasping  the  process  between  two  fingers,  and  bending  it 
back  into  place;  and  in  the  third,  after  it  had  lasted  a  month  and 
death  by  exhaustion  seemed  imminent,  it  was  instantly  relieved  by 
the  reduction  of  the  displacement,  which  was  accomplished  by  in- 
serting a  blunt  hook  into  the  abdominal  cavity  through  an  incision, 
and  drawing  the  process  forward.  The  patients  were  aged  respectively 
twenty-eight,  eighteen,  and  nineteen  years. 

The  elfusion  of  blood,  which  is  observed  after  all  fractures,  may 
attain  an  especial  importance  after  fracture  of  the  sternum,  by  the 
pressure  which  it  may  exert  upon  the  underlying  heart.  The  blood, 
coming  from  the  torn  vessels  of  the  bone  and  periosteum,  makes  its 
way  forward  into  a  region  where  it  can  do  no  harm  if  the  periosteum 
on  the  posterior  surface  remains  untorn;  but  if  this  membrane  shares 
in  the  injury,  and  especially  if  one  of  the  internal  mammary  veins  or 
arteries  is  ruptured,  the  blood  makes  its  way  into  the  anterior  medias- 
tinum, and  sometimes  in  sufficient  amount  to  cause  death  promptly. 

Rupture  of  the  pericardium,  or  of  the  heart,  has  been  observed  in  a 
few  cases;  as  has  also  probable  laceration  of  the  lung,  evidenced  by 
the  appearance  of  subcutaneous  emphysema  or  pneumothorax. 

Etiology.  Fracture  of  the  sternum  may  be  produced  either  by  mus- 
cular action  or  by  external  violence. 

There  are  four  recorded  cases  in  which  the  bone  has  been  broken  by 
straining  during  labor,  and  three  in  which  the  fracture  has  occurred 
during  an  eifort  to  lift  a  heavy  object. 

External  violence  acts  either  directly  by  a  blow  upon  the  breast,  or 
indirectly  by  forcibly  bending  the  body  forward  or  backward,  or  pos- 
sibly by  a  combination  of  the  two  forms  in  the  fall  upon  the  body  of 
a  heavy  object,  or  the  passage  across  it  of  a  loaded  wagon,  or,  according 
to  Lane,  by  depression  of  the  shoulder  acting  through  the  clavicle  and 
the  upper  ribs.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  force  which  acts  directly 
should  be  very  great  to  produce  fracture;  it  is  sufficient  for  it  to  act 
upon  a  limited  area,  as  in  a  fall  upon  a  stone,  or  stick,  or  the  edge  or 
corner  of  a  box. 

The  violence  which  produces  indirect  fracture  is,  in  most  cases,  a  fall 
either  upon  the  shoulders  or  buttocks,  or  with  the  back  or  breast  across 
some  fixed  object,  so  that  the  trunk  is  bent  sharply  forward  or  back- 
ward; in  the  one  case  the  bone  is  broken  by  being  bent  forward,  in  the 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  STERNUM.  175 

other  by  traction  exerted  through  the  muscular  attachments  at  either 
end. 

Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis  is  readily  made  by  the  objective  symp- 
toms, the  displacement,  mobility,  and  crepitus,  and  by  tlie  localized 
area  of  pain  excited  by  pressure,  change  of  position,  aud  the  more 
forcible  respiratory  acts.  I  have  seen  a  few  cases  in  which  the  only 
symptom  was  pain  on  pressure,  with  late  ecchymosis.  The  examination 
of  the  bone  must  be  made  carefully  in  order,  on  the  one  liand,  to  avoid 
mistaking  some  irregularity  of  development  for  a  traumatic  displace- 
ment, and,  on  the  other,  not  to  overlook  a  second  or  third  fracture,  or 
even  a  single  one  in  case  there  should  be  no  displacement.  In  cases 
of  supposed  injury  to  the  ensiform  appendix  the  frequent  irregularities 
in  the  shape,  position,  and  mobility  of  that  part  must  be  borne  in  mind. 

The  importance  of  the  injury  is  by  no  means  so  great  as  the  mor- 
tality of  the  recorded  cases  would  indicate,  for  this  mortality  is  largely 
due  to  associated  lesions.  Gurlt  tabulated  98  cases  with  reference  to 
this  point,  among  others,  and  found  that  of  54  simple  cases  46  recov- 
ered and  8  died,  while  of  44  complicated  cases,  cases,  that  is,  in  which 
there  was  some  severe  associated  injury,  only  1  recovered  and  43  died. 
Of  20  cases  in  which  the  fracture  was  certainly  caused  by  direct  vio- 
lence, 15  recovered  and  5  died,  3  of  the  latter  being  complicated  cases. 

Course.  The  course  in  the  uncomplicated  cases  is  uneventful;  if  pain 
and  oppression  are  marked  at  first  they  soon  diminish  and  disappear,  as 
do  also  expectoration  of  blood,  dyspnoea,  and  orthopnoea.  The  principal 
danger  is  from  pulmonary  complications,  especially  in  the  old  and 
alcoholic.  In  exceptional  cases  the  local  reaction  may  be  great  and 
may  lead  even  to  the  formation  of  an  abscess  about  the  fracture.  The 
pus  may  make  its  way  to  the  surface  between  the  fragments  or  on  the 
sides,  and  if  it  collects  upon  the  posterior  surface  and  is  discharged 
imperfectly  through  a  small  opening,  the  sinus  may  persist  indefi- 
nitely, or  the  unnatural  conditions  may  lead  to  extensive  caries  of  the 
bone.  Both  conditions  require  treatment  by  active  operative  inter- 
ference. 

Usually  repair  takes  place  in  from  four  to  eight  weeks,  and  by  a 
bony  callus.  The  persistence  of  a  certain  degree  of  displacement  is 
not  uncommon,  and  in  some  cases  the  deformity  has  been  extreme. 

Failure  of  bony  union  has  been  observed  in  a  few  cases,  but  does 
not  appear  to  have  caused  any  disability  beyond  a  temporary  difficulty 
in  abduction  and  adduction  of  the  arms. 

Gunshot  fractures  may  be  penetrating  or  non-penetrating.  A  num- 
ber of  illustrative  cases  of  each  kind  are  given  in  the  Surgical  History 
of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion.  The  latter  do  not  differ  materially  from 
compound  fractures  due  to  any  other  cause,  but  in  the  former  the  prog- 
nosis is  rendered  very  grave  by  the  associated  lesions. 

Treatment.  The  first  indication  is  to  reduce  such  displacement  as 
may  exist.  This  is  not  always  possible;  the  most  intelligently  directed 
and  persistently  conducted  efforts  have  sometimes  failed.  The  usual 
method  is  direct  pressure  upon  the  projecting  fragment,  aided,  espe- 
cially when  there  is  overriding,  by  traction  upon  the  two  pieces.  The 
ti'action  must  be  made,  in  part  at  least,  through  the  muscles  attached 


176  FE  AC  TUBES. 

to  the  ends  of  the  bone,  and  is  accomplished  sometimes  by  resting  the 
back  upon  some  rather  firm  object,  as  a  cushion  or  box,  and  bending 
the  head  and  shoulders  forcibly  backward.  At  the  same  time  the 
patient  may  be  directed  to  take  a  full  inspiration,  and  the  surgeon 
presses  downward  against  the  upper  edge  of  the  lower  fragment  if  that 
one,  as  is  usual,  projects,  or  he  draws  this  fragment  downward  by 
taking  hold  of  the  projecting  ribs  that  are  attached  to  it.  Various 
modifications  of  the  plan  have  been  employed,  but  all  have  the  same 
fundamental  idea,  that  of  traction  in  opposite  directions  upon  the  frag- 
ments by  forcible  bending  of  the  body  backward. 

A  number  of  operative  methods  have  been  proposed  for  use  in  those 
cases  in  which  the  displacement  cannot  be  reduced  by  manipulation, 
such  as  to  raise  the  depressed  fragment  by  a  sort  of  gimlet  screwed 
into  it,  or  by  an  elevator  or  blunt  hook  passed  under  it  through  an 
incision,  or  to  cut  away  the  projecting  portion  with  a  knife  or  trephine, 
or  to  press  it  back  with  a  rod  carried  directly  down  to  it  through  an 
incision.  Most  of  these  remain  as  suggestions  that  have  not  been  put 
to  the  test.  One  case  has  been  already  mentioned  in  which  the  ensi- 
form  appendix  was  drawn  forward  successfully  by  means  of  a  blunt 
hook  passed  into  the  peritoneal  cavity ;  in  another,  of  fracture  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  sternum  with  depression  of  the  lower  fragment,  an 
incision  was  made  with  the  intention  of  introducing  a  hook,  but  the 
pleural  cavity  was  opened  and  the  surgeon  felt  it  necessary  to  close  the 
wound  immediately.  In  another  the  upper  fragment  was  raised  to  the 
proper  level  by  screwing  a  sort  of  gimlet  into  it  and  drawing  it  for- 
ward, but  it  afterward  sank  partly  back  again,  and  a  second  attempt  to 
raise  it  was  defeated  by  the  tearing  of  the  screw. 

Unless  the  displacement  is  actually  causing  dangerous  or  distressing 
symptoms  these  methods  of  removing  it  by  operation  are  hardly  justi- 
fiable, because  they  carry  with  them  risks  that  should  not  be  lightly 
run. 

The  subsequent  treatment  consists  in  immobilization  of  the  chest, 
and,  if  necessary,  in  the  use  of  measures  to  allay  local  inflammation 
and  to  prevent  coughing.  A  convenient  dressing  is  a  broad  flannel 
bandage  pinned  tightly  about  the  chest  after  forced  expiration,  or  bands 
of  adhesive  plaster  extending  from  side  to  side  across  the  front  of  the 
chest  and  covering  the  entire  length  of  the  sternum. 

If  the  formation  of  pus  behind  the  bone  is  recognized  or  suspected 
it  should  be  promptly  sought  for  and  evacuated  by  cutting  through  the 
bone  at  the  seat  of  fracture. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

FRACTURES   OF   THE   RIBS   AND   THEIR   CARTILAGES. 

These  are  among  the  commonest  of  all  fractures,  more  common  in 
men  than  in  women,  and  almost  unknown  (or  unrecognized)  in  infancy 
and  childhood;  probably  many  cases  pass  unrecognized,  and  the  fre- 
quency is  even  greater  than  the  statistics  show. 

Pathology.  The  fracture  may  be  partial  or  complete,  simple  or  com- 
pound, single  or  multiple.  Partial  fractures  may  be  constituted  either 
by  a  fissure  involving  only  one  of  the  borders  of  the  rib  and,  perhaps, 
separating  entirely  a  longer  or  shorter  fragment  of  that  border,  or  by 
an  infraction.      The  former  is  very  uncommon. 

Complete  fractures  may  be  transverse,  oblique,  irregular,  or  multiple, 
and  may  be  limited  to  a  single  rib,  or  may  involve  all  the  true  ones  on 
one  side,  and  in  some  cases  even  many  on  both  sides.  The  central 
ribs  are  the  ones  most  frequently  broken.  Fracture  of  the  twelfth  is 
very  rare;  Gurlt  could  find  only  two  recorded  cases,  the  causes  being 
a  fall  against  the  edge  of  a  step  and  a  table  respectively.  I  saw  one 
at  the  Hudson  Street  Hospital  in  1896,  in  a  man,  fifty  years  old,  who 
had  been  caught  about  the  waist  in  the  loop  of  a  hawser.  He  died  a 
few  days  later  of  coincident  rupture  of  the  large  intestine;  the  twelfth 
rib  was  broken  obliquely  at  its  centre. 

Fracture  of  the  first  rib  was  formerly  thought  to  be  almost  equally 
rare,  but  the  observations  of  Lane^  and  Marsh^  indicate  that  fracture 
of  it  or  its  cartilage  may  be  rather  common.  Lane  found  four  speci- 
mens in  a  series  of  200  bodies  in  the  dissecting-room,  and  Marsh  saw 
four  cases  in  six  months'  hospital  service.  According  to  Lane  this  rib 
is  easily  broken  by  forcible  depression  of  the  shoulder  acting  by  direct 
pressure  of  the  clavicle.  The  symptom  is  said  to  be  pain  iDchind  the 
upper  part  of  the  sternum  on  lifting  with  the  corresponding  hand. 

The  fracture  of  a  rib  may  occupy  any  part  of  it,  but  is  most  fre- 
quent on  the  side  and  anterior  half.  The  periosteum  may  remain 
untorn,  and  the  fragments  preserve  their  relations  to  each  other,  or 
they  may  form  a  re-entrant  or  a  salient  angle,  or  override  each  other. 
If  several  ribs  are  broken  at  the  same  time  and  forced  inward  the 
depression  may  remain  both  broad  and  deep.  Overriding  of  the  frag- 
ments is  impossible  unless  several  ribs  are  broken  at  the  same  time, 
for  the  muscular  and  fibrous  attachments  of  the  adjoining  ones  hold  the 
fragments  in  place,  and  the  ribs  above  and  below  act  as  splints  to  pre- 
vent shortening.  In  double  or  multiple  fracture  of  one  or  several  ribs 
the  intermediate  piece  or  pieces  may  be  so  loosened  that  they  move  in 
and  out  with  every  inspiration. 

1  Lane  :  British  Medical  Journal,  1887,  vol.  ii.  p.  119,  and  Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  1886,  p.  429. 

2  Marsh  :  Lancet,  June  30,  1888. 

12 


178  FRACTURES. 

In  compound  fractures  the  -svouncl  of  the  soft  parts  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
caused  bv  the  projection  of  the  broken  end  of  the  rib,  but  always  by 
the  object  which  produced  the  fracture. 

The  complications  include  injuries  to  the  muscles,  which  are  rarely 
important,  to  the  intercostal  arteries,  and  to  the  thoracic  and  abdom- 
inal viscera.  The  intercostal  arteries  are  rarely  seriously  injured, 
although  moderate  bfemothorax  is  not  uncommon  after  fracture  of  the 
middle  third,  especially  of  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  ribs.  Fatal  hemor- 
rhage into  the  pleural  cavity  has  occurred  in  a  few  cases,  even  after 
fracture  of  a  single  rib  and  by  slight  violence. 

A  wound  of  the  pleura  and  of  the  lungs  is  a  rather  common  com- 
plication, and  is  generally  caused  by  the  sharp  end  of  a  fragment,  but 
in  some  cases  fatal  injury  of  the  lung  has  been  caused  by  the  crushing 
effect  of  the  external  violence  acting  through  the,  perhaps  unbroken, 
rib;  the  thorax  is  compressed  by  the  force,  and  the  lung  is  put  upon 
the  stretch  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  actually  torn,  not  perforated 
bv  the  bone.  The  consequences  of  the  wound  vary  with  its  size  and 
with  the  relations  existing  between  the  lung  and  the  thoracic  wall.  ]f 
these  latter  are  normal — that  is,  if  the  lung  is  not  adherent  at  the 
wotmded  part — air  and  blood  escape  more  or  less  freely  into  the  pleural 
cavitv,  and  the  lung  collapses;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  lung  is  adher- 
ent, the  escaping  air  makes  its  way  into  the  meshes  of  the  connective 
tissue,  and  may  spread  through  the  mediastinum,  under  the  pericar- 
dium and  pleura,  and  into  the  interlobular  tissue  of  the  lung  itself  and 
the  subcutaneous  tissue  on  the  surface  of  the  body.  Emphysema  of 
the  surface  may  be  produced  also  when  the  lung  is  not  adherent;  the 
air  which  has  escaped  into  and  filled  the  pleural  cavity  is  forced  by  the 
contraction  of  the  chest  during  expiration  out  through  the  opening  at 
the  fracture,  and  its  place  is  supplied  at  the  next  inspiration  by  fresh 
air  drawn  in  through  the  wound  of  the  lung,  and  thus  a  small  quantity 
is  pumped  into  the  outer  cellular  tissue  at  each  respiration,  and  this 
will  continue  imtil  one  or  the  other  opening  is  closed  by  a  clot  or  exu- 
dation or  a  change  in  the  relations  of  its  walls. 

Wounds  of  the  heart  are  much  rarer,  and  even  more  dangerous. 
Gtirlt  collected  six  cases,  in  only  four  of  which  the  wound  of  the  heart 
appears  to  have  been  caused  by  the  broken  rib;  in  the  other  two  it 
appears  to  have  been  caused  by  the  compression  of  the  heart  between 
the  anterior  chest-wall  and  the  vertebral  column,  for  the  pericardium 
was  untorn. 

Etiology.  Fractures  of  the  ribs  may  be  caused  by  muscular  action 
or  by  external  violence.  Of  muscular  action  the  most  common 
form  by  far  is  coughing;  others  are  sneezing,  lifting  a  heavy  object, 
even  turning  in  bed.  The  lower  ribs,  especially  the  eleventh,  are  the 
ones  most  frecjuently  broken  in  this  way,  but  it  has  happened  to  the 
second,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth.  It  is  much  more  common  on  the 
left  than  on  the  right  side.  (See  forty  cases  collected  by  Tunis  in 
University  Medical  Magazine,  iSTovember,  1890. ) 

By  far  the  most  common  cause  of  fracture  is  external  violence,  by 
a  blow,  fall,  or  excessive  pressure.  The  fracture  may  be  direct  or  indi- 
rect, but  it  is  not  often  easy  to  distinguish  between  these  two  varieties. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  RIBS  AND  THEIR  CARTILAGES.      179 

It  has  been  claimed  on  theoretical  grounds  that  in  indirect  fractures 
caused  by  pressure  upon  or  near  the  sternal  ends  of  the  ribs  the  bone 
would  yield  near  its  centre,  at  its  point  of  greatest  curvature;  but  this 
view  is  not  supported  by  clinical  or  experimental  facts.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  fracture  is  found  much  more  frequently  in  either  the  anterior 
or  the  posterior  third,  and,  indeed,  the  point  of  greatest  frequency 
seems  to  be  very  near  that  at  which  the  force  is  received,  an  inch  or 
two  on  the  outer  side  of  the  sternal  end  of  the  bone. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  of  fracture  of  a  rib  in  the  less  severe 
cases  are  likely  to  be  obscure.  The  breathing  is  shallow  and  sometimes 
catching  through  pain  or  fear  of  pain,  and  occasionally  there  is  very 
troublesome  reflex  cough.  Paiu  is  provoked  by  pressure,  inspiration, 
coughing,  sneezing,  and  certain  movements  of  the  body;  its  diagnostic 
value  comes  from  its  limitation  to  one  point  under  the  different  causes 
and  especially  when  pressure  is  made  on  the  affected  rib  at  a  distance. 

Abnormal  mobility  is  sometimes  present,  but  the  elasticity  and 
mobility  of  the  ribs  make  its  recognition  uncertain.  It  may  some- 
times be  made  out  by  placing  a  finger  on  each  side  of  the  suspected 
fracture,  and  pressing  alternately  with  one  and  the  other.  The  same 
manipulation  may  produce  crepitus,  but  usually  this  is  more  readily 
recognized  by  placing  the  hand  flat  upon  the  chest,  and  pressing  slightly 
at  different  points,  or  asking  the  patient  to  cough  or  draw  a  long  breath. 
It  may  also  be  heard  sometimes  on  auscultation  of  the  chest  in  the 
usual  manner,  and  may  be  accompanied  after  a  day  or  two  by  a  pleu- 
ritic friction  sound,  the  result  of  a  pleurisy  excited  by  the  traumatism, 
and  usually  limited  in  area  to  its  immediate  neighborhood.  It  is 
not  uncommon  for  the  patient  himself  to  recognize  the  crepitus.  Em- 
physema is,  in  itself,  a  very  positive  sign  of  injury  to  the  lung  and  of 
fracture  of  a  rib  if  there  is  no  penetrating  wound  to  account  for  it 
otherwise.  Pneumothorax,  or  hemorrhage  into  the  pleural  cavity  from 
a  lacerated  lung  or  an  intercostal  artery  may  be  present  in  any  of  the 
severer  cases;  and  bloody  expectoration,  which  also  points  toward  frac- 
ture, is  often  present  even  in  slight  cases,  and  is  not  infrequently  absent 
in  grave  ones. 

The  symptoms  of  partial  fracture  or  infraction  are  seldom  definite 
enough  to  permit  a  positive  diagnosis. 

The  course  of  a  simple  uncomplicated  fracture  is  usually  quite 
uneventful;  the  patient  remains  quiet,  sometimes  keeping  his  bed,  and 
breathes  carefully  and  superficially  to  avoid  pain;  after  two  or  three 
weeks  he  finds  these  precautions  unnecessary,  and  the  surgeon  finds  on 
examination  that  the  local  tenderness  has  disappeared,  and  that  crepi- 
tus and  mobility  can  no  longer  be  detected.  Union  by  a  bony  callus 
takes  place  almost  invariably,  notwithstanding  the  defective  immobili- 
zation of  the  parts,  but,  as  a  consequence  of  the  latter,  the  callus  is 
likely  to  be  large,  and,  when  two  or  more  ribs  have  been  broken,  to 
unite  the  adjoining  ones  by  a  bridge  of  new  formation.  Solidity  is 
given  at  first  by  an  ensheathing  callus,  and  the  union  between  the  frac- 
tured surfaces,  even  when  they  are  in  apposition,  may  remain  fibrous 
for  several  months.      Failure  of  union  is  rare. 

Displacement  upward  or  downward  of  one  or  more  of  the  fragments 


180        FRACTURES. 

may  lead  to  its  union  with  the  adjoining  rib,  or  to  the  formation  of  a 
lateral  joint  between  them,  as  in  the  next  following  case;  or,  if  adjoin- 
ing ribs  are  displaced  in  ojDposite  directions,  a  gap  may  be  left  between 
them  which  may  lead  to  hernia  of  the  lung,  as  in  the  following  case 
which  is  recorded  in  the  Gazette  Medicale  de  Paris,  1832,  p.  465,  and 
pictured  in  Cruveilhier' s  Atlas  d' Anatomie  Pathologique. 

The  patient  died  at  the  age  of  62  years;  in  his  youth  he  had  sus- 
tained a  fracture  of  the  ribs  by  being  crushed  between  the  pole  of  a 
wagon  and  a  wall.  Between  the  third  and  fourth  ribs  on  the  right  side 
near  the  sternum  was  a  reducible  tumor  composed  of  normal  lung  and 
contained  in  a  real  hernial  sac.  The  first  rib  was  intact,  the  second  and 
third  were  broken  about  three  inches  from  their  cartilages  with  dis- 
placement inward  of  the  anterior  fragment,  overriding,  and  a  vertical 
displacement  that  brought  the  posterior  fragments  into  contact  and  led 
to  the  formation  of  a  false  joint  between  them.  The  fourth  rib  was  bent 
sharply  downward,  forming  the  lower  limit  of  a  gap  that  was  four 
inches  long  and  two  and  a  half  inches  wide  at  the  widest  part,  and 
that  was  bounded  above  by  a  small  strip  of  bone  extending  from  the 
fourth  costal  cartilage  along  the  lower  border  of  the  third  rib,  and 
becoming  attached  to  the  latter  near  its  middle. 

The  course  and  symptoms  in  the  severer  cases  vary  with  the  degree 
and  character  of  the  complications  which  give  them  their  gravity. 
Emphysema  may  be  slight  and  transitory,  or  it  may  continue  for  days 
and  spread  over  a  large  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  body.  If  the  air 
escapes  into  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  or  if  the  fracture  is  compound  with 
a  penetrating  wound,  the  resultant  dyspnoea  and  oppression  may  be 
extreme,  and  the  physical  signs  of  pneumothorax  will  be  found  upon 
examination.  If,  in  addition  to  the  escape  of  air,  there  is  also  free 
hemorrhage  into  the  chest  from  the  torn  lung  or  an  intercostal  artery, 
the  physical  signs  will  be  correspondingly  modified.  Extreme  dysp- 
noea, due  to  congestion  of  the  lung  following  promptly  upon  the  injury, 
is  not  uncommon,  and  pneumonia  occasionally  results  and  leads  to  a 
fatal  termination  in  the  old  and  feeble. 

I  have  observed  in  half  a  dozen  cases  of  severe  compression  of  the 
chest  with  fracture  or  dislocation  of  ribs  or,  more  commonly,  costal 
cartilages,  a  peculiar  dusky  discoloration  of  the  skin  of  the  face,  neck, 
and  upper  part  of  the  chest,  together  with  marked  subconjunctival 
ecchymosis  nearly  limited  to  the  interpalpebral  space.  The  discolora- 
tion does  not  disappear  on  pressure  and  is  apparently  due  to  the  color- 
ing matter  of  the  blood,  possibly  through  innumerable  minute  capillary 
extravasations.  It  appears  immediately,  is  evidently  due  to  the  com- 
pression of  the  chest,  and  disappears  slowly,  usually  taking  several 
weeks.  ^ 

Legros  Clark^  claims  that  serious  functional  derangement,  without 
organic  lesion  of  the  lung,  may  result  from  contusion  or  concussion  of 
the  chest,  that  it  may  be  transient  or  may  be  followed  by  inflammation, 
local  or  general,  of  the  affected  lung,  and  that  it  is  sometimes  observed 
in  the  lung  on  the  side  opposite  that  which  has  sustained  the  injury. 

1  New  York  Medical  Journal,  March  1, 1890. 

2  Clark  :  Diagnosis  of  Visceral  Lesions,  p.  213. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  RIBS  AND  THEIR  CARTILAGES.       181 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  depends  largely  upon  the  complications. 
Simple  fractures  without  important  complications  do  well,  as  a  rule; 
the  exceptions  are  found  mainly  in  tlie  old  and  feeble,  whose  lives  may 
be  endangered  by  congestion  of  the  lungs,  pneumonia,  or  pleurisy. 
Cases  complicated  by  wound  of  the  heart  or  pericardium  are  usually 
promptly  fatal.  Wounds  of  the  lungs  are  serious,  but  there  are  many 
instances  of  recovery  even  in  cases  where  the  laceration  of  the  lung 
was  probably  extensive  and  accompanied  a  fracture  that  was  in  itself 
severe. 

Treatment.  The  indications  for  treatment  are  to  reduce  any  displace- 
ment that  threatens  to  produce  a  complication  or  that  causes  pain,  to 
immobilize  the  chest-wall,  and  to  relieve  or  prevent  pulmonary  inflam- 
mation or  congestion. 

Outward  angular  displacement  may  be  corrected  by  pressure  upon 
the  projecting  angle,  and  inward  angular  displacement  may  sometimes 
be  corrected,  when  the  broken  surfaces  are  still  in  contact  and  the  frac- 
ture is  situated  near  the  middle  of  the  ril^,  by  pressing  the  .sternum 
backward  and  thus  springing  the  bone  out.  If  the  fragments  have 
overriden  this  manoeuvre  is  worse  than  useless,  for  it  can  only  increase 
the  displacement.  Malgaigne  says  the  method  was  proposed  by  Lionet 
for  use  in  tho.se  cases  in  which  the  pain  is  severe  although  the  displace- 
ment is  slight.  Relief  may  also  be  obtained  by  making  the  patient 
strain  or  draw  full  deep  breaths.  Ravaton  relieved  the  pain  and  cor- 
rected the  displacement  in  one  case  by  suspending  the  patient  upon  two 
rods  passed  under  his  axillae. 

When  the  displacement  was  greater  and  one  of  the  fragments  was 
pressed  inward  Malgaigne  ingeniously  made  use  of  the  other  to  elevate 
it,  pressing  it  in  until  the  ends  met  and  became  locked  together  by  the 
irregularities  of  their  broken  surfaces  so  that  the  elasticity  of  the  second 
should  serve  to  raise  the  first. 

For  this  elevation  or  removal  of  a  depressed  fragment  by  operation 
a  number  of  methods  have  been  proposed,  but  very  few  instances  are 
known  of  the  use  of  any  of  them.  If  such  elevation  should  seem 
necessary,  and  if  approach  through  an  incision  were  deemed  inadvisable 
because  of  the  risk  of  the  admission  of  air  to  the  pleural  cavity,  the 
old  suggestion  of  raising  the  bone  by  means  of  a  hook  passed  through 
the  skin  and  behind  the  upper  border  of  the  bone  might  be  used. 

Immobilization  of  the  chest  is  best  effected  by  surrounding  it  with 
a  broad,  snugly  drawn  piece  of  adhesive  plaster,  or  with  two  or  three 
narrower  strips.  The  guide  to  the  amount  of  pressure  is  the  comfort 
of  the  patient.  Malgaigne  preferred  a  bandage  three  or  four  inches 
wide  and  long  enough  to  pass  once  and  a  half  around  the  chest,  and 
he  did  not  place  it  lower  than  the  ensiform  appendix,  believing  it  to 
be  sufficient,  whichever  ribs  might  be  broken,  to  restrain  the  move- 
ments of  the  middle  ones.  When  a  circular  bandage  cannot  be  borne 
he  recommends  that  a  long  narrow  strip  of  plaster  should  be  carried 
from  the  anterior  end  of  the  seventh  rib  on  the  right  side,  for  example, 
across  the  front  of  the  chest,  under  the  left  arm  and  across  the  back  to 
and  over  the  right  shoulder,  thence  again  across  the  chest  in  front  and 
around  the  left  side  and  back  to  end  at  the  crest  of  the  right  ilium. 


182  FRACTURES. 

This  immobilizes  the  left  side  of  the  chest  very  effectually  and  leaves 
the  right  side  free.  He  suggests  that  in  addition  the  arm  should  be 
fixed  to  the  side. 

The  pressure  of  a  bandage  is  useful  also  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
emphysema.  This  complication  seldom  requires  any  more  active  treat- 
ment, although  scarifications  have  been  made  or  the  air  drawn  off  through 
a  trocar.  If  either  method  is  used  the  instrument  must  be  applied  at 
a  distance  from  the  fracture,  so  as  not  to  incur  the  risk  of  making  it  a 
compound  one.  The  more  dangerous  variety  of  emphysema,  that  in 
which  the  air  makes  its  way  into  the  mediastinum  and  the  interlobular 
tissue  of  the  Inng,  is  not  amenable  to  operative  treatment. 

In  pneumothorax  it  may  be  desirable  to  draw  off  the  air  through  an 
aspirating  needle  or  a  canula  in  order  to  relieve  the  pressure,  and  if 
blood  accumulates  within  the  pleural  cavity  in  quantities  sufficiently 
large  to  endanger  life  by  interference  with  the  action  of  the  heart  and 
either  or  both  lungs,  it  may  become  necessary  to  remove  it  by  aspiration 
or  incision,  but  the  indications  should  be  very  plain  before  the  surgeon 
decides  to  interfere  in  this  manner,  since  the  removal  of  the  clotted 
blood  and  the  relief  of  pressure  may  only  lead  to  a  return  of  the  bleed- 
ing. Persistent  internal  hemorrhage  can  be  treated  only  by  indirect 
measures,  because  its  source  cannot  be  recognized,  and  if  recognized, 
probably  could  not  be  reached.  It  has  been  found  useful  to  constrict 
the  thighs  circularly  at  the  groin  with  rubber  tubing  or  a  roller  bandage 
just  sufficiently  to  arrest  the  venous  current;  this  withdraws  a  consid- 
erable amount  of  blood  temporarily  from  circulation  and  acts  as  a 
venesection.      It  sometimes  arrests  bleeding  instantly. 

When  life  is  threatened  by  pulmonary  engorgement  with  extreme 
dyspnoea,  blood  should  be  taken  from  the  arm  immediately  and  freely, 
and  the  bleeding  should  be  repeated  if  the  symptoms  reappear.  The 
older  records  are  full  of  cases  showing  the  benefit  of  this  practice,  and, 
among  modern  surgeons,  Mr.  Bryant  recommends  it  unhesitatingly  and 
forcibly.  He  says:  '^  Bleed  with  no  sparing  hand.  .  .  .  When 
relief  has  been  obtained  arrest  the  flow  immediately,  as  syncope  can 
only  do  harm,^'  then  follow  with  antimony. 

Fractures  of  the  Costal  Cartilages. 

The  first  mention  made  of  this  lesion  appears  to  have  been  by 
Zwinger  in  1698,  and  it  is  not  again  referred  to  in  medical  literature 
until  1805,  when  Lobstein,  at  Strasbourg,  and  in  1806  Magendie,  at 
Paris,  each  described  it  with  cases.  Additional  observations  were  made 
by  Delpech,  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  and  Yelpeau,  and  in  1841  Malgaigne^ 
published  a  paper  upon  the  subject  which,  six  years  afterward,  he 
reproduced  in  part,  in  his  book  on  fractures.  Since  then  but  little 
work  has  been  done  upon  the  subject,  most  writers  contenting  them- 
selves with  reproducing  in  substance  Malgaigne's  chapter.  Gurlt  col- 
lected more  than  thirty  cases  for  the  chapter  upon  it  in  his  book  on 
fractures,  and  Paulet,"  who  appears  not  to  have   known  of    Gurlt' s 

1  Malgaigne:  Bulletins  de  Th6rapeutique,  1841,  p.  227. 

2  paulet :  Diet.  Eneyclop6dique,  First  Series,  vol.  xxi,,  art.  Cotes,  1878. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  RIBS  AND  THEIR  CARTILAGES.       183 

work,  gives  fourteen  cases  which  he  obtained  by  a  partial  search  through 
French  periodical  literature,  only  four  of  which  are  mentioned  by 
Gurlt.  Bourneville^  (1880)  and  Pozzi^  (1888)  raised  the  list  to  seventy- 
nine  cases.      I  have  seen  two  or  three. 

Fractures  occur  much  more  frequently  at  or  near  the  junction  of  the 
cartilage  and  rib  than  at  any  other  point,  and  more  frequently  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  ribs  than  in  any  other.  The  fracture  may  be  doable, 
and  may  involve  several  cartilages  on  one  side  or  on  both.  All  the 
recorded  fractures  have  been  complete  with  the  exception  of  one  case; 
they  have  been  perpendicular  to  the  long  axis  of  the  cartilage,  or  very 
slightly  oblique,  and  the  surface  has  always  been  smooth,  without  ser- 
rations or  splinters. 

It  is  probable  that  persons  advanced  in  life  are  more  liable  to  this 
fracture  than  the  young,  because  of  the  calcification  or  ossification  of 
the  cartilages,  but  it  has  occurred  in  young  men  (seventeen  years)  and 
even  in  a  child  seven  years  old. 

Displacement  has  been  absent  in  a  very  few  cases;  in  most  it  takes 
place  in  the  antero-posterior  direction,  and  in  some  the  fragments  have 
overriden  in  the  direction  of  the  long  axis  of  the  rib.  This  latter 
form,  probably,  is  possible  only  in  the  longer  and  more  curved  ribs,  or 
when  several  adjoining  ones  are  broken.  The  separation  in  either  of 
these  two  directions  may  amount  to  as  much  as  an  inch,  but  is  rarely 
so  great.  Either  fragment  may  lie  in  front  of  the  other,  although  the 
costal  fragment  projects  more  frequently  than  the  sternal  one;  the  dis- 
placement, however,  appears  to  depend  entirely  upon  the  direction  of 
the  fracturing  force  and  upon  the  position  occupied  by  the  patient,  and 
consequently  to  follow  no  definite  laws. 

No  instance  of  a  compound  fracture  of  a  costal  cartilage  is  on  record, 
and  the  complications  are  less  frequent  and,  as  a  rule,  less  serious  than 
those  accompanying  fractures  of  the  ribs.  In  some  cases  where  the 
violence  has  been  extreme  and  niany  cartilages  have  been  broken  fatal 
injury  has  been  done  at  the  same  time  to  the  heart  or  great  vessels,  but 
not  by  the  penetration  of  one  of  the  fragments;  the  viscera  are  crushed 
or  torn  by  the  continued  action  of  the  force  after  the  wall  of  the  chest 
has  yielded  under  it. 

Hernia  of  the  lung  has  been  observed  in  three  cases,  one  after  frac- 
ture of  the  third  and  fourth  cartilages  and  rupture  of  the  intercostal 
muscles  by  the  fall  of  a  heavy  weight,  the  second,  a  double  one,  after 
fracture  or  diastasis  due  to  paroxysms  of  coughing,  and  the  third, 
observed  by  Legros  Clark^  after  a  blow  received  from  the  shaft  of  some 
vehicle.  In  this  one  the  cartilage  of  the  second  rib  was  driven  in, 
creating  a  gap  through  which  a  tumor  as  large  as  the  fist  appeared  at 
each  inspiration  and  disappeared  at  each  expiration,  leaving  a  depres- 
sion capable  of  containing  at  least  two  ounces  of  liquid.  Recovery  in 
three  weeks,  the  gap.  persisting  but  "  evidently  occupied  by  some 
plastic  deposit." 

In  seven  cases  the  fracture  has  been  produced  by  muscular  action, 
either  an  excessive  effort,  as  to  avoid  a  fall  or  to  throw  a  heavy  object, 

1  BournevUle  ;  Progrfes  Med.,  1880.  "  Pozzi :  Ibid.,  October  20,  1888. 

2  Legros  Clark :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  206. 


184  FRACTURES. 

or  coughing  or  sneezing.  Thus  Broca^  reported  the  case  of  a  porter 
at  the  market  who  having  placed  a  sack  of  peas  upon  his  shoulder 
asked  a  comrade  to  add  another  to  it.  The  latter  threw  the  second  sac 
heavily  upon  him,  and  in  the  effort  to  avoid  a  fall  under  the  weight  he 
fractured  the  cartilages  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  ribs  on  the 
right  side  at  points  seven  or  eight  centimetres  from  the  median  line. 

Fractures  by  external  violence  may  be  direct  or  indirect.  Gurlt 
thinks  the  indirect  fractures  take  place  at  or  near  the  costo-chondral 
junction,  the  force  acting  upon  the  rib  itself  in  such  manner  as  to  spring 
its  anterior  end  outward,  while  in  the  direct  fractures  the  force  is 
exerted  upon  a  restricted  area  of  the  cartilage  itself,  as  in  a  fall  upon 
the  edge  of  a  tub  or  step,  the  blow  of  a  fist,  the  kick  of  a  horse. 

The  symptoms  are  local  pain  and  deformity.  Crepitus  and  abnormal 
mobility  are  not  often  recognizable,  but  if  displacement  is  present  it  can 
usually  be  made  out  by  following  the  outline  of  the  rib  and  cartilage 
with  the  finger  and  by  observiug  that  it  can  be  increased  or  diminished 
by  pressure  upon  one  or  the  other  fragment.  It  may  not  be  easy  in 
some  cases  to  say  whether  the  fracture  involves  the  rib  or  the  cartilage, 
and  in  others  whether  it  is  a  fracture  of  the  cartilage  or  a  dislocation 
of  its  sternal  or  costal  end,  but  the  question  has  no  practical  impor- 
tance. 

The  prognosis,  independent  of  complications,  is  favorable,  and  the 
fracture  may  be  expected  to  unite  in  three  or  four  weeks.  Our  knowl- 
edge of  the  mode  of  repair  has  been  obtained  partly  by  experimentation 
and  partly  by  examination  of  specimens.  When  the  fragments  remain 
end  to  end  and  the  fractured  surfaces  are  more  or  less  completely  in  con- 
tact, a  fibrous  band  unites  them,  and  the  union  is  strengthened  by  an 
external  ring  of  spongy  bone.  In  a  specimen  obtained  by  Basserau^ 
and  examined  microscopically  by  Malassez,  and  in  one  reported  by 
Pozzi,^  it  was  found  that  the  central  band  was  partly  cartilaginous, 
and  it  is  asserted  that  in  other  specimens  points  of  ossification  have 
been  found. 

Fig.  68.  Fig.  69. 


Eepair  of  fracture  of  a  costal  cartilage.    (Gurlt.)      Repair  of  fracture  oi  a  costal  cartilage. 

When  the  fragments  override,  they  take,  so  far  at  least  as  the  broken 
ends  are  concerned,  little  or  no  part  in  the  repair.  Union  is  accom- 
plished by  an  intermediate  band  which  is  at  first  fibrous  or  cartilaginous 
and  may  become  bony  (Fig.  68),  or  if  the  fragments  are  in  contact 
the  new  bone  forms  on  the  sides  and  the  ends  (Fig.  09),  and  in  both 
cases  it  envelops  the  pieces  more  or  less  completely  like  a  ring.  This 
ring  originates  apparently  in  the  perichondrium,  and  its  ossification  is 

1  Broca  :  Quoted  by  Paulet,  loc.  cit.,  p.  83. 

-  Basserau  :  Paulet,  loc.  cit.,  p.  88.  3  pozzi :  Loc.  cit. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  RIBS  AND  THEIR  CARTILAGES.       185 

the  final  result  of  tlic  formative  irritation  created  by  the  traumatism, 
and  is  analogous  to  tho  ossification  seen  so  constantly  not  only  in  carti- 
lage which  would  normally  be  transformed  into  bone,  but  also  in  otliers, 
such  as  that  of  the  larynx,  whose  normal  evolution  does  not  include 
that  change. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  similar  to  that  of  fracture  of  the  ribs: 
reduction  of  a  displacement  if  necessary  and  possible,  and  immobiliza- 
tion. The  former  must  be  accomplished,  if  at  all,  by  placing  the 
patient  upon  the  opposite  side  or  upon  his  back,  by  drawing  the  shoul- 
ders back,  or  by  deep  inspirations;  the  latter  by  a  body  bandage,  strips 
of  adhesive  plaster,  or,  following  Malgaigne's  example,  by  a  hernial 
truss  so  placed  as  to  restrain  the  fragment  that  tends  to  project. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

FEACTURES  OF  THE  CLAVICLE. 

Fracture  of  the  clavicle  is  a  common  injury  and  is  especially 
frequent  in  childhood,  taking  the  place  at  that  age,  as  was  pointed  out 
by  Kronlein,  of  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  by  direct  violence  later  in 
life.  That  is,  a  fall  upon  the  shoulder  breaks  the  clavicle  of  a  child 
but  dislocates  the  shoulder  of  an  adult. 

Pathology.  It  has  been  found  convenient  by  most  modern  authors 
for  the  purposes  of  study  and  description  to  divide  the  fractures  into 
three  groups,  according  as  they  occupy  the  inner,  middle,  or  outer 
thirds  of  the  bone.  The  average  length  of  the  clavicle  is  six  inches, 
and  this  division  into  thirds  of  about  two  inches  each  corresponds  to 
anatomical  differences  of  considerable  clinical  importance.  To  the 
flattened  outer  third  are  attached  the  trapezius  and  deltoid  muscles  and 
the  strong  coraco-clavicular  ligament  binding  it  to  the  coracoid  process, 
the  inner  fasciculus  of  which,  known  as  the  coracoid  ligament,  marks 
the  inner  limit  of  this  portion,  and  can  sometimes  be  readily  felt  upon 
the  living  body.  The  dividing  line  between  the  inner  and  middle 
thirds  is  not  so  definitely  marked  anatomically,  it  corresponds  approxi- 
mately to  the  point  where  the  clavicle  crosses  the  lower  or  outer  edge 
of  the  first  rib.  The  inner  third  is  attached  to  the  sternum  by  the 
sterno-clavicular  ligaments,  and  to  the  cartilage  of  the  first  rib  by  the 
costo-clavicular  or  rhomboid  ligament.  To  its  upper  border  is  attached 
the  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscle,  to  its  lower  the  pectoralis  major. 

Since  the  outer  third  is  broadly  attached  by  ligaments  to  the  scapula 
it  is  apparent  that  after  fracture  of  the  bone  in  the  inner  or  middle 
third  the  outer  fragment  will  not  be  able  to  change  its  relations  to  the 
scapula  materially,  and  that  its  displacement,  therefore,  will  be  gov- 
erned by  the  change  of  position  of  the  latter,  by  its  sinking  inward 
and  forward  to  the  side  of  the  chest  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  its 
anterior  support. 

The  outer  portion  of  the  middle  third  is  by  far  the  most  common 
seat  of  fractures  observed  clinicall)^,  but  Lane's^  observations  in  the 
dissecting-room  and  his  experiments  indicate  that  fractures  of  the  outer 
third  are  very  frequent  and  usually  unrecognized. 

The  fracture  may  be  partial  or  complete,  single  or  multiple,  simple 
or  compound;  the  most  frequent  form  is  simple  complete  fracture. 
Compound  fracture  is  so  rare  that  Gurlt  says  he  could  find  only  four 
examples  of  it,  and  Hamilton,  who  gives  the  same  four  cases,  says  he 
had  never  met  with  an  example.  1  have  seen  one  :  An  Italian  laborer 
was  struck  by  a  falling  stone  upon  the  shoulder  and  sustained  a 
fracture  of  the  right  clavicle  at  a  point  nearly  two  inches  from  the 

1  Lane  ;  Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  18S6,  vol.  xliii. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  CLAVICLE. 


187 


sternal  end  of  the  bone.  The  line  of  fracture  was  ol^liqiie  from  above 
downward  and  inward.  A  large  ragged  wound  extended  backward 
across  the  clavicle  and  shoulder,  in  which  some  of  the  divided  fibres 
of  the  trapezius  could  be  seen.  The  outer  end  of  the  inner  fragment 
was  directed  sharply  upward,  the  outer  fragment  lying  below  and  a 
little  distance  from  it.  The  wound  healed  almost  entirely  in  about  six 
weeks,  but  when  last  seen  there  was  still  a  sinus  over  the  end  of  the 
inner  fragment  from  which  pus  flowed  freely  and  through  which  a 
probe  could  be  passed  to  the  bone. 

"Incomplete  or  partial  fracture  is,  accordiug  to  Hamilton,  who  lias 
given  much  attention  to  this  variety,  very  common.  He  thinks  that 
34  of  the  157  fractures  of  the  clavicle  recorded  by  him'  were  partial 
fractures,  and  says  that  at  least  eleven  of  these  were  immediately  and 
spontaneously  restored  to  their  natural  axes.  The  symptoms  accepted 
for  this  diagnosis  are  the  history  of  a  fall  upon  the  shoulder,  or  at  least 
indirect  violence,  the  youth  of  the  patient,  a  sAvelling  upon  the  upper 
surface  and  front  or  rear  border  of  the  middle  third  of  the  bone  appear- 
ing within  two  or  three  days  after  the  accident,  possibly  a  change  in 
the  axis  of  the  bone,  and  possibly  ability  to  straighten  it  with  slight 
crepitus. 

1 .  Complete  fracture  of  the  middle  third  may  be  oblique  or  transverse, 
the  former  variety  being  found  most  commonly  in  adults,  the  latter  in 
children.  The  line  of  an  oblique  fracture  usually  runs  inward  and 
downward  or  backward,  but  may  take  any  other  direction  and  may  be 
nearly  transverse,  or  extremely  oblique  (Fig.  70),  or  practically  longi- 


Fiu.  70 


Oblique  fracture  oi  the  clavicle. 

tudinal,  as  in  a  case  observed  by  Chassaignac  and  mentioned  by  Polail- 
lon,^  in  which  the  fracture  ran  from  the  centre  of  the  acromial  end  to  a 
point  just  external  to  the  sterno-clavicular  articulation,  dividing  the 
bone  into  two  longitudinal  halves.  Multiple  and  comminuted  fractures 
are  rare.  When  the  fracture  is  multiple  or  double,  the  intermediate 
fragment  is  likely  to  occupy  a  very  irregular  position. 

The  displacements  which  are  the  most  common  are  produced  by  the 
falling  forward,  downward,  and  inward  of  the  shoulder,  the  conse- 
quences of  the  loss  of  support  normally  furnished  by  the  clavicle,  and 
depend  somewhat  upon  the  direction  of  the  line  of  fracture.  The 
commonest  form  is  that  in  which  the  sternal  fragment  is  drawn  upward 
by  the  sterno-eleido-mastoid  muscle  or  pushed  upward  by  the  other 


1  Hamilton  :  Fractures  and  Dislocations,  6th  ed.,  p.  90. 

2  Polaillon  :  Diet.  Encyclop6dique,  art.  Clavicule,  p.  682. 


188 


FRACTURES. 


fragment,  which  is  displaced  inward  along  the  under  or  anterior  surface 
of  the  other  and  has  at  the  same  time  changed  its  direction  somewhat 
by  the  sinking  of  its  acromial  end.  The  shortening  may  be  very 
notable,  nearly  one-third  of  the  entire  length  of  the  bone  in  a  specimen 
mentioned  by  Malgaigne.  Another  form  is  found  where  the  line  of 
fracture  is  such  that  the  fragments  do  not  readily  leave  each  other, 
and  the  broken  ends  are  displaced  together  upward  and  backward  by 
the  falling  in  of  the  shoulders  so  that  the  bone  forms  an  angle  at  the 
seat  of  fracture.  In  some  exceptional  cases  the  outer  fragment  has 
lain  upon  the  upper  or  posterior  surface  of  the  inner  fragment.  Mal- 
gaigne^ says  this  variety  M'as  mentioned  by  Hippocrates,  and  that  he 
himself  saw  one,  but  only  one,  example  of  it.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  sternal  fragment  is  held  down  instead  of  being  pushed  up 
by  the  other  one,  and  the  displacement  is  mainly  in  the  direction  of 
the  latter,  the  inner  end  of  which  is  turned  upward  forming  a  projec- 
tion at  the  seat  of  fracture. 


Fig.  71. 


Fracture  of  the  clavicle.    Union  with  extreme  displacement. 
Fig.  72. 


Fracture  of  the  clavicle. 


In  transverse  fractures  the  broken  surfaces  seldom  leave  each  other, 
and  the  only  displacements  possible  are  in  thickness  and  direction,  the 
lateral  and  angular.  The  lateral  is  the  one  usually  seen,  the  angle 
being  directed,  for  reasons  that  have  been  already  stated,  upward  and 
backward. 

The  most  common  and  persistent  cause  of  these  displacements  is 
undoubtedly  the  tendency  of  the  scapula  and  shoulder  to  fall  forward 
and  inward  upon  the  chest,  but  it  is  aided  largely  in  the  first  place  by 
the  fracturing  force  which  continues  to  act  after  the  bone  has  yielded 
to  it.  Thus,  in  a  fall  upon  the  shoulder  or  the  outstretched  hand,  the 
clavicle  breaks  by  the  exaggeration  of  its  normal  curves,  and  as  the 
direction  of  the  line  of  fracture  is  usually  downward  and  inward  the 
outer  fragment  is  forced  inward  on  the  under  side  of  the  other  and 
necessarily  turns  the  outer  end  of  the  latter  upward. 

2.  Fracture  of  the  Outer  Third.  This  variety  is  next  in  frequency  to 
the  preceding,  and  may  be  produced  by  direct  or  indirect  violence. 
The  direction  of  the  line  of  fracture  is  more  commonly  transverse  than 

1  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  468. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  CLAVICLE.  189 

oblique.     The  degree  of  displacement  varies  greatly  in  different  cases, 
being  very  notable  in  some  and  slight  or  entirely  absent  in  others. 

When  displacement  exists  it  is  usually  an  angular  one,  the  apex  of 
the  angle  being  directed  backward.  In  some  specimens'  bony  union 
is  shown  to  have  taken  place  between  the  clavicle  and  the  scapula,  pre- 
sumably by  ossification  of  the  coraco-clavicular  ligament.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  prop  extending  from  the  under  side  of  the  clavicle  to  the 
base  of  the  coracoid  process,  and  sometimes  to  the  notch  of  the  scapula, 
and  usually  convex  posteriorly. 

Fig.  73. 


Fracture  of  clavicle,  outer  third.    Extreme  angular  displacement.    (R.  W.  Smith  ) 

When  the  fracture  is  external  to  the  trapezoid  ligament — that  is, 
when  it  lies  within  the  outer  inch  of  the  bone,  displacement  is  the  rule, 
the  outer  fragment  turning  forward  and  inward  until  its  axis  is  at 
right  angles  with  that  of  the  inner  fragment;  sometimes  its  broken 
surface  lies  against  the  anterior  border  of  the  inner  one,  and  sometimes 
the  outer  fragment  lies  under  the  inner  one.  Malgaigne  describes  a 
case  in  which,  after  fracture  within  half  an  inch  of  the  articular  sur- 
face, the  inner  fragment  was  elevated  an  inch  above  the  other,  and 
there  was  shortening  of  nearly  half  an  inch;  the  appearance,  in  short, 
was  that  of  a  dislocation  upward  of  the  acromial  end  of  the  clavicle. 

3.  Fractures  of  the  Inner  Third.  The  older  division,  which  was  into 
fractures  of  the  body  and  fractures  of  the  outer  end,  took  no  special 
notice  of  this  variety  which  received  its  first  separate  description  from 
Malgaigne.  It  is  the  least  common  of  the  three;  Delens,^  who  wrote 
the  first  formal  article  upon  the  subject,  collected  twenty-eight  cases,  to 
which  Polaillon  two  years  later  added  three.  I  have  seen  one  caused 
by  a  direct  blow  with  a  baseball.  The  fracture  may  occupy  any  point 
in  the  division,  and  is  more  often  oblique  than  transverse.  It  was 
asserted  at  first  that  the  displacement  did  not  occur  if  the  fracture  was 
within  the  region  of  the  attachment  of  the  costo-clavicular  ligament, 
but  the  contrary  has  since  been  proved;  displacement  may  take  place 
in  any  direction,  but  the  commonest  one  is  downward  and  forward  of 
the  inner  end  of  the  outer  fragment,  or  of  the  adjoining  ends  of  both 
fragments  if  they  do  not  separate  from  each  other.  Polaillon  attributes 
the  principal  part  in  the  production  of  this  displacement  to  the  action 
of  the  pectoral  and  deltoid  muscles  upon  the  outer  fragment,  and  finds 

1  Smith  :  Dublin  Journ.  Med.  Sci.,  1842,  p.  478,  and  Fractures  in  the  Vicinity  of  Joints,  p.  212. 

2  Delens:  Archives  G6n(;rales  de  M6d.,  1873,  vol.  i.  p.  529. 


]90 


FRACTURES. 


support  for  his  opinion  in  the  fact  that  this  displacement  has  always 
been  observed  after  fracture  by  muscular  action;  and  as  in  this  variety 
the  fracture  is  usually  near  the  inner  articular  surface,  in  a  region, 
that  is,  where  displacement  after  fracture  by  other  causes  is  slight  or 
absent,  the  argument  is  not  without  weight,  although  the  obliquity  of 
the  line  of  fracture  in  such  cases  as  that  represented  in  Fig.  74  cannot 
be  entirely  foreign  to  the  direction  and  degree  of  the  displacement. 
When  the  fracture  is  transverse  the  lateral  displacement  may  be  slight 
or  entirely  absent  and  the  periosteum  may  remain  untorn.  Longitu- 
dinal fracture  with  comminution  was  seen  in  one  case,  and  Hamilton 
reports  another  in  which  the  line  ran  from  the  articulation  upward  and 
outward  for  one  and  a  half  inches.  The  fragments  overlapped  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  and  were  firmly  united.  In  two  cases  the  end  of 
the  outer  fragment  lay  underneath  the  inner  one  and  both  were  directed 
upward  and  backward.  The  outer  end  of  the  inner  fragment  is  acted 
upon  more  strongly  by  the  sterno-cleido  mastoid  muscle  than  by  any 
other,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  draw  it  upward,  and  this  effect  is 
increased  by  the  pressure  of  the  outer  fragment  when  that  is  forced  in 
front  of  and  below  the  other,  so  that  whenever  the  two  fractured  sur- 
faces leave  each  other  the  inner  fragment  is  likely  to  incline  upward. 


Fig.  74. 


Fracture  of  the  clavicle,  inner  third.    (Gurlt.) 

Multiple  Fractures.  But  few  cases  are  recorded  in  which  the  bone 
has  been  broken  in  two  or  more  places;  in  some  the  fracture  was  by 
direct,  in  others  by  indirect,  violence.  Both  fractures  have  been  found 
in  the  middle  third,  but  more  commonly  they  occupy  different  thirds. 
When  one  fracture  has  been  in  the  acromial,  and  the  other  in  the  inner 
or  middle  third,  the  intermediate  piece  has  not  shown  much  displace- 
ment, and  each  fracture  has  followed  the  usual  course  of  a  single  one; 
but  when  the  fractures  have  been  within  or  close  to  the  limits  of  the 
middle  third,  the  displacement  has  been  very  notable. 

Complications.  Complications  of  fracture  of  the  clavicle  consist  in 
injuries  to  the  vessels,  nerves,  and  lungs,  and  are  exceedingly  rare, 
excluding  gunshot  wounds  in  which  the  complications  are  produced  by 
the  ball  and  not  by  the  fractured  bone.  Although  the  subclavian  artery 
is  in  intimate  relations  with  the  clavicle,  I  find  no  recorded  case  of  its 
injury  as  a  complication  of  the  fracture  of  this  bone.  Dupuytren  speaks 
in  a  lecture  of  having  seen  two  or  three  cases  of  aneurism  following 
fracture  of  the   clavicle,  and  Jacquemier'  gives   a   case   observed  by 


1  Jacquemier :  Fractures  de  la  Clavicule,  These  d'Agr(5gation,  Paris,  1844. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  CLAVICLE.  191 

Blandin,  of  an  aneurism  of  the  acromial  branch  of  the  acromial-thoracic 
artery  following  fracture  by  direct  violence. 

A  few  cases  are  reported  of  injury  to  the  subclavian  or  internal 
jugular  vein,  in  some  of  which  the  diagnosis  was  verified  by  autopsy. 

In  the  museum  of  St.  George's  Hospital'  is  a  specimen  in  which  the 
fractured  end  of  the  bone  was  driven  tlirough  the  internal  jugular  vein. 
The  patient,  a  youth  of  twenty-three  years,  while  standing  under  a  tree 
during  a  thunder-storm  was  struck  by  a  falling  branch  and  died  imme- 
diately. 

In  one  case  the  patient,^  a  man  fifty-nine  years  old,  broke  the  right 
clavicle  in  the  middle  third  by  a  fall  upon  the  shoulder.  A  large 
swelling  appeared  promptly  in  the  supraclavicular  region  and  extended 
to  the  parotid;  it  did  not  pulsate,  and  had  a  slight  intermittent  murmur 
isochronous  with  the  pulse.  The  arm  was  paralyzed,  and  the  radial 
pulse  lost.  On  the  following  day  the  pain  was  less,  and  the  pulse  had 
reappeared.  An  incision  was  made,  an  enormous  quantity  of  blood 
escaped,  and  the  patient  died  at  once  in  consequence  of  the  entrance  of 
air  into  the  vein.  The  fracture  was  very  oblique  from  without  inward 
and  backward,  and  the  vein  was  torn  completely  across  by  the  outer 
fragment.      The  artery  and  nerves  were  not  injured. 

In  a  very  few  reported  cases  symptoms  indicating  injury  to  the 
brachial  plexus  have  appeared  immediately  or  after  an  interval.  In 
one^  sharp  pains  extending  throughout  the  arm  with  swelling  and  dis- 
coloration followed  every  attempt  to  work  after  the  fracture  had  united ; 
complete  relief  was  obtained  by  resection  of  the  callus.  In  another* 
a  fracture  of  the  clavicle,  scapula,  and  two  ribs  by  crushing,  the  arm 
was  paralyzed  from  the  first,  and  sharp  pain  appeared  ten  days  later, 
extending  to  various  portions  of  the  arm  and  hand.  Relief  by  opera- 
tive correction  of  the  marked  displacement  at  the  junction  of  the  outer 
and  middle  thirds.  In  a  third, ^  complete  loss  of  function  persisting  three 
weeks  after  the  injury,  an  operation  was  done  to  remove  a  splinter  and 
improve  the  position  of  the  fragments;  recovery.  In  a  fourth,^  a 
comminuted  fracture  by  direct  violence,  the  pain  was  so  great,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  paralysis,  that  the  limb  was  amputated  at  the  shoulder.  In 
a  fifth  case,  my  own,^  extensive  motor  and  sensory  paralysis  of  the 
limb  existed  from  the  first,  although  the  fracture  was  without  recog- 
nizable displacement;  six  weeks  later  there  had  been  no  improvement. 

Of  the  three  earlier  cases  in  which  paralysis  of  the  arm  immediately 
followed  the  accident  (Earle,  Gibson,  Mercier),  displacement  of  the 
fragments  is  noted  in  two  and  not  mentioned  in  the  third.  A  notice- 
able incident  in  two  (Earle,  Stimson)  was  the  paralysis  of  the  scapular 
muscles  supplied  by  the  suprascapular  nerve  which  leaves  the  plexus 
above  the  clavicle.  Direct  injury  or  compression  of  the  nerve  by  the 
fragments  or  callus  can  fairly  be  assumed  as  the  cause  in  some  of  the 
cases;  in  the  others  the  cause  remains  nnknown.     In  a  few  the  press- 

1  British  Medical  Journal,  1873,  vol.  ii.  p.  82. 

"  Progres  Medical,  1882,  No.  16. 

3  Hassler:  Lyon  Mc'dical,  January  12,  1896. 

*  Davis  :  Annals  of  Surgery,  February,  1895. 

5  Mauclaire  :  La  Semaine  Medicale,  October  17, 1S94. 

"  Poirier:  La  Semaine  Medicale,  September  2,  1891 

'■  Stimson  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  June  11,  1887. 


192  FRACTURES. 

ure  of  an  axillary  pad  in  the  dressing  appears  to  be  responsible  for 
temporary  disability.  Two  cases  of  pressure  by  an  exuberant  callus 
are  given  below  in  the  section  on  Symptoms  and  Course. 

Injury  to  the  lung,  as  evidenced  by  emphysema,  has  been  recorded 
in  five  cases  where  this  symptom  seemed  to  be  demonstrative,  and  in 
two  others  in  which  it  is  much  more  likely  that  the  emphysema  was 
due  to  the  introduction  of  air  through  a  wound  of  the  soft  parts. 

The  first  five  cases  are  those  of  Vigarous,  Velpeau,  Huguier,  Riihle, 
and  Mercier.  All  except  the  fourth,  Riihle's,  are  described  with  all 
the  details  that  are  obtainable  in  a  thesis  of  Mercier,^ 

The  anatomical  demonstration  of  the  immediate  agency  is  lacking 
in  all  these  cases,  but  the  notes  in  all  but  one  show  that  the  surgeons 
were  mindful  of  the  possibility  that  a  fracture  of  a  rib  might  coexist 
and  might  have  been  the  cause  of  the  wound  in  the  lung,  and  that  they 
were  unable  to  detect  such  a  complication.  In  most  of  them,  too,  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  depression  of  the  outer  fragment,  and  as  the  rela- 
tions of  the  clavicle  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  thoracic  cavity  are  such 
that  it  is  not  difficult  to  admit  the  possibility  of  a  wound  of  the  apex 
of  the  lung  by  the  broken  bone,  I  think  the  clinical  evidence  may  be 
accepted  as  sufficient. 

Etiology.  The  clavicle  may  be  broken  by  muscular  action,  by  direct 
violence,  or  by  indirect  violence. 

Gurlt^  and  Delens^  collected  and  analyzed  a  number  of  reported  cases 
of  fracture  by  muscular  action.  The  efforts  by  which  the  fractures 
were  caused  were  various  :  lifting  a  heavy  weight;  striking  with  the 
hand,  a  whip,  or  racket;  making  a  vigorous  effort  that  involved  the 
contraction  of  many  muscles,  as  in  Legros  Clark's  case  of  a  lad  who, 
while  swinging  by  the  feet  from  a  trapeze,  tried  to  raise  himself  so  as 
to  seize  the  bar  with  his  hands;  the  clavicle  broke  in  its  inner  third 
during  the  effort.  It  is  probable  that  the  clavicular  fibres  of  the  del- 
toid and  pectoralis  major  are  the  most  efficient  agents  in  producing  this 
fracture,  since  their  contraction  tends  to  draw  the  unsupported  central 
portion  of  the  clavicle  downward  and  outward  toward  the  humerus 
when  the  arm  is  fixed. 

Closely  allied  to  these  cases  are  those  in  which  the  fracture  has  been 
produced  by  a  blow  or  other  force  acting  at  the  hand;  thus,  an  old 
woman  broke  her  clavicle  by  closing  the  door  of  a  wardrobe  forcibly, 
and  a  lunatic  at  Bicetre  broke  his  by  striking  violently  with  a  heavy 
stick  against  some  iron  bars. 

In  a  very  few  of  the  cases  the  fracture  has  been  produced  by  two 
efforts,  or  a  blow  and  an  effort,  separated  by  a  longer  or  shorter  inter- 
val; the  patient  feels  pain  at  some  point  in  the  clavicle  after  a  fall  or 
a  blow  or  an  effort,  which  persists  perhaps  but  is  not  severe  and  does 
not  interfere  with  the  use  of  the  arm;  and  then  in  a  few  days,  after 
another  violence  or  effort,  the  bone  breaks.  If  the  second  violence 
were  sufficient  in  itself  to  account  for  the  fracture,  the  first  one  might 
be  regarded  as  a  mere  coincidence,  but  it  has  generally  been  less  than 
the  first. 

1  Mercier:  Des  Complications  des  Fractures  de  la  Clavicule,  These  de  Paris,  1881. 

2  Gurlt  :  Loc.  cit.  3  Delens  :  Loc.  cit.,  and  Arch.  G6n.,  1875,  vol.  i.  p.  257. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  CLAVICLE.  193 

Direct  fractures  are  produced  by  varied  causes,  and  may  occur  at  any 
part  of  the  bone,  but  most  frequently  in  the  middle  and  outer  thirds. 
The  commonest  form  of  violence  is  a  blow  falling  upon  the  centre  of 
the  bone  in  a  direction  that  is  backward  and  downward. 

Indirect  fractures,  which  constitute  the  great  majority,  are  most  fre- 
quently produced  by  a  fall  upon  the  shoulder  or  upon  the  hand  or  elbow, 
the  arm  being  extended  and  the  muscles  rigid.  In  a  few  cases  the  frac- 
ture has  been  caused  by  the  sudden  depression  of  the  shoulder,  by  which 
the  clavicle  was  bent  over  the  first  rib.  Malgaigne^  reports  one:  an 
incomplete  fracture  at  the  middle  of  the  bone  due  to  the  slipping  of  a 
burden  from  the  shoulder  to  the  arm;  and  Polaillon'-  another  :  a  man 
who  held  the  end  of  a  lever  which  was  to  receive  part  of  the  weight  of 
a  heavy  stone,  the  stone  slipped  suddenly  upon  the  lever  and  drew  the 
arm  which  held  it  downward.  The  man  heard  a  snap  and  felt  pain  in 
the  shoulder;  the  clavicle  was  broken  in  its  middle  third. 

The  clavicle  has  been  broken  in  a  number  of  cases  during  intra- 
uterine life  by  external  violence,  and  occasionally  by  the  midwife  or 
obstetrician  during  parturition. 

Simultaneous  fracture  of  both  clavicles  is  a  relatively  rare  accident. 
Writing  in  1881  I  found  twenty-eight  cases  collected  by  five  authors, 
but  a  year  seldom  passes  now  without  the  report  of  one  or  more  cases. 
In  position,  symptoms,  and  mode  of  production  these  double  fractures 
do  not  differ  materially  from  single  ones.  Sometimes  they  are  pro- 
duced simultaneously  by  lateral  pressure  upon  the  shoulders,  some- 
times successively  by  two  different  blows,  and  once  simultaneously  by 
a  kick  by  a  horse,  each  hoof  breaking  a  clavicle. 

In  three  of  the  six  cases  collected  by  Malgaigne,  union  failed  in  both 
bones,  and  he  has  left  a  very  complete  account  of  the  resultant  dis- 
ability in  one  of  them  which  was  under  his  own  care.  In  the  others 
there  was  apparently  but  little  permanent  interference  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  arms.  In  none  of  the  recently  reported  cases  has  failure 
of  union  been  noted.  In  recent  cases  there  is  sometimes  considerable 
dyspnoea,  which  Hurel  thinks  is  due  to  the  weight  of  the  arms  and 
shoulders  upon  the  thorax,  aided  perhaps  by  the  loss  of  power  of  the 
accessory  muscles  of  respiration,  those  which  pass  from  the  neck  or 
thorax  to  the  clavicle  and  scapula.  This  dyspnoea  is  relieved  by  the 
dorsal  decubitus  if  the  shoulders  rest  upon  a  firm  support.  The  con- 
dition of  Malgaigne' s  patient  on  examination  three  years  after  the 
accident  was  as  follows:  the  shoulders  appeared  to  be  below,  in  front, 
and  on  the  inner  side  of  their  normal  positions,  the  shoulder-blades 
stood  out  posteriorly  three  or  four  inches  from  the  chest-wall  and  were 
inclined  forward  and  outward,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  seemed 
much  contracted.  The  clavicles  were  broken  at  the  centre,  and  the 
outer  fragments  were  below  and  behind  the  inner  ones.  The  shoulders 
could  be  drawn  back  slightly,  but  not  enough  to  overcome  the  displace- 
ment forward,  and  they  could  be  drawn  forward  so  far  that  they  were 
separated  by  an  interval  of  only  three  inches,  measuring  across  the 

1  Malgaigne  :  Loc  cit.,  p.  463.  "  Polaillon  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  679. 

13 


194  FBAGTUBES. 

chest.    The  arms  could  be  raised  to  the  horizontal  line  in  front  and  on 
the  side,  but  not  behind. 

Symptoms  and  Course.  The  rational  and  physical  signs  common  to 
most  fractures  are  found  in  those  of  the  clavicle.  These  are  the 
deformity,  mobility,  and  crepitus,  the  localized  pain,  and  the  diminu- 
tion of  function.  Besides  the  deformity  due  to  the  displacement  of  the 
fragments,  there  is  also  that  which  is  produced  by  the  falling  inward 
of  the  shoulder  and  which  is  most  apparent  when  viewed  from  behind, 
and  with  it  goes  a  very  noticeable  projection  of  the  posterior  border 
and  inferior  angle  of  the  scapula.  These  signs  are,  of  course,  most 
marked  in  cases  of  complete  fracture  with  overriding  of  the  fragments; 
in  fractures  of  the  inner  and  outer  thirds  they  are  usually  less  marked, 
or  even  absent,  because  the  average  displacement  is  less. 

In  fractures  of  the  middle  third  there  is  usually  displacement  of  such 
a  character  and  extent  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  recognizing  it  and 
its  cause;  the  fragments  can  be  separately  grasped  and  moved  upon 
each  other.  Crepitus,  however,  is  not  always  produced  by  this  manoeu- 
vre, for  the  broken  surfaces  may  not  be  in  contact,  and  in  order  to  get 
this  symptom  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  the  shoulder  drawn  back- 
ward and  outward,  so  as  to  reduce  the  displacement. 

Localized  pain  on  direct  pressure  or  when  the  shoulder  is  pressed 
inward  is  a  valuable  sign  in  partial  fractures  and  in  fractures  without 
displacement,  and  it  may  be  the  only  one  that  is  present  immediately 
after  the  injury;  the  appearance  within  a  week  of  a  firm  oval  mass  at 
the  point  where  pain  was  felt  confirms  the  diagnosis  of  fracture. 

The  interference  with  function  seems  to  be  largely  the  consequence 
of  the  pain  which  makes  the  patient  unwilling  to  move  the  arm,  rather 
than  of  any  mechanical  defect  produced  by  the  fracture.  The  patient 
can  usually  move  the  arm  quite  freely  backward  and  forward,  but 
cannot  raise  it  or  adduct  it  without  pain,  and  if  asked  to  put  his  hand 
on  his  head,  will  usually  flex  the  forearm,  incline  the  body,  and  bend 
down  his  head  to  accomplish  it.  The  fracture  and  displacement  are 
not  entirely  without  influence  in  this  limitation  of  the  movements,  but 
they  are  not  wholly  responsible  for  it.  Hurel,^  who  profited  by  his 
internat  at  the  hospital  for  convalescents  at  Paris,  to  examine  the  later 
condition  of  patients  with  this  fracture,  found  the  movement  of  cir- 
cumduction of  the  arm  the  last  to  be  regained,  and  that  a  shortening 
of  half  an  inch  or  more  delayed  complete  recovery  considerably  beyond 
the  time  that  was  sufficient  for  it  when  the  shortening  was  less  or 
absent. 

The  patient's  appearance  is  often  quite  characteristic;  he  sits  with 
his  body  and  head  inclined  toward  the  injured  side  and  supports  the 
elbow  with  the  other  hand.  The  only  cases  in  which  the  diagnosis  can 
well  remain  in  doubt  after  even  a  brief  examination  are  those  of  incom- 
plete fracture,  and  some  of  fracture  close  to  either  end  of  the  bone 
which  may  be  mistaken  for  dislocation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  crep- 
itus which  is  so  frequently  present  in  dislocation  of  the  acromial  end 
of  the  clavicle,  because  of  the  chipping  of  the  edge  of  the  joint,  may 

1  Hurel :  Les  Fractures  de  la  Clavicule,  These  de  Paris,  1867. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  CLAVICLE.  195 

lead  to  a  diagnosis  of  fracture.  Either  error  may  be  avoided  if  the 
outline  of  the  bone  can  be  accurately  traced. 

The  progress  of  the  fracture  is  simple  and  is  rarely  disturbed  by 
complications  or  dangers.  Union  is  usually  firm  by  the  end  of  the 
fourth  week,  sometimes  much  earlier,  and  failure  of  union  is  rare. 
Displacement  and  shortening,  however,  are  the  rule;  only  those  cases, 
apparently,  are  exempt  in  which  the  line  of  fracture  is  transverse 
and  there  is  no  displacement  at  first.  The  amount  of  the  shortening 
may  vary  from  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to  one  and  even  two  inches,  and 
it  may  be  produced  by  angular  displacement,  or  by  overriding,  or  by 
both. 

The  complications  that  may  occur  in  the  course  of  the  repair  are  the 
ordinary  inflammatory  ones  that  may  arise  at  the  seat  of  fracture  in 
consequence  of  the  bruising  of  the  surrounding  parts,  or  of  the  failure 
to  immobilize  the  fragments,  or  special  ones  due  to  the  pressure  of  the 
fragments  or  callus  upon  the  vessels  and  nerves.  Hassler's  case  quoted 
above  is  an  instance  of  pressure  upon  the  nerves  by  the  callus  during 
forcible  use  of  the  arm,  and  two  others  have  been  reported  by  Delens^ 
and  Polaillon.^  Delens's  case  is  very  satisfactory.  The  patient  was 
brought  to  the  hospital  January  1,  1881,  with  fracture  of  the  left 
clavicle  and  two  ribs.  The  arm  was  placed  in  a  Mayor's  sling,  and 
union  was  complete  by  the  end  of  the  month.  The  patient  returned 
on  March  19th,  complaining  of  great  loss  of  power  in  the  left  arm; 
examination  showed  marked  overriding  of  the  fragments,  the  outer 
lying  in  front  of  the  inner  one,  with  a  hard,  firm  callus  two  inches 
thick,  atrophy  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  left  arm,  and  passive  conges- 
tion of  the  skin  of  the  hand;  the  pulsations  of  the  left  radial  artery 
were  much  weaker  than  those  of  the  right.  The  posterior  and  lower 
portion  of  the  callus  was  removed  by  operation,  the  pulsations  of  the 
radial  artery  and  the  appearance  of  the  hand  at  once  became  normal, 
and  the  patient  gradually  recovered  the  use  of  the  limb. 

In  another  case  Gosselin  removed  a  portion  of  callus  which  had 
caused  persistent  ulceration  of  the  soft  parts  covering  it.  A  prompt 
cure  followed. 

Ossification  of  the  coraco-clavicular  ligament  has  been  observed  in 
several  cases  after  fracture  in  the  outer  third.  No  description  is  given 
of  the  modifications,  if  any,  of  the  functions  of  the  part  produced  by 
this  anchylosis. 

Failure  of  union  is  rare,  and  in  the  few  cases  which  have  been 
recorded  it  does  not  appear  to  have  resulted  in  any  diminution  of  func- 
tion; in  one  case  carefully  examined  by  Hamilton  where  there  was 
ligamentous  union  and  overriding  to  the  extent  of  half  an  inch  the  arm 
on  the  affected  side  was  in  every  way  as  strong  and  as  fit  for  use  as  the 
other. 

Treatment,  The  indications  for  treatment  are  to  reduce  the  displace- 
ment and  to  prevent  its  recurrence.     The  means  by  which  they  are  to 

1  Delens :  De  la  resection  rl'un  cal  de  la  Clavicule  comprimant  les  valsseaux  et  les  nerfs  sous- 
claviers,  in  Archives  de  M(5decine,  August,  1881,  p.  170. 

2  Polaillon  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  696. 


196  FRACTURES. 

be  met  do  not  differ  materially  in  the  different  fractures,  but  in  describ- 
ing them  I  shall  have  mainly  in  mind  fractures  of  the  middle  third. 

As  has  been  already  said,   the 

^^^-  ^^-  shoidder  aud  outer   fragment  are 

^         /S  usually  displaced  inward,  forward, 

'^    ~~Y**^L***V  ^^^  downward,  and  the  outer  end 

B  Z/***^'^^^  of  the  inner  fragment  is  displaced 

\     ^^^""""^^^^^^n^  upward.       The  force  which   pro- 

c '  1/  ^x^  duces  the  first  displacement  is  the 

^  N^  weight  of  the  shoulder.      It  must 

//  ,--^_  ^^  remembered  that  the  shoulder 

\i  fy  ^^^^     hangs  out  from  the  chest  as  a  sign 

l|  ^^^^^      hangs  out  from  the  side  of  a  house; 

Mechanism  of  displacement  after  fracture  of  the  SCapula  and  clavicle  are  twO 
the  clavicle  A.  acromion;  c,  clavicle  ;s,  scap-  j^^g^^j  supports,  and  the  trapezius 
ula ;  a',  position  of  the  acromion  after  the  frac-  ^        ,  *■  *-  '  * 

ture.  muscle    IS    a    suspensory   one.      A 

glance  at  Fig.  75  shows  how  the 
fracture  of  the  clavicle  removes  one  lateral  support,  and  how  the 
weight  of  the  shoulder,  being  no  longer  supported  upon  that  side, 
swings  forward  aud  inward  until  a  new  equilibrium  is  found.  This 
movement  of  rotation  carries  the  posterior  portion  of  the  scapula 
away  from  the  back  at  the  same  time  that  it  brings  the  anterior  portion 
nearer  the  front,  and  as  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  is  dome-like  and 
not  simply  cylindrical,  and  as  the  movement,  the  change  of  position, 
takes  place  therefore  in  a  vertical  as  well  as  in  a  horizontal  plane,  the 
shoulder  drops  and  the  inferior  angle  of  the  scapula  rises,  by  compari- 
son at  least,  if  not  actually.  Reduction,  therefore,  is  to  be  accomplished 
by  carrying  the  shoulder  back  to  its  former  position,  and  retention  by 
supplying  the  support  previously  given  by  the  clavicle.  These  indi- 
cations have  been  clearly  understood  since  the  time  of  the  earliest 
writers,  but  it  has  been  found  very  difficult  to  embody  them  in  practice, 
because  there  is  no  means  of  acting  in  the  desired  manner  upon  the 
shoulder  that  does  not  involve  an  amount  of  discomfort  that  patients 
will  not  ordinarily  submit  to.  Moreover,  in  some  cases  surgeons  have 
lost  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  position  of  the  arm  is  a  secondary  one, 
its  importance  being  due  solely  to  its  use  as  a  means  of  acting  upon 
the  outer  end  of  the  scapula,  and  that  it  is  useless  to  press  the  elbow 
upward  unless  the  scapula  is  left  free  to  be  raised  by  that  pressure.  It 
is  entirely  useless  to  bind  the  elbow  to  the  shoulder  on  the  same  side; 
such  dressings  do  not  raise  the  scapula. 

One  of  the  methods  of  reduction  employed  by  Hippocrates  resembles 
in  principle  very  closely  the  dressing  suggested  by  Velpeau  and  em- 
ployed with  much  success  by  him  and  others.  He  placed  the  hand  of 
the  affected  side  upon  the  opposite  shoulder  and  then  pressed  the  elbow 
forcibly  upward  and  outward.  As  the  arm  lies  thus  across  the  chest 
its  long  axis  is  exactly  in  the  direction  in  which  pressure  should  be 
made  to  overcome  the  usual  displacement.  Another  method  employed 
by  Hippocrates  was  to  place  the  patient  upon  his  back  with  a  small, 
hard  cushion  between  his  shoulders,  and  then  to  press  backward  upon 
the  acromion  or  the  head  of  the  humerus  while  the  elbow  was  pushed 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  CLAVICLE.  197 

up  by  an  assistant.  Paulus  iEgineta  made  extension  by  drawing  the 
arm  upward  and  outward,  and  counter-extension  by  the  neck  or  other 
arm,  and  he  also  recommended  the  axillary  pad  with  the  elbow  brought 
close  to  the  side.  Guy  de  Chauliac  placed  his  knee"  between  the 
patient's  shoulders  and  drew  them  backward.  These  methods  are  the 
types  of  all  that  have  since  been  used  or  that  are  now  in  use. 

Reduction,  in  short,  is  to  be  sought  by  carrying  the  shoulder  upward, 
outward,  and  backward,  actiog  either  directly  upon  it  or  indirectly 
through  the  elbow,  or  using  the  arm  as  a  lever.  Polaillon  recommends 
strongly  a  method  based  upon  the  latter  principle;  standing  behind  the 
patient  he  passes  his  hand  or  forearm  into  the  axilla,  and  draws  upward 
and  backward  with  it,  while  with  the  other  hand  he  presses  the  elbow 
against  the  side  and  thus  forces  the  shoulder  outward. 

In  some  cases  it  is  necessary  to  have  these  efforts  made  by  an  assist- 
ant in  order  that  the  surgeon  himself  may  be  at  liberty  to  make  such 
movements  of  coaptation  as  may  be  needed  to  overcome  the  obstacles 
offered  by  points  or  irregularities  upon  the  surface  when  the  line  of 
fracture  is  transverse  or  nearly  so.  In  transverse  fractures  with  only 
angular  displacement  upward  and  forward  it  is  sometimes  sufficient  to 
make  pressure  upon  the  angle. 

The  physical  obstacles  that  need  to  be  overcome  in  the  treatment  are 
so  great  and  the  success  that  has  attended  the  different  methods  has 
often  been  so  moderate  that  the  number  of  plans  that  have  been  pro- 
posed and  employed  is  very  great,  and  the  history  of  the  treatment 
shows  mainly  a  recurrence  of  periods  marked  at  first  by  elaboration 
and  multiplication  of  details  and  precautions  and  then  by  the  abandon- 
ment of  them  all  and  the  substitution  of  something  very  simple.  The 
results  obtained  by  the  simple  scarf  or  sling  are  often  as  good  as  those 
furnished  by  the  most  elaborate  bandaging,  and  the  discomfort  to  the 
patient  during  treatment  is  much  less. 

The  differences  in  the  methods  depend  in  great  part  upon  the  indi- 
cation which  each  surgeon  has  had  more  particularly  in  mind,  upon  the 
displacement  which  he  sought  to  prevent.  Thus,  in  some  the  special 
object  of  the  dressing  is  to  maintain  the  shoulder  elevated,  in  others  to 
hold  it  back,  and  in  others  again  to  draw  it  outward.  The  type  of  the 
first  class  is  a  band  passing  under  the  elbow  and  forearm  and  around  the 
neck,  the  forearm  lying  across  the  chest.  That  of  the  second  is  a  pos- 
terior transverse  splint  to  the  ends  of  which  the  shoulders  are  made 
fast,  or  an  anterior  transverse  splint  pressing  the  shoulder  back.  That 
of  the  third  is  the  axillary  pad  used  as  a  fulcrum  to  force  the  shoulder 
out  by  pressing  the  elbow  in. 

When  the  patient  is  sufficiently  desirous  to  avoid  any  visible  irreg- 
ularity in  the  outline  of  the  clavicle  to  bear  the  discomforts  of  a 
prolonged  rest  in  bed  without  change  of  position,  and  when  the  dis- 
placement can  be  reduced,  treatment  in  the  recumbent  position  holds 
out  the  best  prospect  of  recovery  without  deformity.  The  patient  should 
be  placed  upon  his  back  (or  rather  upon  her  back,  for  it  is  not  probable 
that  any  one  but  a  lady  whose  social  position  requires  her  neck  to  be 
left  at  times  uncovered  will  submit  to  this  confinement),  upon  a  firm 
mattress  with  the  neck  bent  so  as  to  relax  the  sterno-cleido-mastoid  upon 


198 


FRACTURES. 


the  injured  side,  and  the  elbow  fastened  to  the  side  or  chest  or  raised 
upon  a  cushion  so  that  the  weight  of  the  arm  may  tend  somewhat  to 
force  the  shoulder  upward  and  backward,  anatomically  speaking.  It 
has  been  recommended  also  that  a  firm  narrow  cushion  be  placed  along 
the  spine  between  the  shoulder-blades,  and  Robert  preferred  to  have  the 
patient  lie  not  entirely  flat  upon  the  back,  but  inclined  slightly  toward 
the  uninjured  side.  In  one  case  digital  pressure  was  made  upon  the 
fragments  throughout  the  treatment  to  insure  accurate  coaptation. 
Malgaigne  suggested  that  blunt  hooks  with  a  strap  fastening  them  to 
the  elbow  or  double  hooks  like  those  he  used  in  fracture  of  the  patella 
might  perhaps  be  substituted  for  the  fingers  of  the  assistant.  The 
position  must  be  kept  practically  unchanged  for  at  least  two,  and  prob- 
ably for  three,  weeks. 

Mayor's  scarp  or  sling  (Fig.  76)  is  made  of  a  square  of  muslin 
the  diagonal  of  which  is  long  enough  to  extend  easily  around  the  body. 


Fig.  76. 


Fig.  77. 


Fracture  of  the  clavicle, 
scarf. 


Mayor's 


Velpeau's  dressing  for  fracture 
of  the  clavicle. 


The  forearm  is  flexed  at  a  right  angle  and  laid  across  the  breast;  the 
cloth,  folded  diagonally,  is  laid  over  it  and  tied  around  the  body  so 
that  its  folded  border  runs  horizontally  around  an  inch  or  two  above 
the  forearm,  in  front  of  which  the  cloth  hangs  down.  The  free  point 
of  the  triangle  is  then  brought  up  between  the  forearm  and  the  body, 
and  the  two  folds  of  which  it  is  composed  are  secured,  one  on  either 
side  of  the  neck,  by  bands  attached  to  the  scarf  behind  and  brought 
forward  over  the  shoulder;  or  the  forearm  is  placed  between  the  folds 
of  the  triangle,  the  folded  diagonal  of  which  thus  forms  the  lowest  part 
of  the  dressing,  while  its  ends  are  tied  around  the  body  as  before.  The 
folds  that  form  the  third  point  are  tied  together  about  the  neck. 

This  method  is  suitable  for  fractures  without  much  displacement, 
especially  for  those  in  children  with  untorn  periosteum. 

Velpeau's  dressing  (Fig.  77)  is  more  secure.     It  is  made  with  a 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  CLAVICLE. 


199 


long  roller  bandage.  The  elbow  is  brought  well  in  front  of  the  chest 
and  the  hand  placed  on  the  opposite  shoulder,  and  the  limb  is  drawn 
snugly  up  toward  the  neck  by  successive  turns  of  the  roller  which, 
beginning  at  the  opposite  axilla,  pass  obliquely  across  the  back,  over 
the  shoulder,  in  front  of  the  arm,  under  the  elbow,  and  back  to  the 
axilla;  after  three  or  four  such  turns  have  been  placed  the  bandage  is 
carried  circularly  around  the  body  covering  in  the  arm  from  below 
upward.  The  turns  should  be  secured  by  stitching  or  by  soaking  in 
dextrine  or  plaster. 

Sayre's  Dressing  (Figs.  78  and  79).  A  very  convenient  and 
popular  dressing  is  the  one  introduced  by  Prof.  Say  re.  It  is  made  of 
two  strips  of  adhesive  plaster,  each  about  three  inches  wide  and  long 
enough  to  go  once  and  a  half  around  the  body;  one  end  of  the  first 


Fig.  78. 


Fig.  79. 


Sayre's  adhesive  plaster  dressing  for  iracture 
of  the  clavicle.    First  piece. 


The  same.    Second  piece. 


strap  is  stitched  closely  about  the  arm  just  below  the  axilla,  and  the 
other  carried  around  the  chest  from  behind  forward,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
78.  The  second  strap  is  then  carried  from  the  top  of  the  shoulder  on 
the  uninjured  side  across  the  back,  under  the  elbow,  and  along  the  fore- 
arm to  the  shoulder  again  (Fig.  79).  The  elbow  should  be  drawn  back 
while  the  first  strap  is  applied,  and  well  forward  while  the  second  is. 
It  is  a  convenience  to  the  patient  to  have  the  plaster  carried  past  the 
ulnar  side  of  the  hand  so  as  to  leave  the  latter  uncovered.  The  action 
of  the  dressing  is  simply  to  press  the  shoulder  upward  and  backward, 
and  its  principal  advantage  lies  in  the  solidity  which  the  use  of  the 
adhesive  plaster  gives;  sometimes  a  turn  of  a  roller  bandage  is  placed 
under  the  })laster  to  prevent  irritation  or  excoriation. 

The  AXiLiiARY  PAD,  designed  especially  to  prevent  shortening  by 


200 


FRACTURES. 


forcing  the  shoulder  outward,  has  been  in  use  for  many  centuries,  and 
reached  its  highest  development  at  the  hands  of  Desault,  of  whose 
complicated  dressing  it  forms  the  essential  part.  I  believe  that  when- 
ever it  is  large  and  firm  enough  to  accomplish  its  object  it  is  dangerous, 
and  whenever  small  enough  to  be  free  from  danger  it  is  useless. 

The  dressings  which  are  intended  mainly  to  draw  the  shoulder  back- 
ward are  modifications  of  the  figure-of-eight  bandage  and  the  posterior 
and  anterior  splints.  The  simple  figure-of-eight  carried  across  the  back 
from  one  shoulder  to  the  other,  either  in  muslin  or  plaster-of- Paris,  I 
have  found  to  interfere  too  much  with  the  circulation  in  the  arms  if  effi- 
ciently applied.  In  two  cases  of  marked  displacement  which  could  be 
reduced  by  drawing  the  shoulders  back,  but  which  recurred  under  the 
usual  dressings,  I  obtained  a  satisfactory  result  by  the  use  of  a  breast- 
plate made  of  crinoline  soaked  in  plaster  cream  and  covering  the  front 
of  the  chest  and  shoulders.  The  shoulders  were  held  back  and  reduc- 
tion maintained  until  the  plaster  had  set,  and  then  the  position  was 
maintained  by  a  figure-of-eight  bandage.  The  heavy  ends  of  the 
breast-plate  in  front  of  the  shoulder  prevented  compression  of  the 
axillary  vessels  by  the  bandage,  and  the  dressing  was  worn  with  com- 
fort for  three  or  four  weeks. 


Fig.  80. 


Fig.  81. 


Moore's  dressing  for  fractured  clavicle. 


Moore's  dressing  for  fractured  clavicle. 


A  modification  of  the  figure-of-eight  suggested  by  Recamier  amounts 
almost  to  a  posterior  splint.  He  placed  a  large,  hard  square  cushion 
between  the  shoulders  behind  and  carried  a  bandage  from  each  upper 
corner  over  the  shoulder  and  under  the  axilla  back  to  the  lower  corner. 
Moore,  of  Rochester,  applied  the  bandage  so  as  to  include  the  elbow  as 
well  as  the  shoulder  of  the  affected  side,  seeking  to  make  the  fibres  of 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  CLAVICLE.  201 

the  pectoralis  major  tense  by  drawing  the  elbow  backward.  The  ban- 
dage in  his  dressing  (Figs,  80  and  81)  should  be  about  two  yards  long, 
its  centre  is  placed  under  the  olecranon,  the  forearm  being  flexed  at  a 
right  angle,  the  end  that  is  next  the  body  is  carried  up  between  the  arm 
and  the  side,  in  front  of  and  over  the  shoulder,  across  the  back  and 
under  the  opposite  axilla;  the  other  end  is  carried  around  the  outer 
side  and  front  of  the  elbow,  then  between  it  and  the  side  to  the  back, 
and  across  the  back  to  the  opposite  shoulder,  where  it  is  made  fast  to 
the  first  end.   The  elbow  must  be  drawn  backward  and  pressed  upward. 

Posterior  splints  have  been  made  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  against 
the  arms  of  which  the  shoulders  were  drawn  back,  and  as  iron,  wooden, 
and  pasteboard  splints  crossing  the  back  and  extending  usually  beyond 
the  shoulders,  so  that  the  traction  of  the  bandages  by  which  the  shoul- 
ders were  made  fast  should  be  exerted  in  an  outward  direction  as  well 
as  backward. 

A  fixed  support  shaped  like  the  upper  end  of  a  crutch  and  fastened 
to  the  side  of  the  chest  by  adhesive  plaster  has  been  occasionally  sug- 
gested and  even  used.  Like  the  axillary  pad  it  is  probably  intol- 
erable or  dangerous  if  applied  efficiently. 

It  is  apparent  that  while  many  different  dressings  may  giv^e  good 
results  in  certain  cases,  none  can  be  depended  upon  to  do  so  in  all,  and 
that  the  displacement,  the  shortening,  which  is  the  rule  in  the  adult,  is 
the  result  in  some  cases  of  forces  which  cannot  be  effectually  controlled, 
of  the  obliquity  of  the  fracture,  and  not  infrequently  of  the  indocility 
of  the  patient,  who,  finding  himself  incommoded  by  the  dressing,  shifts 
it  slightly,  but  often,  until  he  obtains  ease  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  object 
it  was  applied  to  secure. 

If  the  fracture  is  without  displacement,  especially  the  subperiosteal 
fracture  of  children,  or  if  the  displacement  shows  but  little  tendency 
to  recur  after  reduction,  the  simple  scarf  or  sling  or  Sayre's  dressing 
will  answer  every  purpose. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tendency  to  displacement  is  great,  the 
choice  of  a  method  of  treatment  will  depend  largely  upon  the  character 
and  wishes  of  the  patient.  If  he  is  indifferent  to  the  deformity  or 
intolerant  of  restraint,  it  is  useless  to  attempt  more  than  a  simple 
dressing;  but  if  he  is  willing  to  submit  to  the  confinement,  the  fracture 
may  be  treated  by  dorsal  decubitus  and  digital  pressure  with  a  fair 
prospect  of  success,  or  by  the  plaster-of-Paris  breast-plate  and  figure- 
of-eight  bandage. 

In  simultaneous  fracture  of  the  two  clavicles,  the  dorsal  position  is 
strongly  to  be  recommended. 

It  is  well  to  place  in  the  axilla  a  pad  of  cotton  wrapped  in  a  com- 
press to  absorb  the  moisture  and  keep  the  opposing  surfaces  from  con- 
tact with  each  other;  and  for  the  same  reason  a  compress  should  be 
placed  between  the  arm  and  the  body,  wherever  the  two  would  other- 
wise be  in  contact. 

The  dressing  should  be  worn  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days  by 
children,  and  twenty  to  thirty  days  by  adults. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SCAPULA. 


Fractuees  of  the  scapula  clinically  recognized  are  comparatively 
rare,  about  1  per  cent,  of  all  fractures  according  to  the  best  statistics  at 
our  command,  but  Lane's^  observations  in  the  dissecting-room  indicate 
that  fractures  of  the  acromion  are  very  common  and  must,  therefore, 
usually  pass  unrecognized.     They  are  six  times  as  common  in  men  as 

in  women,  and  in  the  great 
^"^- ^^-  /,.  majority  of  cases  the  patients 

have  been  between  twenty  and 
fifty  years  of  age. 

The  size  and  shape  of  the 
bone,  and  the  presence  of  three 
irregular  and  prominent  apo- 
physes permit  a  diversity  of 
fractures  differing  so  greatly 
in  their  mode  of  production 
and  symptoms  that  it  becomes 
necessary  to  consider  them 
separately.  Most  writers  in 
the  last  hundred  years  have 
made  from  six  to  eight  groups 
as  follows  :  1st,  fractures  of 
the  body;  2d,  fractures  of  the 
inferior  angle;  3d,  fractures  of 
the  upper  angle  and  supra- 
spinous fossa;  4th,  fractures 
of  the  spine;  5th,  fractures  of 
the  acromion;  6th,  fractures 
of  the  coracoid  process;  7th, 
fractures  through  the  surgical 
neck;  8th,  fractures  of  the 
glenoid  cavity.  Of  these  va- 
rieties the  1st,  4th,  and  5th  are  by  far  the  most  common;  the  others 
are  extremely  rare. 


Transverse  fracture  of  the  scapula 
clavicle  ;  union. 


Fracture  of  the 


1.  Fractures  of  the  Body  of  the  Scapula. 

Fractures  of  the  body  of  the  scapula  are  single  or  multiple.  The 
former  are  confined  to  the  subspinous  fossa,  and  the  direction  of  the 
line  of  fracture  is  transverse  or  oblique.  The  fragments  may  preserve 
their  normal  relations  to  each  other  or  there  may  be  displacement,  the 


1  Lane  :  Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  1886,  vol.  xliii.  p.  418. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SCAPULA. 


203 


Fig.  83. 


lower  fragment  shifting  to  either  side  of  the  upper  one  and  overriding 
for  a  greater  or  less  distance.  Tiiis  overriding  is  most  marked  on  the 
axillary  side  and  is  due  apparently  to  contraction  of  the  teres  major 
and  serratus,  while  the  lateral  displacement  is  the  result  of  the  continued 
action  of  the  fracturing  force.  In  some  cases  the  fragments  have 
united  after  transverse  or  oblique  fracture  in  such  a  position  that  they 
touch  or  override  at  one  side  and 
are  separated  at  the  other. 

In  multiple  fractures  the  lesion 
is  extremely  variable,  the  fracture 
may  be  ^'  starred,"  or  comminuted, 
some  of  the  lines  may  be  incom- 
plete, and  the  main  one  may  be  longi- 
tudinal; the  only  condition,  appar- 
ently, under  which  longitudinal 
fracture  is  met  with  (Fig.  83). 

The  fracture  may  be  partial,  in 
the  form  of  a  fissure  running  from 
one  border,  or  circumscribed,  a  cen- 
tral piece  being  broken  out. 

The  cause  of  the  fracture  has 
almost  always  been  direct  violence, 
usually  a  blow  or  a  fall  upon  some 
angular  object,  but  in  three  reported 
cases  it  appears  to  have  been  caused 
by  muscular  action,  as  in  similar 
fractures  of  the  inferior  angle  (q.  v.), 
the  line  of  fracture  being  somewhat 

higher  than  in  the  latter.     The  cases  are  those  of  Dobson,^  Leidy,^ 
and  Hoover.^ 

The  objective  symptoms  which  may  be  met  with  are  irregularity  in 
outline,  abnormal  mobility,  crepitus,  and  ecchymosis.  The  posterior 
border  and  inferior  angle  of  the  bone  can  be  made  prominent  by  carry- 
ing the  elbow  forward  and  inward,  and  then  if  the  finger  is  passed 
along  it  a  transverse  or  oblique  fracture  with  displacement  will  be  cer- 
tainly recognized.  Abnormal  mobility  and  crepitus  can  be  recognized 
by  grasping  the  inferior  angle  and  moving  it  while  the  upper  portion 
is  steadied  by  the  other  hand.  In  multiple  or  partial  fractures  with 
depression  the  adjoining  edge  of  bone  may  be  felt  if  the  patient  is  not 
too  fat  or  muscular.  The  precaution  should  always  be  taken  to  make 
a  comparison  with  the  other  scapula,  and  the  normal  ridges  along  the 
borders  and  at  the  base  of  the  spine  should  be  borne  in  mind.  Ecchy- 
mosis, unless  due  to  the  action  of  the  violence  upon  the  soft  parts, 
seldom  appears  until  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  days. 

Localized  pain  on  pressure  and  on  movement  of  the  arm  is  a  con- 
stant symptom,  and  may  make  it  impossible  for  the  patient  to  ex- 
tend his  arm  horizontally  and  directly  forward  because  it  is  so  much 


Multiple  (longitudinal)  fracture  of  the 
scapula. 


1  Bobson  :  Lancet,  November  27,  1886. 

2  Leidy :  University  Medical  Magazine,  March,  1891. 

3  Hoover :  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter,  1893,  p.  848. 


204  FRACTURES. 

increased  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  concerned  in  this  move- 
ment. 

The  course  in  the  simpler  cases  ends  in  recovery  in  four  or  five  weeks^ 
usually  with  preservation  of  function  even  if  union  has  taken  place 
with  some  unreduced  displacement.  Multiple  fractures  are  more  dan- 
gerous because  of  the  greater  probability  of  suppuration  at  or  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  fracture,  and  of  course  if  the  fracture  is  a  com- 
pound one  the  danger  is  still  greater.  In  a  very  few  instances  there 
has  been  much  disability  due  to  failure  of  union  or  to  union  with  dis- 
placement and  exuberant  callus.  Gurlt  quotes  an  example  of  the 
former  in  which  the  patient  was  unable  to  raise  his  hand  to  the  back 
of  his  neck,  and  one  of  the  latter  in  which  the  disability  was  almost 
complete  and  all  communicated  movements  of  the  arm  and  shoulder 
painful. 

Treatment.  In  simple  fracture  without  displacement  no  other  treat- 
ment is  needed  than  immobilization  of  the  arm  and  shoulder  during 
the  length  of  time  necessary  for  consolidation.  If  displacement  exist 
it  must  be  corrected,  if  possible,  by  placing  the  arm  and  shoulder  in 
various  positions  and  pressing  upon  the  fragments  with  the  hands 
in  the  directions  indicated,  by  the  displacement.  When  the  latter  is 
reduced  as  far  as  possible  the  arm  and  shoulder  must  be  immobilized 
by  binding  the  arm  to  the  side  or  merely  supporting  it  in  a  sling,  and 
a  broad  strip  of  adhesive  plaster  may  be  laid  across  the  scapula  to  aid 
its  immobilization. 

In  comminuted  fractures  the  principal  indication  is  to  prevent  the 
severe  inflammatory  reaction  which  is  so  likely  to  follow  the  bruising 
and  laceration  produced  at  the  same  time  by  the  extreme  violence  that 
has  caused  the  fracture.  If  the  fracture  is  compound  it  must  be 
explored  through  the  wound  and  treated  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciples elsewhere  laid  down,  and  it  is  prudent  in  such  cases  to  remove 
partly  adherent  fragments  Mdiich  could  be  safely  left  after  fracture  of 
other  bones,  whenever  by  such  removal  a  free  outlet  that  would  other- 
wise be  lacking  is  supplied  to  matter  that  may  accumulate  on  the  under 
(costal)  surface  of  the  bone.  The  experience  furnished  by  fracture  of 
other  flat  bones,  the  skull  and  sternum,  shows  the  probability  of  sup- 
puration on  the  under  side,  and  in  a  few  cases  of  fracture  of  the  scapula 
pus  has  formed  in  this  manner  and  caused  much  trouble  by  burrowing 
down  the  side. 

2.  Fractures  of  the  Inferior  Angle. 

These  are  included  by  some  witers  in  the  group  of  fractures  of  the 
body  of  the  scapula,  from  which  they  differ  merely  by  the  proximity 
of  the  line  of  fracture  to  the  lowest  part  of  the  bone,  but  as  they  pre- 
sent a  more  constant  and  well-defined  displacement  which  cannot  be 
readily  overcome  or  prevented  they  deserve  separate  mention.  The 
recorded  instances  of  separate  fracture  are  not  very  numerous.  Gen- 
soul  reported  one  produced  by  muscular  action;  the  patient  saved  him- 
self from  falling  to  the  ground  while  descending  a  sharp  incline,  either 
by  catching  hold  of  some  support  or  by  falling  backward  upon  his 
outstretched  hand;  the  abstracts  of  the  report  are  not  very  clear  upon 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SCAPULA.  205 

this  point.  A  triangular  piece  corresponding  to  the  inferior  angle  was 
detached  from  the  scapula  and  displaced  forward  and  upward,  and  could 
be  moved  independently  and  with  crepitus.  Gensoul  attributed  the 
fracture  to  the  sharp  contraction  of  the  teres  major.  Guinard^  reports 
a  second  case  and  quotes  a  third, ^  the  only  one  he  could  find.  He 
adds  a  detailed  study  of  fractures  of  the  body  and  inferior  angle  by 
muscular  action  and  quotes  the  reports  of  all  the  known  cases.  The 
histories  of  these  cases  and  of  those  of  fracture  of  the  body  suggest  the 
possibility,  even  the  probability,  that  muscular  contraction  was  the 
cause  in  many  others  in  which  the  history  of  a  fall  upon  the  back  led 
to  the  easy  assumption  of  fracture  by  direct  violence. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  clear  and  unmistakable:  displace- 
ment of  the  fragment  forward  and  upward  by  the  combined  action  of 
the  serratus  magnus  and  teres  major;  abnormal  mobility  recognized  by 
grasping  the  fragment  with  one  hand  and  moving  it,  or  by  fixing  it 
with  one  hand  and  moving  the  scapula  with  the  other;  and  crepitus. 
In  one  case^  the  displacement  was  said  to  have  been  downward. 

The  displacement  is  difficult  to  maintain  reduced,  because  the  small- 
ness  of  the  fragment  prevents  efficient  control  of  it,  and  the  tonicity  of 
the  muscles  tends  constantly  to  draw  it  away;  but  while  this  ensures 
some  deformity  it  is  slight  and  does  not  add  seriousness  to  the  prognosis. 

3.  Fractures  of  the  Upper  Angle. 

These  are  very  rare.  Gurlt  gives  a  figure  of  a  specimen  preserved 
in  Dresden,  and  Hamilton  of  one  in  Philadelphia.  In  the  latter  a 
iissure  extends  well  into  the  subspinous  fossa.  In  both  repair  has 
taken  place  without  much  displacement.  Gurlt  records  two  cases 
observed  during  life;  in  each  the  injury  was  the  result  of  a  fall  upon 
the  back;  in  one  there  was  no  displacement,  in  the  other  the  fragment 
was  drawn  upward  and  inward  by  the  levator  anguli  scapulae.  Texier* 
reports  a  case;  the  cause  was  direct  violence;  prompt  recovery. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  to  immobilize  the  arm  and  shoulder  in 
the  position  that  is  most  comfortable,  securing  the  scapula  with  a  body 
bandage  or  strips  of  adhesive  plaster,  and  the  arm  by  binding  it  to  the 
body  with  the  forearm  flexed  across  the  chest. 

4.  Fractures  of  the  Spine  of  the  Scapula. 

There  are  no  known  specimens  of  isolated  fracture  of  the  spine  of 
the  scapula,  and  our  only  knowledge  of  them  is  clinical.  In  the  few 
I  have  seen  the  diagnosis  was  readily  made  by  recognition  of  the 
abnormal  mobility,  with  crepitus,  of  the  fragment,  and  sometimes  of  an 
irregularity  in  the  outline  of  the  spine. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  as  before;  immobilization  of  the  arm 
in  a  suitable  position,  and  local  antiphlogistic  remedies  if  required. 

1  Guinard  :  Archives  g6n6rales  de  M6d.,  April,  1896. 

2  Sabatier  :  Union  Medicale,  1857,  p.  397. 

3  Denuc6  :  Journ.  de  M6d.  de  Bordeaux,  1892,  vol.  i.  571. 
*  Texier  :  Journ.  de  M6d.  de  Bordeaux,  April  5, 1896. 


206  FRACTURES. 

5.  Fracture  of  the  Acromion. 

The  alleged  frequency  of  this  fracture  has  been  called  in  question  by 
those  who  consider  most  of  the  museum  specimens  examples  either  of 
a  traumatic  separation  of  the  epiphysis  or  of  non-ossification.  The 
former  would  still  belong  under  the  head  of  fractures,  and,  even  if  we 
exclude  the  others,  there  are  still  clinical  instances  in  sufficient  number 
to  make  the  lesion  one  of  the  most  common. 

The  acromion  is  exposed  to  fracture  by  blows  received  directly  upon 
it,  and  also  through  the  humerus,  as  in  a  fall  upon  the  elbow,  and  occa- 
sionally by  muscular  action.  The  line  of  fracture  is  usually  perpen- 
dicular to  the  axis  of  the  apophysis,  but  is  sometimes  oblique.  It  lies 
most  frequently  either  in  front  of  the  acromio-clavicular  joint  or  at 
the  root  of  the  acromion,  rarely  at  an  intermediate  point. 

The  symptoms  are  those  of  fracture,  and  of  the  contusion  if  the 
agency  has  been  direct  violence;  and  as  the  latter  are  prominent  and 
may  obscure  the  former,  a  fracture  may  be  mistaken  for  a  simple  con- 
tusion. The  signs  common  to  both  are  ecchymosis,  local  or  extending 
down  the  arm,  swelling,  and  pain.  The  additional  signs  of  fracture 
are  increase  of  the  local  pain  on  pressure  and  on  moving  the  arm,, 
usually  complete  inability  to  abduct  the  arm,  displacement,  abnormal 
mobility,  and  crepitus. 

The  displacement  varies  with  the  position  and  extent  of  the  fracture. 
If  the  latter  involves  only  the  outer  end  of  the  apophysis,  the  displace- 
ment is  slight  and  downward  by  the  contraction  of  the  attached  fibres 
of  the  deltoid,  the  shoulder  loses  a  little  of  its  roundness  in  consequence, 
but  the  head  of  the  humerus  retains  its  place.  If  the  fracture  is  near 
the  base  of  the  apophysis,  the  weight  of  the  arm  tends  to  draw  the 
fragment  downward  and  inward,  turning  it  upon  the  outer  end  of  the 
clavicle  as  a  centre,  and  the  shoulder  is  flattened.  The  finger  passed 
along  the  spine  recognizes  an  irregularity  in  the  outline,  usually  a 
depression  of  the  outer  fragment,  but  sometimes  an  elevation  or  a 
transverse  groove  or  gap  in  which  the  end  of  the  finger  can  rest. 

Crepitus  can  often  be  got  by  lifting  the  elbow  directly  upward,  so 
as  to  push  up  the  acromion,  or  by  abducting  the  arm;  and  abnormal 
mobility  must  be  sought  by  varied  manipulations  of  the  apophysis  and 
by  moving  the  arm. 

The  commonest  functional  disturbance  is  the  inability  to  raise  the 
arm,  although  this  is  not  a  constant  symptom,  while  the  power  of  rota- 
tion is  preserved  unaltered,  even  if  somewhat  painful. 

Bony  union  appears  to  be  the  exception,  the  fragments  uniting  by  a 
fibrous  bond  of  greater  or  less  length  and  solidity;  the  rupture  or  the 
preservation  of  the  periosteum  must  be  of  almost  controlling  impor- 
tance in  determining  the  character  of  the  union.  Apparently,  bony 
union  takes  place  only  when  the  fragments  remain  in  close  contact. 
In  one  case  the  distal  fragment  became  necrosed  and  was  cast  out, 
apparently  in  consequence  of  the  excessive  inflammation  of  the  over- 
lying soft  parts. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  consists  in  reduction  of  the  displacement 
by  pressing  the  head  of  the  humerus  upward  against  the  acromion,  and 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SCAPULA.  207 

in  securing  it  in  this  position  by  a  bandage  passing  about  the  body  and 
the  shoulder.      The  dressing  should  be  worn  for  about  three  weeks. 

6.  Fracture  of  the  Coracoid  Process. 

This  may  be  caused  by  muscular  action  or  by  direct  or  indirect  vio- 
lence; in  the  former  the  causative  effort  is  sometimes  comparatively 
slight — wringing  wet  clothes  in  one  case — but  more  often  is  a  powerful 
effort  made  with  the  arm.  In  fractures  by  direct  violence  other  bones 
— ribs,  arm,  clavicle — are  usually  coincidently  broken;  those  by  indi- 
rect violence  appear,  according  to  the  observations  of  Lane,^  to  be  most 
commonly  produced  by  pressure  of  the  tip  of  the  process  against  the 
clavicle  in  forced  flexion  of  the  shoulder;  other  instances  are  those  in 
which  the  fracture  is  produced  by  the  impact  of  the  dislocated  head 
of  the  humerus. 

The  line  of  fracture  is  usually  about  an  inch  behind  the  beak  of  the 
process,  but  sometimes  is  further  back,  passing  close  to  the  upper  edge 
of  the  glenoid  cavity  in  a  line  that  corresponds  so  nearly  to  the  position 
of  the  epiphyseal  cartilage  that  some 
observers  consider  some  specimens  to  fig.  84. 

be  examples  of  separation  of  the  epi- 
physis, or  even  simply  of  delay  in 
ossification.  Normally  this  conjugal 
cartilage  ossifies  at  about  the  fourteenth 
year.  Bennett^  published  a  case  of 
separation  of  the  epiphysis,  verified  by 
autopsy,  in  a  child  six  years  old.  In 
one  of  Malgaigne's  and  in  two  of 
Gurlt's  cases,  the  end  of  the  process 
was  also  split  longitudinally  into  two 

pieces,    one   remaining    attached    to   the  Fracture  of  the  coracoid  process. 

tendon  of  the  biceps,  the  other  to  that 

of  the  pectoralis  minor.  The  displacement  is  seldom  great,  because 
the  fragment  is  prevented  from  yielding  to  the  action  of  the  attached 
muscles  by  the  coraco-clavicular  ligament;  still,  in  one  of  the  last- 
mentioned  cases  the  fragments  were  displaced  more  than  half  an  inch 
downward. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  abnormal  mobility  and  crepitus,  but 
are  not  easily  recognized,  especially  if  the  soft  parts  be  much  bruised 
and  swollen;  the  depth  at  which  the  process  is  placed,  and  the  thick- 
ness of  the  overlying  muscles,  make  it  difficult  to  grasp  the  process 
between  the  fingers  or  to  appreciate  its  independent  mobility.  I  have 
also  noticed  localized  pain  on  forcible  voluntary  adduction  and  flexion 
of  the  arm. 

The  fracture  in  itself  involves  no  danger  to  life,  and  no  probable 
disability,  although  the  union  is  seldom  bony.  Of  six  specimens  exam- 
ined by  Gurlt  bony  union  was  found  in  only  one;  in  four  cases  men- 
tioned  by  him  of   which   our   knowledge  is   only  clinical,   mobility 

1  Lane  :  British  Medical  Journal,  May  19,  1888. 

2  Bennett :  Dublin  Journ.  Med.  Sciences,  August,  1888. 


208 


FRACTURES. 


persisted  in  two.  This  failure  of  union  does  not  seem  to  cause  any 
loss  of  function.  In  Hulme's  case  the  union  was  firm  but  the  frag- 
ment somewhat  displaced  downward. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  must  be  directed  to  immobilizing  the  arm 
in  a  position  which  will  relax,  as  well  as  may  be,  the  muscles  attached 
to  the  process.  Theoretically,  the  best  position  is  that  in  which  the 
forearm  is  flexed  and  the  elbow  carried  across  the  front  of  the  chest, 
but  this  cannot  be  carried  out  thoroughly  without  causing  more  dis- 
comfort than  the  benefit  to  be  obtained  by  it  will  warrant;  and  it  is 
best,  therefore,  simply  to  fix  the  arm  against  the  side  with  the  forearm 
comfortably  flexed. 


Fig.  85. 


7.  Fractures  of  the  Neck  of  the  Scapula. 

Under  this  term,  following  Gurlt,  I  include  not  only  fractures  which 
pass  from  the  suprascapular  notch  to  the  axillary  border  of  the  scapula 
in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  glenoid  cavity  but  also  those 
which  begin  in  front  of  the  base  of  the  coracoid  process  (sometimes 
even  within  the  articular  border)  and  pass  obliquely  downward  and 
backward  to  the  axillary  border.  There  is  no  known  example  of  frac- 
ture running  close  behind  and  parallel  to  the  glenoid  fossa  along  what 
is  sometimes  termed  the  anatomical  neck. 

The  small  anterior  fragment  always  carries  with  it  the  attachment  of 
the  triceps  and  usually  the  entire  coracoid  process;  but  the  ligaments 

which  bind  the  coracoid  process  to  the 
clavicle  and  acromion  remain  untorn,  as 
does  also  a  ligament  extending  from  the 
under  surface  of  the  spine  of  the  scapula 
to  the  edge  of  the  glenoid  cavity,  and  they 
limit  the  displacement. 

The  cases  in  which  this  fracture  has 
been  verified  by  dissection  are  six  in 
number :  the  cases  of  Duverney,  Neill, 
and  Spence,  a  specimen  in  the  museum 
of  Guy's  Hospital  and  another  in  that 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  at 
London,  and  one  found  by  Lane.^  Gurlt 
describes  the  first  three,  and  Flower^ 
mentions  the  next  two.  The  exact  char- 
acter of  Neill's^  case  is  uncertain;  in 
Spence's*  (Fig.  85)  the  fracture  passed  in  front  of  the  coracoid  pro- 
cess; in  the  others  it  appears  to  have  passed  through  the  suprascapular 
notch. 

Cause.  The  cause  has  been  a  fall  or  blow  upon  the  shoulder;  May^ 
reported  a  case  caused  in  a  girl  by  the  effort  of  placing  a  handkerchief 
about  her  neck,  but  it  seems  more  probable  from  the  description  that 
the  injury  was   a  fracture  of  the  coracoid. 

1  Lane  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  415. 

2  Flower  :  Holmes's  System  of  Surgery,  Am.  ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  851. 

3  Neill :  American  Journ  Med.  Sciences,  new  ser.,  1858,  vol.  xxxvi.  p.  105. 
*  Spence  :  Edinburgh  Medical  Journal,  June,  1863,  p.  1082. 

^  May  :  London  Medical  Gazette,  1842-43,  p.  49. 


Fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  scapula. 
Spence's  case.    (Guelt.) 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SCAPULA.  '    209 

Farabeuf  found  that  if  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule  was  made 
tense  by  outward  rotation  of  the  arm  the  neck  could  be  broken  bv  a 
blow  on  the  back  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  or  by  one  upon  the 
elbow  if  the  arm  was  also  directed  backward. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  of  the  fracture  are  the  flattening  of  the 
shoulder,  the  prominence  of  the  acromion,  the  absence  of  the  head  of 
the  humerus  from  tiie  axilla  (where  it  would  be  found  if  the  iujury 
were  a  dislocation),  tiie  easy  reduction  of  the  disi)lacement  by  raising 
the  elbow,  its  immediate  return  when  the  support  is  withdrawn  from 
the  elbow,  and  the  crepitus  which  accompanies  these  movements.  In 
two  of  Giirlt's  cases  the  fragment  could  be  felt  in  the  axilla.  The 
power  of  voluntary  motion  of  the  arm  is  lost,  but  passive  move- 
ments are  free,  and,  within  certain  limits,  painless.  On  the  other 
hand,  manipulations  which  reduce  the  displacement  or  bring  out  crepi- 
tus cause  much  pain.  Sometimes  the  lower  edge  of  the  fragment  can 
be  felt  in  the  posterior  and  outer  part  of  the  axilla  as  a  hard  movable 
body  which  can  be  pushed  upward,  with  pain  and  crepitus,  but  falls 
back  as  soon  as  the  pressure  is  removed.  In  a  case  reported  by  Ash- 
hurst,'  crepitus  was  obtained  by  grasping  the  parts  between  the  fingers 
on  the  shoulder  and  the  thumb  deep  in  the  axilla  and  rotating  the  arm. 
There  was  very  slight  displacement.  In  a  personal  case  a  point  of 
pain  on  pressure  could  be  found  by  passing  the  finger  high  up  along 
the  axillary  border  of  the  scapula. 

The  most  characteristic  symptom  is  the  easy  reduction  and  the  imme- 
diate return  of  the  displacement,  and  it  is  this  which  distinguishes  it 
most  sharply  from  dislocation  of  the  humerus,  the  prominent  symp- 
toms of  which  are  so  similar. 

Prognosis.  According  to  Gurlt,  bony  union  is  the  rule,  fibrous  union 
the  exception,  but  in  both  cases  with  slight  displacement  of  the 
fragment  forward  and  downward.  His  collection  contains  only  two 
cases  of  fibrous  union;  in  one  the  patient  had  fair  use  of  the  arm,  in 
the  other  the  limb  was  entirely  useless.  In  the  cases  where  bony 
union  was  secured,  repair  was  complete  in  from  four  to  seven  weeks  ; 
in  some  there  was  slight  diminution  of  the  usefulness  of  the  limb^ 
but  in  the  majority  its  use  was  fully  regained. 

Treatment.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  parts  can  be  supported  by  any  dress- 
ing so  perfectly  that  union  without  any  displacement  can  be  secured. 
The  indications  of  treatment  are  to  oppose  the  constant  displacement 
downward  and  forward  or  inward  by  supporting  the  elbow;  probably 
the  dressing  which  I  have  found  so  efficient  in  dislocation  of  the  acro- 
mial end  of  the  clavicle  (q.  v.)  would  answer  the  purpose  if  the  ends 
of  the  plaster  strip  were  carried  further  inward  on  the  shoulder. 

8.  Fracture  of  the  G-lenoid  Cavity. 

In  almost  all  the  instances  that  are  on  record  this  fracture  has  been 
discovered  post  mortem  or  during  operation  after  dislocation  of  the 
shoulder.      It  is  thought  to  be  not  uncommon,  but  as  the  diagnosis 

1  Ashhurst :  Trans.  Coll.  of  Physicians,  Phila.,  1875,  3d  ser.,  vol.  i.  p.  69. 

14 


210  '  FRACTURES. 

is  very  difficult  its  frequency  cannot  be  determined.  Usually  the 
fracture  is  of  the  inner  border  of  the  articular  surface,  but  sometirues 
the  outer  or  lower  border  has  been  broken  off;  and  Flower  says  that 
fractures  have  been  found  running  across  the  glenoid  fossa  and  even 
splitting  it  into  several  portions.  Poland'  showed  a  specimen  of  stellate 
fracture  of  the  fossa  with  three  lines  radiating  thence  to  the  body; 
there  was  also  fracture  of  the  acromion,  but  no  dislocation.  Agnew 
gives  a  similar  figure,  but  does  not  state  the  source  from  which  it  was 
derived. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  cannot  be  described  because  no  case 
appears  to  have  been  recognized  during  life;  and  it  seems  unlikely 
that  a  diagnosis  could  be  made  with  any  positiveness.  The  fragment 
is  small  and  not  accessible  to  direct  manipulation,  so  that  the  only 
symptoms  would  be  those  of  a  dislocation  together  with  crepitus  on 
reduction,  and  perhaps  a  ready  recurrence  of  the  dislocation — signs 
that  may  be  present  under  a  variety  of  circumstances. 

Treatment.  Treatment  must  be  limited  to  reduction  and  immobili- 
zation, and  the  latter  should  be  more  complete  and  better  guarded  than 
after  a  simple  dislocation,  because  of  the  greater  ease  with  which  the 
head  of  the  humerus  can  escape  from  the  glenoid  cavity  when  the  rim 
of  the  latter  is  broken. 

1  Poland  :  British  Medical  Journal,  January  23, 1892. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

FEACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 

The  tables  in  Chapter  I.  show  that,  while  fractures  of  the  upper 
extremity  (including  the  clavicle)  constitute  more  than  half  of  all 
fractures,  those  of  the  humerus  are  less  than  4  per  cent,  of  all,  and 
this  bone  is  less  frequently  broken  than  either  the  clavicle,  radius,  or 
ulna.  Ditferent  tables  of  statistics  show  great  variations  in  the  rela- 
tive frequency  of  the  fractures  of  the  different  portions  of  the  bone, 
some  giving  the  greatest  number  to  the  shaft,  others  to  the  lower  end, 
but  all  agree  in  giving  the  greatest  frequency  to  the  first  twenty  years 
of  life. 

The  different  varieties  of  fracture  may  be  most  conveniently  studied 
by  arranging  them  in  three  groups  :  fractures  of  the  upper  end,  frac- 
tures of  the  shaft,  and  fractures  of  the  lower  end,  although  the  first 
and  third  groups  severally  contain  varieties  which  differ  materially 
from  one  another. 

For  a  remarkable  case  of  longitudinal  fracture  extending  the  entire 
length  of  the  bone  which  cannot  be  placed  in  any  one  of  these  groups, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  page  27. 

1.   FRACTURES  OF  THE  UPPER  END  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 

The  fractures  of  this  region  include  fissures  and  chippings  of  the 
articular  head,  fractures  of  the  tuberosities,  of  the  anatomical  neck,  and 
along  the  epiphyseal  line,  and  a  group  comprising  the  great  majority 
of  fractures  in  this  region  in  which  the  line  of  fracture  crosses  the  bone 
in  a  variety  of  ways  between  the  anatomical  neck  and  the  lower  bor- 
der of  the  surgical  neck,  which  is  commonly  drawn  at  the  insertions 
of  the  teres  major  and  pectoralis,  and  which  includes  fractures  pro- 
duced by  compression,  so-called,  cross-strain,  and  torsion.  Above, 
this  group  unites  with  or  closely  approaches  fractures  of  the  anatomical 
neck,  and  below  with  oblique  and  comminuted  fractures  of  the  adjoin- 
ing portions  of  the  shaft.  Its  upper  limit  may  be  placed  at  those  frac- 
tures which  pass  along  or  very  close  to  the  lower  (inner  and  posterior) 
portion  of  the  anatomical  neck  and  then  reach  the  outer  side  through 
the  greater  tuberosity;  the  lower  limit  may,  for  clinical  reasons,  be 
conveniently  placed  low  enough  to  include  even  quite  oblique  fractures 
in  which  one  end  of  the  line  rises  to  the  surgical  neck.  Between  those 
at  the  upper  limit  and  fractures  of  the  anatomical  neck  are  some  in 
which  the  line  is  doubled  on  the  outer  side — a  fracture  of  the  anatomical 
neck  with  a  second  line  passing  through  the  tuberosities  from  about  the 
middle  of  the  first.  As  these,  like  pure  fractures  of  the  anatomical 
neck,  are  frequently  associated  with  anterior  dislocation  of  the  shoulder. 


212  FRACTURES. 

and  as  they  lack  the  clinical  characteristics  of  the  lower  fractures,  I 
shall  describe  them  in  the  same  section  with  fractures  of  the  anatomical 
neck,  but  under  a  separate  title — fractures  through  the  tuberosities ;  their 
lower  line  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  highest  of  the  main  group  (frac- 
tures of  the  surgical  neck),  the  distinction  lying  in  the  addition  of  a 
line  along  the  anatomical  neck  detaching  the  head.  The  lower  main 
group  is  characterized  clinically  by  the  fact  that  the  upper  fragment  is 
peculiarly  subject  to  the  unopposed  action  of  the  scapular  muscles;  a 
separate  class  is  made  of  separation  of  the  epiphysis  in  the  young,  but 
fractures  in  the  adult  which  follow  in  the  main  the  former  line  of  the 
conjugal  cartilage  are  not  separated  from  the  main  group. 

In  this  section,  then,  will  be  considered  fractures  of  the  head,  of  the 
anatomical  neck,  through  the  tuberosities,  of  the  tuberosities,  and  of 
the  surgical  neck,  and  separation  of  the  epiphysis. 

A.  Fractures  of  the  Head. 

Simple  fissures  or  partial  fractures  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  with- 
out associated  fracture  of  the  tuberosities  or  surgical  neck  are  very  rare. 
To  the  two  instances  which  Gurlt  quotes  from  Gosselin  and  Gross* 
may  be  added,  I  think,  three  others,  one  described  by  Malgaigne,^  the 
other  two  by  Houel. 

Houel's  first  case  is  a  specimen  in  the  Mus^e  Dupuytren;  about  one- 
third  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  has  been  broken  off  and  has  reunited. 

His  second  cas.e,  also  in  the  same  museum,  is  a  specimen  of  fracture 
through  the  head  separating  a  thin  fragment  entirely  covered  with 
articular  cartilage.  The  fragment  was  turned  completely  over  and  not 
united.  The  patient  was  an  old  woman  and  died  seven  or  eight  months 
after  the  receipt  of  the  injury. 

The  cases  are  much  more  numerous  in  which  the  articular  surface  is 
fractured  in  connection  with  fracture  of  adjoining  parts;  and  in  ante- 
rior dislocation  of  the  shoulder  (q.  v.)  deep  indentation  or  bruising  of 
the  surface  of  the  head  by  the  edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa  is  apparently 
not  infrequent. 

B.  Fracture  of  the  Anatomical  Neck,  and  Fracture  Through  the 

Tuberosities.^ 

Fracture  of  the  anatomical  neck,  without  an  additional  line  of  frac- 
ture through  the  tuberosities,  is  apparently  a  very  rare,  and  also  a  very 
obscure,  injury,  except  in  association  with  anterior  dislocation  of  the 
shoulder.  Although  it  is  described,  and  the  means  of  diagnosis  given, 
in  all  systematic  works  upon  the  subject,  it  must  be  admitted,  I  think, 
that  our  knowledge  of  it  is  extremely  scanty  and  uncertain,  being 
limited  to  a  few  specimens  and  to  a  few  cases  clinically  observed  in 
which  the  diagnosis  remains  more  or  less  doubtful.  The  reported 
specimens  of  fresh  fracture,  without  dislocation  or  additional  fracture 

1  Gross'  Surgery,  fifth  ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  985.  -  Malgaigne's  Atlas,  Plate  Iv.  Fig.  2. 

3  It  is  to  be  noted  that  some  writers  include  both  forms  under  the  title  "  Fracture  of  the  Anatom- 
cal  Neck." 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 


213 


Fig.  86. 


Fig  87. 


through  the  tuberosities,  are  those  of  Boyer'  and  Spcnce;^  both  patients 
were  aged,  and  in  each  the  injury  was  caused  by  a  fall  upon  the  shoul- 
der. The  reported  specimens  from  cases  in  which  the  fracture  Avas 
associated  with  dislocation  are  more  numerous,  but  in  so  many  of  such 
cases  associated  fractiire  of  the  tuberosities,  generally  without  disj)lace- 
ment,  is  mentioned  that  it  seems  probable  it  may  have  been  overlooked 
or  passed  without  comment  in  many  of  the  others.  These  specimens 
have  been  obtained  in  the  course  of  operations  undertaken  for  the 
removal  of  the  dislocated  head  or  for  the  reduction  of  the  dislocation. 
Usually  the  head  remains  attached  to  the  shaft  by  a  strip  of  perios- 
teum or  capsule,  and  in  one  case  (McBurney)  the  line  of  fracture 
diverged  from  the  neck  and  split  off  a  thin  piece  of  the  shaft  adjoining 
the  lowest  portion  of  the  head. 

The  clinical  cases  are  obscure,  even  uncertain.  Kocher'^  reports  three 
cases  in  which  he  thought  this  diagnosis  could  be  made.  The  first  was 
a  man  seventy-nine  years  old  who  fell  from  a  height  upon  his  side; 
the  shoulder  was  swollen;  no  deviation  of  the  axis  of  the  arm;  short- 
ening half  a  centimetre;  active  motion  lost,  passiv'e  motion  gave  dis- 
tinct crepitus.  The  head  projected  in  front  below  the  acromion  and 
could  be  drawn  downward  away  from  it  so  that  the  finger  could  be 
passed  in  beneath  the  acromion  and 
could  there  feel  behind  the  fulness 
of  the  head  [tuberosity]  in  the  region 
of  the  anatomical  neck  the  edge  of 
the  lower  fragment  directed  back- 
ward. In  the  second  case,  also  a  fall 
upon  the  side,  the  patient  was  nine- 
teen years  old,  and  the  edge  could 
be  similarly  felt;  movements  were 
very  painful.  The  third  patient  was 
a  woman  sixty-one  years  old;  the 
cause  a  fall  upon  the  front  of  the 
shoulder.  Slight  swelling,  pain,  loss 
of  function,  crepitus  on  rotation  of 
the  arm;  displacement  of  the  upper 
fragment  upward  could  be  felt.  Figs. 
86  and  87  represent  his  conception  of  the  fracture  and  the  displace- 
ments. 

I  have  seen  only  one  case  in  which  the  diagnosis  seemed  probable. 
The  patient,  whom  I  presented  to  the  New  York  Surgical  Society,* 
was  a  man  about  thirty-five  years  old,  who  had  fallen  on  his  back  in 
front  of  a  horse-car  in  such  a  way  that,  as  the  car  passed  over  him,  the 
edge  of  the  front  platform  caught  against  his  right  elbow  and  pressed 
the  humerus  with  great  force  against  the  scapula.  Swelling  and  pain 
at  the  shoulder,  complete  loss  of  function;  the  tuberosities  rotated  with 
the  shaft;  the  acromion,  coracoid,  and  neck  of  the  scapula  were  unin- 
jured; pressing  the  arm  upward  against  the  acromion  gave  pain  and 

1  Bnyer  :  Traite  des  Maladies  Chirurgicales,  1S31,  vol.  iii.  p.  199. 

2  Spence:  Edinburgh  Medical  Journal.  1860,  vol.  v.  p.  1140. 

3  Kocher  :  Praktisch  wichliger  Frakiurformen,  1896. 

*  Slimson :  Kew  York  Medical  Journal,  March  19,  1891,  p.  310. 


Supposed  displacement  and  line  of  frac- 
ture of  anatomical  neck  of  the  humerus. 

(KOCHEE.) 


214 


FRACTURES. 


Fig.  88. 


was  accompanied  by  crepitus.  He  was  treated  in  the  recumbent  posi- 
tion with  moderate  continuous  traction  for  five  weeks,  and  made  a 
complete  recovery. 

On  another  occasion  I  had  an  opportunity  to  examine  an  undoubted 
case.  The  patient  had  suffered  the  fracture  with  dislocation,  and  I 
was  able  clearly  to  recognize  the  small,  movable  upper  fragment  in  the 
axilla.  Under  anaesthesia  I  was,  fortunately,  able  to  reduce  the  dis- 
location, and  then,  being  in  presence  of  a  fracture  of  the  anatomical 
neck  without  dislocation,  I  examined  it  carefully  in  order  to  ascertain, 
if  possible,  a  means  of  diagnosis;  but  I  could  detect  nothing  abnormal, 
no  deformity,  no  crepitus;  after  the  anaesthesia  had  ended,  pressure 
upward  at  the  elbow  or  backward  at  the  front  of  the  shoulder  caused 
pain. 

This  shows  that  the  fracture  can  exist  without  other  symptom  than 
pain  on  pressing  the  fragments  together,  and  that  crepitus  on  moderate 
movements  of  the  limb  may  be  absent;  which,  indeed,  is  not  surprising 
when  it  is  remembered  how  easily  the  head  can  move  in  its  socket  and, 
consequently,  how  likely  it  is  to  share  in  the  movement  of  the  lower 
fragment  if  it  is  at  all  closely  connected  with  it  by  irregularities  of  the 
line  of  fracture.  Probably  the  most  that  can 
be  said  in  any  case  is  that  there  is  a  fracture 
above  the  surgical  neck,  but  whether  it  is  purely 
of  the  anatomical  neck  or  combined  with  frac- 
ture  through  the  tuberosities  or  even  partly  of 
f     l^»it.  Wl      ^^^  neck  and  partly  through  the  tuberosities  is 

"  '   V^^  illll     likely  to  remain  uncertain,  because  the  deter- 

mining fact — the  relations  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  greater  tuberosity  with  the  shaft,  its  move- 
ment with  it  or  its  independence  of  it — may 
easily  be  beyond  exact  determination. 

Of  fracture  through  the  tuberosities  the  ex- 
amples are  much  more  numerous.  To  a  frac- 
ture of  the  anatomical  neck  may  be  added  one 
or  more  lines  of  fracture  passing  from  the  first 
through  the  tuberosities,  or  the  line  may  pass 
along  the  lower  (posterior  and  internal)  portion 
of  the  neck  and  then  diverge  through  the  tuber- 
osities. The  fresh  specimens  have  almost  all 
been  obtained  from  cases  of  combined  fracture 
and  dislocation,  and  our  periodical  literature 
now  contains  almost  every  year  one  or  more  instances.  I  have  had 
one  such,  fracture  of  the  anatomical  neck  with  fissuring  of  the  greater 
tuberosity,  in  which  I  removed  the  head,  and  have  seen  two  others 
under  the  care  of  colleagues. 

The  distinction  between  this  variety  and  the  higher  form  of  fractures 
of  the  surgical  neck  (as  I  have  here  defined  the  latter)  is  arbitrarily 
drawn  and  I  doubt,  for  the  reasons  given,  if  it  can  often  be  recognized 
clinically.  Because  of  its  mode  of  production — violence  acting  directly 
against  the  upper  end  of  the  bone  from  the  outer  side  or  in  front — it 
is,  I  think,  much  more  frequently  associated  with  dislocation  of  the 


iJ^ 


Fracture  of  the  anatomical 
neck  of  the  humerus,  with 
sliglit  splintering  and  frac- 
ture of  both  tuberosities. 
(Gdelt.) 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 


215 


upper  fragment  than  are  fractures  at  a  somewhat  lower  level  which 
seem  more  commonly  to  be  caused  by  cross-strain.  Independent  mo- 
bility of  only  the  upper  ])art  of  the  tuberosity  would  at  least  show  that 
the  fracture  was  high. 

Two  specimens  described  and  pictured  by  R.  W.  Smith^  (Figs.  89 
and  90)  show  healing  with  marked  impaction  in  one  case  and  with 
complete  reversal  of  the  head  in  the  other.  In  the  one  shown  in  Fig. 
89,  examined  five  years  after  the  accident,  '^  the  head  of  the  humerus 
was  found  to  have  been  drawn  into  the  cancellated  tissue  of  the  shaft 
between  the  tuberosities  so  deeply  as  to  be  below  the  summit  of  the 


Fig.  89. 


Fig.  90. 


Fracture  through  the  tuberosities  of  the  hu- 
merus. Reversal  of  the  head.  (R.W.Smith.) 

greater  tubercle;  this  process  had 
been  split  off  and  displaced  out- 
ward; it  formed  an  obtuse  angle 
^^ith  the  outer  surface  of  the  shaft 
of  the  bone.  .  .  .  Osseous 
union  had  taken  place  along  the 
line  of  each  fracture." 

The  specimen  illustrated  in  Fig. 
90  is  described  by  the  same  author 
as  "  impacted  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  humerus,  accompanied  by 
fracture  of  both  tubercles."  It  was  removed  from  the  body  of  a 
woman  forty  years  old  who  had  fallen  down  a  flight  of  stairs  many 
years  before  and  had  struck  the  shoulder  violently  against  one  of  the 
steps.  The  appearances  (at  the  time  of  death)  were  those  of  disloca- 
tion into  the  axilla,  the  acromion  being  prominent  and  the  region  of 
the  deltoid  flattened;  but  the  arm  was  shortened,  the  glenoid  cavity 
could  not  be  felt,  and  the  shaft  of  the  humerus  was  drawn  upward  and 
inward  so  as  to  be  almost  in  contact  with  the  coracoid  process;  the 


Impaction  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  into 
the  shaft,  with  splitting  off  of  the  tuberosi- 
ties.   (R.  W.  Smith.) 


1  R.  W.  Smith  :  Fractures  in  the  Vicinity  of  Joints,  1854,  p.  192. 


216  FRACTURES. 

motious  of  the  joint  were  extremely  limited  and  the  scapular  mus(3les 
atrophied.  "  The  head  of  the  bone  was  found  to  have  been  separated 
from  the  shaft  by  a  fracture  which  traversed  the  anatomical  neck  of 
the  humerus.  It  was  reversed  in  the  articulation,  so  that  the  fractured 
surface  was  directed  upward  toward  the  glenoid  cavity,  and  the  car- 
tilaginous articulating  surface  thrown  downward  toward  the  shaft,  and 
having  assumed  this  position  it  was  driven  to  a  considerable  distance 
into  the  cancellated  structure  between  the  tubercles.  From  this  vio- 
lent impaction  of  the  head  of  the  bone  into  the  lower  fragment  a 
second  fracture  resulted  which  split  off  the  lesser  tubercle  along  with 
about  two-thirds  of  the  greater,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  shaft 
of  the  humerus,  corresponding  to  the  upper  part  of  the  bicipital 
groove. ' ' 

The  outer  part  of  the  cartilaginous  surface  of  the  head  was  buried 
to  a  depth  of  nearly  an  inch,  but  the  inner  part  was  free;  the  cartilage 
remained  perfect,  and  was  not  united  to  the  cancellated  tissue  of  the 
tubercles;  the  rest  of  the  fragment  was  firmly  united  with  the  tissue 
of  the  tubercles,  and  their  union  also  was  complete.  A  similar  case  is 
reported  by  Kronlein^  and  one  by  Korte.^  See  also  Gurlt,  vol.  ii. 
p.  693. 

Doubtless,  also,  the  upper  fragment  may  undergo  that  displacement 
inward  and  downward  by  the  rising  of  the  shaft  under  the  action  of 
the  deltoid  which  was  pointed  out  by  Jonathan  Hutchinson  as  occurring 
in  those  cases  which  I  here  classify  as  high  fractures  of  the  surgical 
neck,  and  which  at  a  later  period  may  easily  be  mistaken  for  unre- 
duced dislocation. 

Repair  is  largely  carried  on  by  the  distal  portion  of  the  bone,  and  is 
marked  by  an  exuberant  production  of  callus  and  osteophytic  growths 
on  the  surface  and  sometimes  by  ossification  of  the  adjoining  portion 
of  the  capsule. 

Of  the  fate  of  the  small  upper  fragment  after  fracture  of  the  anatom- 
ical neck  we  have  little  positive  knowledge.  Boyer's  statement  that 
in  his  case  the  fragment  had  been  diminished  by  absorption  has  been 
extensively  quoted,  but  as  the  patient  died  only  seven  days  after  the 
injury  was  received  the  accuracy  of  the  observation  is  doubtful. 
Kocher  does  not  state  the  result  in  his  cases,  but  io  McBurney's  in 
which  the  fragment  was  restored  to  its  place  by  operation,  and  in  mine 
in  which  a  presumably  similar  fragment  was  restored  to  its  place  by 
manipulation,  and  in  my  other  in  which  the  fragment  was  not  dislo- 
cated and  the  diagnosis  is  not  certain,  recovery  with  good  function  fol- 
lowed Probably  the  head  in  most  cases  retains  some  vital  connection 
through  untorn  portions  of  the  capsule,  and  experience  at  other  joints 
shows  that  similar  fragments  can  reunite  or  can  remain  as  unirritating 
loose  bodies  in  the  joint. 

Treatment.  Treatment  is  clearly  limited  to  immobilization  of  the 
joint,  possibly  aided  by  some  traction  to  oppose  the  tendency  of  the 
muscles  to  draw  the  shaft  upward  and  thus  displace  the  head. 

1  Kronlein  :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  f.  Chirurgie,  1874,  p.  1. 
-  Korte  :  Langenbeck's  Archives,  1882,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  749. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS.  217 


C.  Fractures  of  the  Tuberosities. 

Isolated  fracture  of  either  tuljerosity  is  so  rare  an  accident,  except 
in  connection  with  dislocation  of  the  shoulder,  that  very  few  cases  are 
on  record,  and  none  that  have  been  verified  by  direct  examination  while 
fresh.  Partial  fracture  of  the  greater  tuberosity,  that  is,  the  fracture 
of  a  larger  or  smaller  portion  comprising  some  or  all  of  the  facets  to 
which  the  supraspinatus,  infraspinatus,  and  teres  minor  muscles  are 
attached,  is  a  not  infrequent  accompaniment  of  anterior  dislocation  of 
the  humerus,  and  has  also  been  seen  by  Malgaigne'  in  a  case  of  dislo- 
cation backward  under  the  acromion.  (See  Anterior  Dislocations  of 
the  Shoulder.)     Fracture  of  the  lesser  tuberosity  is  much  more  rare. 

A  number  of  cases  have  been  reported  of  fracture  of  the  greater 
tuberosity  with  symptoms  so  closely  resembling  those  of  dislocation 
that  the  diagnosis  of  the  latter  lesion  was  at  first  made  in  each  case, 
and  a  study  of  the  reports  makes  it  seem  probable  that  this  diagnosis 
was  correct,  the  dislocation  having  then  been  unwittingly  reduced 
during  the  manipulations;  most  of  the  specimens  found  at  autopsies 
probably  belong  in  the  same  class. 

Gurlt  (][Uotes  a  case  of  supposed  fracture  of  the  tuberosity  by  mus- 
cular action,  in  which  the  symptoms  were  extreme  passive  mobility  at 
the  shoulder,  complete  loss  of  voluntary  outward  rotation,  and  partial 
loss  of  voluntary  elevation  of  the  arm.  If  the  arm  was  rotated  vigor- 
ously and  the  ear  laid  upon  the  patient's  shoulder,  crepitus  could  be 
heard.  Four  weeks  later  the  corresponding  muscles  were  still  power- 
less and  atrophied.  The  patient  was  a  muscular  youth  of  twenty  years, 
and  the  lesion  was  produced  by  an  effort  to  throw  a  snow-ball  with 
force;  something  was  heard  to  crack  and  the  arm  fell  powerless.  The 
only  mention  of  displacement  in  the  case  is  that  the  patient's  brother, 
a  physician,  thought  the  arm  was  dislocated  and  "  made  a  sort  of 
reduction." 

In  1881  I  saw  at  the  Presbyterian  Hospital  a  youth  of  nineteen 
years  who  had  been  injured  the  preceding  day.  He  said  that  while 
holding  the  bridle  of  a  horse  in  his  right  hand  the  animal  reared,  and 
as  he  came  down  his  breast  struck  against  the  patient's  left  forearm 
which  was  held  before  his  face  in  protection,  and  threw  him  to  the 
■ground.  The  left  shoulder  was  somewhat  swollen;  there  was  an 
ecchymosis  at  the  lower  border  of  the  tendon  of  the  pectoralis  major; 
voluntary  abduction  possible;  voluntary  external  rotation  impossible; 
firm  pressure  upward  at  the  elbow  painless.  The  lesser  tuberosity 
moved  with  the  shaft  on  rotation;  crepitus  observed  high  up  in  the 
shoulder  when  the  head  of  the  bone  was  grasped  between  the  thumb 
and  fingers  and  they  were  moved;  pain  on  pressure  upon  the  greater 
tuberosity.  I  inserted  an  insect-pin  in  front  at  the  bicipital  groove 
and  passed  it  backward  its  full  length,  evidently  between  two  bony 
surfaces,  and  by  pressing  its  point  against  the  inner  one  and  rotating 
the  arm  the  continuity  of  this  surface  with  the  shaft  was  shown.  My 
diagnosis  was  fracture  of  the  greater  tuberosity  by  mUvScular  action, 

1  Malgaigne  :  Atlas,  Plate  xxii.  Figs  5  and  6. 


218 


FRACTURES. 


Fig.  91. 


by  outward  rotation  of  the  arm  in  the  effort  to  ward  off  the  descending 
body  of  the  horse. 

1  have  seen  a  few  cases  of  pain  at  the  greater  tuberosity  on  pressure 
and  on  vohintary  outward  rotation,  but  without  crepitus  or  abnormal 
mobility,  which  I  have  regarded  as  minor  effects  of  similar  muscular 
action,  the  partial  rupture  or  detachment  of  the  tendon  or  possibly  the 
avulsion  of  a  small  piece  of  the  bone. 

The  line  of  fracture  usually  runs  along  the  sulcus  marking  the 
anatomical  neck  at  the  part  where  it  adjoins  the  tuberosity  and  down 
the  bicipital  groove,  sometimes  liberating  the  long  tendon  of  the  biceps 
from  its  sheath  and  allowing  it  to  slip  in  between  the  fractured  sur- 
faces. If  the  separation  is  complete  the  fragment  is  drawn  upward 
and  backward;  if  incomplete,  that  is,  if  the  periosteum  remains  untorn 
on  the  side  of  the  fragment  adjoining  the  shaft,  new  bone  fills  up  the 
lower  part  of  the  gap,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  fragment  stands  out 

a  distance  from  the  surface  from  which  it 
has  been  torn,  as  in  Fig.  91.  When  union 
takes  place  it  is  almost  always  bony. 

1  believe  that  in  all  cases  in  Avhicli  the 
fracture  is  not  an  incident  of  a  dislocation 
the  cause  is  the  direct  action  of  the  at- 
tached muscles.  Some  writers  ascribe  it 
almost  without  exception  to  direct  external 
violence,  but  I  know  of  no  cases  to  support 
the  opinion.  The  diagnosis  must  be  made 
by  localized  pain  on  pressure  and  on  at- 
tempted voluntary  outward  rotation  of  the 
arm,  and  by  the  abnormal  mobility  of  the 
fragment,  possibly  with  crepitus. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  immobiliza- 
tion with  as  much  outward  rotation  of  the 
arm  as  is  practicable  in  order  to  diminish 
the  pull  of  the  attached  muscles.  Any  ten- 
dency to  inward  displacement,  such  as  was 
noted  by  Smith,  should  be  opposed  by  a  pad 
in  or  below  the  axilla. 
Fractures  of  the  lesser  tuberosity  are  extremely  rare.  Gurlt  collected 
only  three  cases,  two  of  them  accompanying  dislocation  of  the  shoul- 
der, the  third  a  specimen  in  the  museum  at  G lessen.  In  each  of  the 
first  two  a  small  hard  lump  could  be  felt  on  the  inner  side  of  the  head 
of  the  humerus,  not  moving  with  it. 

Bardenheuer^  says  he  has  seen  two  cases.  In  the  first  the  patient 
fell  down  stairs  and  tried  in  vain  to  check  his  fall  with  his  elevated 
arm;  in  the  second,  a  man  while  descending  a  winding  staircase  with 
his  left  arm  upon  the  rail  fell  over  it  Bardenheuer  supposes  that  in 
the  fall  the  arm  was  forcibly  rotated  inward  and  that  the  tubercle  was 
broken  off  by  pressure  against  the  edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa;  he  says 
the  appearance  of  the  shoulder  was  that  of  a  dislocation,  the  arm  was 


Fracture  of  the  greater  tuberosity 
of  the  humerus,  united. 


1  Bardenheuer  :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  63  a,  p.  168 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS.  219 

in  outward  rotation,  and  a  tumor  as  wide  as  the  finger  and  movable 
with  crepitus  could  be  felt  in  the  region  of  the  lesser  tuberosity  and 
was  painful  on  pressure. 

JosseP  reports  two  cases  accompanying  backward  dislocation  of  the 
shoulder  (q.  v.);  in  both  the  tuberosity  remained  attached  to  the  sub- 
scapularis,  and  in  one  it  was  broken  into  two  pieces. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  would  be  immobilization  in  inward  rota- 
tion, possibly  aided  by  pressure  on  the  outer  aspect  of  the  shoulder  to 
oppose  a  tendency  to  outward  displacement. 

D.  Separation  of  the  Epiphysis. 

The  upper  epiphysis  of  the  humerus  comprises  the  head  and  the 
tuberosities.  The  epiphyseal  line  runs  upward  and  outward  along  the 
lower  and  inner  half  of  the  anatomical  neck  and  then  tranversely 
under  or  through  the  tuberosities  to  the  outer  edge,  its  level  rising  as 
the  individual  grows  older,  and  passing  above  part  of  the  insertion  of 
the  teres  minor.  Its  centre  is  higher  than  its  edge,  so  that  the  shaft 
terminates  in  a  low  cone  or  wedge,  Avith,  of  course,  a  corresponding 
hollow  on  the  under  surface  of  the  epiphysis.  This  cone  is  very  low 
in  early  life,  and  its  height  increases  as  the  indvidual  grows  older, 
until  ossification  of  the  conjugal  cartilage  takes  place,  usually  by  the 
twentieth  year,  but  sometimes  as  late  as  the  twenty-fifth. 

This  lesion  has  been  observed  at  all  ages  between  the  moment  of 
birth  and  the  age  of  nineteen  years.  Jetter,^  in  an  account  of  sixteen 
cases  operated  upon  by  Bruns,  mentions  two  cases  aged  twenty-three 
and  twenty-four  years,  but  no  mention  is  made  of  the  presence  of  the 
conjugal  cartilage  in  either,  and  in  one  the  line  of  fracture  followed 
that  of  the  epiphyseal  junction  for  only  half  an  inch.  Both,  I  think, 
belong  in  the  class  of  fractures  after  ossification  of  the  cartilage,  and 
are  examples  of  the  rather  common  high  fractures  of  the  surgical  neck 
in  which  the  line  of  fracture  frequently  follows  the  former  epiphyseal 
lines  quite  closely.  In  66  cases  collected  by  J.  Hutchinson,  Jr.,^  6 
occurred  at  birth,  4  during  the  first  year,  and  17  at  or  above  the  age  of 
fifteen  years.  In  a  considerable  number  of  the  recorded  cases  it  was 
produced  by  the  efforts  of  the  midwife  or  physician  to  hasten  delivery 
by  drawing  upon  the  presenting  arm,  or  with  the  finger  hooked  into 
the  axilla,  or  to  bring  down  the  arm  from  the  side  of  the  head  when 
the  legs  and  body  were  already  delivered.  In  others  it  has  been  caused 
by  falls,  by  forcibly  drawing  the  arm  upward  and  outward,  and  by  a 
fall  upon  the  elbow  when  it  was  held  behind  the  axillary  line. 

Considering  how  easily  the  epiphyses  can  be  separated  by  the 
cross  strain  produced  in  forcibly  carrying  the  limb  beyond  the  normal 
limit  of  motion  in  the  corresponding  joint  established  by  the  capsule, 
ligaments,  and  muscles  attached  to  it,  it  seems  probable  that  this  is 
the  mechanism  in  most  cases,  and  in  this  may  probably  be  included 
forced  rotation  of  the  arm. 

1  Jossel :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  f.  Chir.,  1874,  vol.  iv.  p.  125. 

■■i  Jetter:  Beitriigezur  klin.  Chir.,  1892,  vol.  ix.  p.  ,361. 

3  J.  Hutchinson,  Jr.  :  British  Medical  Journal,  July  8, 1893. 


220 


FRACTURES. 


The  opportunities  for  direct  examination  of  the  seat  of  injury  have 
been  largely  increased  of  late  by  operations  undertaken  for  the  correc- 
tion of  the  displacement,  often  while  recent.  They  show  that  the  line 
of  fracture  almost  always  follows  the  epiphyseal  line  closely  and  that 
the  periosteum  remains  untorn  to  a  considerable  extent,  especially  pos- 
teriorly, and  that  where  torn  its  separation  often  takes  place  at  some 
distance  below  the  line  of  fracture,  the  portion  between  the  rent  and 
the  line  of  fracture  being  stripped  from  the  shaft  and  remaining 
attached  to  the  epiphysis  as  an  irregular  sleeve.  The  younger  the 
patient  the  more  marked  apparently  is  this  sleeve  formation. 

The  displacement  is  habitually  forward,  and  sometimes  to  the  outer 
or  to  the  inner  side,  the  posterior  portion  of  the  end  of  the  shaft  usually 
lodging  in  the  saucer-shaped  lower  surface  of  the  epiphysis,  the  latter 
being  flexed  and  abducted  (Fig.  92).     Exceptionally  the  displacement 


ri(    i; 


Separation  of  the  upper  epiphysis  of  the  humerus ;  dis- 
placement forward  of  the  lower  fragment.    (Moore.) 


Upper  epiphysis  of  the  humerus  at 
10  years ;  separated  by  maceration. 
Outer  side.    (Moore.) 


inward  of  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  may  be  such  as  completely  to 
separate  the  fractured  surfaces  and  lodge  the  end  of  the  shaft  beneath 
the  coracoid  process.  There  is  reason  to  think  that  in  some  cases  there 
is  no  displacment. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  so  characteristic  that  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  why  the  mistake  of  supposing  the  injury  to  be  a  dislocation 
should  have  been  made  so  frequently.  The  anterior  edge  of  the  upper 
end  of  the  shaft  can  be  distinctly  felt  at  the  front  of  the  shoulder  an 
inch  or  more  below  the  acromion,  and  often  so  raises  the  skin  that  its 
presence  can  be  seen  as  well  as  felt.  The  arm  usually  hangs  straight 
with  the  elbow  directed  a  little  backward,  or  it  may  be  abducted,  but 
the  suggestion  of  a  dislocation  which  the  latter  attitude  gives  is  at  once 
removed  by  palpation  of  the  shoulder  which  shows  the  head  of  the 
humerus  to  be  in  its  place,  and  if  the  head  is  grasped  between  the 
thumb  and  fingers  and  the  arm  gently  rotated  the  independent  mobility 


FB  AC  TUBES  OF  THE  HUME  BUS. 


221 


of  the  two  will  be  recognized,  perhaps  with  crepitus.      The  anterior 
displacement  of  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  is  well  shown  in  Fig.  94. 

In  cases  without  displacement  the  diagnosis  could  be  made  only  by 
the  localized  pain  on  pressure,  on  pressing  the  elbow  upward,  and  on 
attempting  to  use  the  limb. 


Fig.  94. 


Fig.  95. 


Separation  of  upper  epiphysis  of  humerus. 

If  displacement  is  absent  or  has  been  corrected  repair  takes  place 
habitually  without  incident,  although  occasionally  the  trauma  has  led 
to  premature  ossification  of  the  conjugal  cartilage  and  consequent  arrest 
of  growth,  a  matter  of  special  importance  here  because  the  greater  part 
of  the  growth  of  the  humerus  in  length  takes  place  at  its  upper  end. 

When  the  displacement  persists  various  results  are  possible:  union 
may  take  place  (Fig.  96),  and  the  subsequent  range  of  motion  be 
restricted  by  the  deformity;  as  the  epiphysis  is  already  flexed  and 
abducted  motion  of  the  arm  in  those  directions  is  restricted,  and  rnotion 
in  other  directions  may  be  interfered  with  either  by  the  faulty  position 
in  some  respects  (e.  g.,  inward  rotation)  of  the  lower  fragment  or  by 
the  contact  of  projecting  portions  with  adjoining  apophyses.  Or  sup- 
puration may  follow;  in  the  reported  cases  it  is  not  entirely  clear  that 
the  suppuration  was  not  provoked  by  injudicious  attempts  to  reduce  a 
supposed  dislocation,  or  that  it  may  not  have  been  a  spontaneous  osteo- 
myelitis preceding  the  separation  of  the  epiphysis,  the  latter  being  the 
result,  not  the  cause  of  the  suppuration.  Or,  very  rarely,  reunion  may  fail. 


222 


FRACTURES. 


In  respect  of  treatment  the  first  effort  must  be  to  correct  the  dis- 
placement; this  can  sometimes  be  effected  by  traction  upon  the  arm 
aided  by  direct  pressure  upon  the  projecting  fragment,  but  in  other 
cases  it  is  advisable  to  use  the  plan  suggested  by  Dr.  E.  M.  Moore, 
that  of  forcibly  raising  the  elbow  beside  the  head  so  as  to  bring  the 


Fig.  96. 


FiG.  97. 


Uniou  after  separation  of  the  upper 
epiphysis  of  the  humerus  with  displace- 
ment.   (R.  W.  Smith.) 


Separation  of  upper  epiphysis  of  humerus.    Excision 
of  projecting  end  of  shaft. 

shaft  into  a  position  corresponding  with 
that  taken  by  the  epiphysis;  as  the  latter 
is  prevented  by  the  posterior  portion  of 
the  capsule  from  moving  farther  in  this 
direction,  the  forced  movement  of  the 
arm  throws  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft 
backward  into  place.  Interposition  of 
the  torn  and  loosened  periosteal  sleeve 
may  create  so  serious  an  obstacle  that 
reduction  cannot  be  effected  without  the 
aid  of  an  incision  exposing  the  seat  of 
fracture.  In  the  older  cases  ossification  of  the  untorn  periosteum 
rapidly  produces  a  bony  bridge  between  the  fragments  which  pre- 
vents reduction.  In  two  such  cases  Kocher  cut  away  the  projecting 
portion  of  the  shaft  (Fig.  97)  and  increased  the  range  thereby;  others 
have  resected  the  callus  and  a  portion  of  the  diaphysis  and  then  made 
reduction. 

After  reduction  immobilization  of  the  limb  for  three  or  four  weeks 
is  necessary.  It  is  only  in  cases  in  which  reduction  is  incomplete  that 
measures  are  required  to  oppose  a  tendency  to  recurrence  of  the  dis- 
placement. 

E.  Fracture  of  the  Surgical  Neck. 

Under  this  rubric  are  here  included  fractures  of  the  portion  of  the 
bone  lying  between  the  site  of  the  epiphyseal  cartilage  and  the  insertion 
of  the  pectoralis  and  teres  major,  the  great  majority  of  all  fractures  of 
the  upper  end  of  the  bone.  The  line  of  fracture  in  separation  of  the 
epiphysis  in  the  young  marl^s  the  upper  limit  of  this  group  in  adults; 
its  lower  limit  is  an  arbitrary  and  ill-defined  one  and,  moreover,  is  not 
infrequently  crossed  by  fractures  which  lie  partly  above  and  partly 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 


223 


below  it.  The  higher  fractures  of  the  group  are  separately  described 
by  some  as  fracture  through  the  tuberosities, //ac/wra  jpertubercularis, 
but  the  distinction  does  not  seem  worth  preserving. 

The  common  cause  is  external  violence,  a  fall  or  a  blow  upon  the 
arm,  but  occasionally  is  muscular  action.  The  mode  of  action  is  rarely 
clear  in  the  history  of  a  given  case,  but  experiment  has  thrown  light 
upon  it.  The  higher  fractures  may  be  caused  by  a  blow  or  fall  u]3on 
the  upper  part  of  the  arm  or  upon  the  elbow,  presumably  aided  by  the 
resistance  of  the  glenoid  fossa  or  the  acromion,  the  so-called  "com- 
pression" fractures,  but  much  more  frequently,  I  think,  by  a  cross- 
strain  in  which  the  upper  end  is  fixed  by  the  resistance  of  the  capsule 
and  ligaments  and  possibly  the  muscles,  and  either  the  elbow  is  forced 
outward  or  forward  or  is  fixed  in  abduction  \^hile  the  blow  is  received 
on  the  outer  part  of  the  shoulder,  "  abduction  fractures;"  "  adduction 
fractures,"  by  violence  acting  in  the  opposite  direction,  are  much  rarer. 
The  lower  fractures  may  be  caused  by  violence  acting  on  the  side  of 
the  shaft  at  or  below  the  point  of  fracture,  or  by  cross-strain  in  a  fall 
on  the  elbow  or  hand,  or  by  torsion  of  the  limb. 


Fig.  98. 


Upper  and  lower  limits  of  fracture 
of  the  surgical  neck  of  the  humerus, 
with  spiral  fracture  of  shaft  extend- 
ing into  the  area. 


Impacted  fracture  of  the  surgical  neck  of  the  humerus. 
(R.  W.  Smith.) 


In  the  higher  and  some  of  the  lower  fractures  the  line  is  essentially 
transverse,  usually  with  splintering  or  even  comminution,  sometimes  with 
fissures  extending  through  the  head  and  sometimes  with  notable  impac- 
tion.     Many  of  the  lower  fractures  are  oblique,  often  markedly  so. 

The  upper  fragment,  since  opposition  to  the  action  of  the  muscles 
attached  to  it  is  diminished  or  annulled  by  the  fracture,  often  takes  the 


224 


FB  AC  TUBES. 


attitude  of  flexion,  abduction,  and  outward  rotation,  being  sometimes 
aided  therein  by  the  impaction  into  it  of  the  lower  fragment;  the  latter 
is  usually  displaced  inward,  partly  by  the  momentary  continuation  of 
the  fracturing  force  in  some  cases  and  partly  by  the  action  of  the  pec- 
toralis  and  teres  major.  Exceptionally  the  displacement  is  equal  to  the 
thickness  of  the  shaft,  and  may  be  outward  or  posterior,  as  shown  in 
some  of  the  figures;  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  displace- 
ment is  too  slight  to  be  clinically  recognizable. 

An  important  form  of  impaction  is  that  in  which  the  shaft  passes  to 
the  front  and  outer  side  of  the  head  and  the  latter  is  thereby  brought 
to  a  lower  point  on  its  inner  side  (Fig.  99).  As  was  pointed  out  by 
Hutchinson,  the  rising  of  the  shaft  under  the  pull  of  the  deltoid  may 
press  the  head  so  far  inward  and  downward  that  the  final  position  may 
resemble  that  of  a  dislocation  below  the  coracoid. 


Fig.  100. 


Fig.  101. 


High  fracture  of  the  surgical  neck  ;  the 
end  of  the  lower  fragment  engaged  in  the 
skin. 


\\ 


Fracture  of  the  surgical  neck ;  displacement 
inward  of  the  lower  fragment,  resembling  dis- 
location. 


The  tendon  of  the  long  head  of  the  biceps  may  be  torn  in  these 
extreme  displacements.  Injury  of  the  axillary  vessels  and  nerves  is 
extremely  rare;  thrombosis  of  the  artery  in  consequence  of  bruising 
has  been  seen,  the  axillary  vein  has  been  torn  in  a  compound  fracture, 
and  the  musculo-spiral  nerve  has  been  so  compressed  as  to  cause  paral- 
ysis of  motion  and  sensation  in  its  area  of  distribution. 

In  an  oblique  fracture  the  sharp  end  of  the  lower  fragment  may 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUIS.  225 

approach  or  become  engaged  in  or  even  perforate  the  skin,  usually  on 
the  inner  side,  and  even  in  the  higher  fractures  this  has  been  observed 
in  front  close  below  the  acromion  (Fig.  100). 

For  the  combination  of  fracture  with  dislocation  see  Dislocation  of 
the  Shoulder. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  vary  with  the  form  of  fracture  and  the 
displacement;  usually  the  arm  hangs  by  the  side  or  the  elbow  is  slightly 
abducted,  but  if  the  displacement  inward  of  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft 
is  marked  the  abduction  of  the  arm  resembles  that  of  an  anterior  dis- 
location (Fig.  101);  the  distinction  is  easily  made  by  recognition  of 
the  presence  of  the  head  in  the  glenoid  fossa,  maintaining  the  fulness 
of  the  shoulder.  Loss  of  function  is  usually  complete,  swelling 
marked,  and  ecchymoses  very  extensive,  especially  in  the  old,  often 
spreading  to  the  elbow  and  across  the  front  of  the  chest. 

If  the  elbow  is  pressed  upward  pain  is  felt  at  the  fracture,  and  dis- 
tinctly localized  pain  can  often  be  caused  by  pressure  with  the  finger 
along  the  line  of  fracture. 

Then  if  the  upper  fragment  is  grasped  between  the  thumb  and  fingers 
in  such  a  way  that  the  notch  between  the  tuberosities  at  the  bicipital 
groove  can  be  felt,  and  the  elbow  is  gently  rotated,  the  failure  of  the 
former  to  share  in  the  movement  will  be  recognized  and  usually  crepi- 
tus will  be  perceived.  In  the  cases  with  more  marked  displacement  the 
relations  of  the  fragments  can  be  determined  by  palpation  if  the  patient 
is  not  too  fat  or  the  region  too  swollen,  or  by  noting  the  direction  of  the 
axis  of  the  shaft. 

Diagnosis.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  diagnosis  is  made  upon 
the  localized  pain,  especially  on  pressing  the  elbow  upward,  and  on  the 
failure  of  the  tuberosities  to  share  in  slight  rotatory  movements  com- 
municated to  the  elbow,  for  the  displacement  is  usually  too  slight  to  be 
recognized  through  the  swollen  tissues.  When  marked  displacement 
exists  the  position  of  the  upper  end  of  the  lower  fragment  is  indicated 
by  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  shaft,  generally  upward  and  inward, 
and  is  demonstrated  by  abnormal  resistance  to  pressure  and  pain  at  the 
indicated  point,  usually  corresponding  to  the  groove  between  the  pec- 
toralis  and  deltoid  near  the  coracoid.  Dislocation  of  the  shoulder  is 
excluded  by  recognition  of  the  head  in  its  place.  The  lower  end  of 
the  upper  fragment  can  be  traced  only  in  those  oblique  fractures  where 
it  descends  upon  the  shaft. 

Prognosis.  When  no  important  displacement  persists  and  no  compli- 
cations are  present,  the  course  is  uneventful  and  the  result  good;  union 
takes  place  in  from  thirty  to  forty  days,  and  the  restoration  of  function 
is  complete  after  a  few  more  weeks.  Exceptionally,  function  may  be 
diminished  by  an  associated  arthritis,  especially  in  the  old,  or  by  exces- 
sive formation  of  callus  in  the  higher  forms.  Failure  of  union  has 
been  noted  in  only  a  very  few  cases  with  uncorrected  displacement; 
and  once  or  twice  the  displaced  end  of  the  shaft  has  become  firmly 
adherent  to  the  coracoid  process. 

Treatment.  Reduction  of  the  displacement  is  made  by  traction  upon 
the  arm  aided  by  appropriate  pressure  on  the  end  of  the  lower  frag- 
ment.    In  most  cases,  because  of  the  usual  abduction  of  the  upper 

15 


226  FRACTURES. 

fragment,  it  is  necessary  to  make  traction  with  the  arm  widely  abducted 
so  as  to  bring  the  shaft  into  line  with  the  attitude  of  the  upper  frag- 
ment, and  after  the  displacement  has  then  been  reduced  the  arm  is 
lowered  to  the  side  and  there  maintained  by  suitable  dressings  unless 
this  position  too  greatly  favors  recurrence  of  the  displacement,  in  which 
case  the  abducted  position  must  be  maintained  for  a  week  or  two. 
Exceptionally,  another  attitude  may  be  made  necessary  by  another 
form  of  displacement. 

The  chief  disturbing  influence  which  the  retentive  dressing  has  to 
oppose  is  the  action  of  the  muscles,  which  tends  to  draw  the  lower  frag- 
ment upward  and  inward  and  to  flex,  abduct,  and  sometimes  outwardly 
rotate  the  upper  fragment,  and  the  great  difficulties  in  the  preparation 
of  an  always  effective  dressing  are  to  find  a  fixed  support  for  its  upper 
end  which  will  furnish  the  counter-extension  for  traction  upon  the 
lower  segment  and  to  oppose  the  tendency  to  displacement  inward  with- 
out making  undue  pressure  upon  the  vessels  and  nerves  of  the  axilla 
and  inner  aspect  of  the  arm.  The  upper  fragment  is  too  small  to  be 
acted  upon  directly  by  any  splint,  and  its  position  and  movements  can 
be  controlled  only  through  its  interlocking  with  the  lower  fragment; 
in  default  of  such  control  the  lower  fragment  must  be  brought  into  line 
with  the  upper  in  the  position  given  to  the  latter  by  its  attached  mus- 
cles. Counter-extension  against  the  folds  of  the  axilla  is  ineffective 
both  because  they  are  yielding  and  because  they  rest  upon  muscles,  the 
pectoralis  and  latissimus  dorsi,  which  are  attached  to  the  humerus 
below  the  seat  of  fracture,  so  that  the  force  is  applied  to  the  two  ends 
of  the  lower  segment  and  is,  therefore,  ineffectual  to  control  its  rela- 
tions to  the  upper  one.  The  desired  fixation  can  be  got  by  a  heavy 
plaster-of- Paris  dressing  enveloping  the  chest  and  shoulder,  but  this  is 
too  irksome  to  be  used  except  in  cases  of  extreme  need.  1  have  used 
it  with  advantage  in  some  compound  fractures.  Fortunately  the  ten- 
dency to  displacement  can  usually  be  controlled  by  simple  measures 
which  are  sufficiently  effective  in  practice  even  if  not  in  theory,  but 
when  it  is  great  continuous  traction  must  be  used,  either  by  weight  and 
pulley  with  the  patient  in  bed,  or  by  a  weight  attached  to  the  dependent 
arm  when  the  patient  is  seated  or  standing. 

Lateral  displacement  inward  of  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  can  be 
effectively  opposed  when  the  patient  is  in  bed  by  moderate  traction 
outward  applied  by  a  band  about  the  upper  part  of  the  arm.  No  fixed 
dressing  or  splint  can  alone  do  it,  when  the  tendency  is  marked,  because 
of  the  presence  of  the  main  vessels  and  nerves  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
arm  where  they  might  be  dangerously  compressed  between  the  bone 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  splint.  Fixed  dressings  consist  essentially 
of  a  stiff  piece  on  the  outer  side  of  the  limb,  resting  against  the  shoul- 
der and  elbow,  to  which  the  arm  is  made  fast  by  a  bandage;  this  meas- 
urably controls  inward  displacement  but  not  shortening.  If  the  latter 
threatens  it  must  be  opposed  by  traction,  although  that  supplied  by  the 
weight  of  the  limb  is  usually  sufficient.  Occasionally  the  fixed  dress- 
ing is  a  simple  support  between  the  arm  and  the  body,  by  which  the 
limb  is  immobilized  in  abduction;  and  not  infrequently  it  is  sufficient 
simply  to  bind  the  arm  to  the  side  of  the  body. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 


227 


Continuous  traction  by  weight  and  pulley  is  made  through  a  cord 
attached  to  the  arm  above  the  elbow  by  two  strips  of  adhesive  plaster 
bound  to  it  by  a  roller  bandage  as  in  the  similar  treatment  of  fractures 
of  the  thigh  (page  93).  The  hand  and  forearm  should  be  bandaged 
to  prevent  swelling.  The  patient  should  be  in  bed,  the  arm  somewhat 
abducted  and  resting  on  pillows  or  a  sliding  support;  weight  about  five 
pounds.     It  is  rarely  necessary  to  maintain  it  for  more  than  two  weeks. 

Traction  with  the  patient  out  of  bed  can  be  made  by  a  weight  simi- 
larly attached  to  the  arm  or  hanging  from  a  pi aster-of- Paris  dressing 
as  described  below;  the  elbow  is  flexed  at  a  right  angle,  and  the  fore- 
arm supported  at  the  wrid  by  a  sling. 

The  common  shoulder-cap  of  leather  or  cardboard,  capping  the  shoul- 
der and  covering  the  outer  as[>ect  of  the  arm  to  the  elbow,  is  wholly 
inefficient  against  inward  displacement  or  overriding  and  serves  only 
to  give  support  and  to  protect  against  chance  violence.  If  more  is 
needed  it  must  be  combined  with  an  internal  lateral  splint  to  give  it 
more  control  over  the  lower  fragment  and  with  traction  to  prevent 
overriding. 

A  similar  dressing  of  plaster  of  Paris  enveloping  the  arm  and  fore- 
arm and  overlapping  the  shoulder  has  the  same  defects,  although  they 
are  diminished  by  the  better  control  of  the  limb  and  by  the  weight 


Fig.  102. 


Fig.  103. 


n\ 


Hennequin's  plaster  splint  for  fracture  of  the  humerus. 

of  the  dressings  which  makes  efficient  traction  when  the  patient  is 
erect.  It  can  safely  be  used  when  the  tendency  to  displacement  is 
slight,  especially  after  the  second  week.  It  can  be  readily  made  with 
the  usual  plaster  roller-bandage,  applied  lightly  over  the  forearm  and 
more  thickly  on  the  arm  as  high  as  the  axilla,  and  combined  with  a 
cap  over  the  shoulder  made  by  carrying  the  bandage  up  and  down  over 


228 


FEACTUBES. 


it  from  the  outer  side  of  the  arm.  Overriding  taking  place  under  it  can 
be  detected  by  noticing  that  the  cap  rises  above  the  shoulder,  admitting 
the  finger,  or  even  two,  beneath  it;  this  must  be  met  by  attaching  a 
weight  to  the  elbow,  and  in  all  cases  the  forearm  should  be  supported 
across  the  chest  onli/  at  the  wrist,  in  order  that  the  weight  of  the  arm 
may  constantly  draw  the  lower  fragment  down  when  the  patient  is  erect. 
A  convenient  method  of  making  a  similar  plaster  dressing  is  that 
devised  by  Hennequin  :^  a  dozen  thicknesses  of  crinoline,  or  three  or 
four  of  muslin  or  canton-flannel,  cut  as  shown  in  Fig.  102,  the  width 
being  equal  to  the  circumference  of  the  arm,  and  the  length  of  the 
central  portion  equal  to  the  distance  from  the  fold  of  the  axilla  to  the 
elbow,  are  soaked  in  plaster  cream  and  applied  as  shown  in  Fig.  103, 
the  limb  having  previously  been  bandaged  from  the  wrist  to  the  elbow 
to  prevent  swelling.  If  overriding  is  present  or  anticipated  traction 
must  be  made  while  the  plaster  is  hardening,  either  by  the  hands  or  by 
a  weight  made  fast  at  the  elbow  by  a  bandage  under  the  splint.  Hen- 
nequin makes  temporary  counter-extension  by  a  bandage  under  the 
axilla,  but  I  doubt  its  value  or  safety;  it  seems  liable  to  lead  to  making 
the  splint  too  high  on  the  inner  side  and  thus  chafing  the  axillary  folds. 
For  cases  in  which  the  attitude  and  fixation  of  the  upper  fragment 
are  such  that  the  limb  must  be  kept  abducted  so  as  to  be  in  line  with 

it,  and  in  which  confinement  to 
bed  must  be  avoided,  a  support 
braced  against  the  body  may  be 
used.  Middeldorpf's  triangle  (Fig. 
104)  is  a  type  of  such  dressing; 
the  objection  to  them  is  in  the  in- 
ternal rotation  which  they  give  to 
the  arm  and  which  may  not  coin- 
cide with  the  position  of  the  upper 
fragment.  A  lighter  pattern  is 
made  of  a  bent  rod  or  piece  of 
stout  leather  strapped  to  the  arm 
and  trunk. 

The  choice  of  these  different 
methods  in  varying  cases  may  be 
summarized  as  follows :  In  the 
high  fractures  with  little  displace- 
ment or  tendency  thereto  moderate 
immobilization,  support,  and  pro- 
tection are  sufficient,  and  these 
may  often  be  got  by  binding  the 
arm  to  the  side,  especially  if  the 
patient  is  fat.  If  the  patient  is  robust,  and  especially  if  the  fracture 
is  oblique,  so  that  shortening  by  the  traction  of  the  muscles  is  prob- 
able, a  plaster-of-Paris  dressing  with  traction  l)y  a  weight  at  the  elbow 
is  required.  If  the  upper  fragment  is  abducted  and  its  position  can- 
not be  controlled  by  interlocking  of  the  broken  surfaces^  the  abducted 


JMiddeldorpf  s  triangle  for  fracture  of  the 
humerus. 


1  Hennequin  :  Revue  de  Chirurgie,  1887. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 


229 


position  of  the  arm  is  necessary,  and  the  patient  should  be  treated  in 
bed  with  traction  in  that  position  for  a  fortnight,  when  the  upper  frag- 
ment will  generally  be  found  to  accompany  tlie  lower  one  when  it  is 
adducted,  or  out  of  bed  with  a  dressing  like  the  Middeldorpf  triangle. 
Cases  with  marked  tendency  to  displacement  inward  of  the  upper 
end  of  the  lower  fragment  should  be  treated  in  bed  with  traction  in 
abduction  aided  by  moderate  outward  traction  upon  the  upper  part  of 
the  lower  fragment. 

Compound  fractures  which  suppurate  need  a  strong  fixed  support 
which  can  be  maintained  during  the  changes  of  dressing,  such  as  a 
plaster-of-Paris  jacket  with  iron  braces  extending  across  to  a  plaster 
case  enveloping  the  lower  two-thirds  of  the  arm  or  with  a  strong  broad 
plaster  bridge  uniting  the  two  over  the  top  and  outer  aspect  of  the 
shoulder.  In  compound  fractnres  with  splintering  of  the  upper  frag- 
ment and  implication  of  the  joint,  usually  gunshot,  excision  of  the  head 
favors  repair  and  the  subseqnent  usefulness  of  the  limb. 

In  all  cases  the  patient  should  be  directed  to  move  his  wrist  and 
fingers  freely;  and  fixed  dressings  should  be  removed  as  early  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  limb  supported  only  in  a  sling  and  protected   by  a 
removable   shoulder-cap  extending   to   the  elbow,  in 
order  that  massage  may  be  used  to  hasten  the  restora-  fig.  105. 

tion  of  function. 

For  the  treatment  of  fracture  combined  with  dislo- 
cation see  Dislocation  of  the  Shoulder. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  SHAFT  OF  THE 
HUMERUS. 


The  region  is  that  included  between  the  insertion 
of  the  pectoralis  major  and  the  upper  portion  of  the 
supracondyloid  ridges. 

All  the  varieties  of  fracture  which  may  occur  in  long 
bones  are  contained  among  those  of  the  shaft  of  the 
humerus.  A  remarkable  and  unique  example  of  longi- 
tudinal fracture  extending  the  entire  length  of  the  bone 
is  quoted  in  Chapter  II.  (p.  27),  and  Gurlt  gives  two 
of  exceptionally  long  fissures,  beginning  in  the  one 
case  at  the  condyles  and  ending  at  the  insertion  of  the 
deltoid,  and  extending  in  the  other  from  the  upper 
border  of  the  greater  tuberosity  to  the  lower  fourth  of 
the  shaft.  Incomplete  or  partial  fractures  are  ex- 
tremely rare. 

All  the  forms  of  displacement  common  to  fractures 
of  the  long  bones  are  also  found  here,  and  no  one  deserves  mention 
as  of  exceptional  frequency  and  importance.  The  character  of  the 
primary  displacement  depends  largely  upon  the  fracturing  force;  that 
of  later  displacement  upon  the  unsupported  weight  of  the  limb  and 
upon  muscular  action. 

Double  fractures  of  the  same  bone  are  very  rare.    Simultaneous  frac- 


A 


Longitudinal  frac- 
ture of  the  humerus. 
(Gurlt.) 


230  FRACTURES. 

tare  of  both  humeri  has  been  caused  by  epileptic  convulsions  and  by 
external  violence. 

Among  the  injuries  which  may  be  associated  with  the  fracture  are 
dislocation  of  the  shoulder,  laceration  of  the  soft  parts,  and  contusion 
or  rupture  of  bloodvessels  or  nerves.  The  latter  deserve  special  atten- 
tion because  of  the  gangrene  of  the  limb  or  the  paralysis  which  may 
result  and  may  be  attributed  to  negligence  in  the  treatment.  The 
brachial  artery  or  vein  may  be  so  crushed  or  bruised  by  direct  violence 
that  a  thrombus  forms  within  it  and  arrests  the  circulation;  or,  more 
rarely,  it  may  be  torn  by  the  sharp  edge  of  a  displaced  fragment,  or 
the  vessel  may  be  stretched  across  the  fragment  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
occluded  by  pressure.  Occasionally  the  injury  to  the  artery  has  resulted 
in  the  formation  of  an  aneurism.  The  musculo-spiral  nerve  is  par- 
ticularly exposed  to  injury  because  of  its  close  relations  to  the  bone 
throughout  so  large  a  part  of  its  course. 

Causes.  The  causes  of  fracture  are  external  violence  and  muscular 
action;  the  latter  causes  fracture  in  the  humerus  more  frequently  than 
in  any  other  bone,  and  the  causative  effort  has  not  always  been  very 
great.  The  two  most  common  efforts  which  have  caused  it  are  throw- 
ing a  stone  and  that  trial  of  strength  in  which  two  men  clasp  hands 
with  elbows  resting  on  a  table  and  strive  each  to  force  the  other's  hand 
aside;  the  latter  produces  a  spiral  fracture. 

Compound  fractures  have  no  anatomical  peculiarities  that  require 
mention.  Gurlt  collected  five  cases  of  almost  complete  severance  of 
the  arm  by  a  blow  with  an  axe  or  sabre,  all  of  which  recovered  with 
preservation  of  the  limb;  in  all  the  wound  was  on  the  outer  and  ante- 
rior aspect  of  the  limb. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  the  usual  ones:  abnormal  mobility, 
crepitus,  loss  of  function,  pain,  and  more  or  less  deformity.  Impor- 
tant complications,  such  as  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  or  injury  of  the 
artery  or  a  nerve,  have  their  special  symptoms;  the  principal  danger  is 
that  they  may  be  overlooked  because  the  attention  is  concentrated  on 
the  fracture.  Injury  to  the  artery  is  indicated  by  absence  or  weakness 
of  the  radial  pulse,  either  immediately  or  after  the  lapse  of  a  few 
hours;  sometimes  the  symptoms  have  appeared  gradually,  the  pulse 
becoming  weak,  and  finally  disappearing,  the  hand  numb  and  cold,  the 
surface  bluish,  and  after  death  or  amputation  a  clot,  sometimes  firm, 
pale,  and  adherent,  sometimes  dark  and  soft,  has  been  found  in  the 
artery.  Injury  of  a  nerve,  usually  the  musculo-spiral,  is  shown  by 
paralysis  and  loss  of  sensation  or  hypergesthesia  in  the  region  supplied 
by  it;  paralysis  or  loss  of  sensation  indicates  division  or  destruction  of 
the  nerve  ;  hypersesthesia  indicates  irritation,  usually  by  pressure. 
Paralysis  of  motion  is  often  overlooked  at  first. 

A  simple  fracture  in  an  adult,  running  its  course  without  complica- 
tions, will  be  solidly  united  in  froui  four  to  six  weeks,  and  in  three  or 
four  weeks  in  children.  The  possible  complications  are  inflammation 
and  delayed  union;  the  former  is  sometimes  quite  marked,  and  the 
latter  is  of  much  more  frequent  occurrence  in  the  humerus  than  in  any 
other  bone.  The  general  and  local  causes  which  lead  to  delay  in  or 
failure  of  union  have  been  discussed  in  Chapter  VIII.     It  has  been 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 


231 


Fig.  106. 


thouglit  that  the  special  cause  in  the  case  of  tlie  humerus  is  defective 
immobilization  of  the  fragments,  for  when  the  elbow  is  kept  at  a  right 
angle  any  vertical  movement  of  the  hand  or  forearm  is  likely  to  cause 
horizontal  movement  of  the  lower  fragment  on  the  upper  one,  and 
lateral  splints  cannot  be  fitted  accurately  or  snugly 
enough  to  prevent  it.  It  has  been  propo.sed,  there- 
fore, to  treat  the  fracture  with  the  elbow  in  full  exten- 
sion, but  this  position  is  very  irksome  and  equal  im- 
mobilization can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  posterior 
splint  the  upper  end  of  which  overlaps  and  is  secured 
to  the  shoulder.  The  supposed  interposition  of  mus- 
cle which  has  been  so  frequently  alleged  as  the  cause 
has  existed  in  none  of  the  cases  upon  which  I  have 
operated  because  of  failure  of  union. 

Treatment.  Reduction  is  made  by  traction  upon 
the  condyles  or  the  flexed  forearm.  The  treatment  in 
fractures  of  the  upper  third  is  essentially  the  same  as 
in  fractures  of  the  surgical  neck;  rest  in  bed,  with 
continuous  traction  and  the  limb  supported  upon 
cushions,  may  be  required  at  first.  For  the  lower 
fractures  abduction  of  the  limb  is  not  so  often  needed. 
The  plaster-of-Paris  bandage  is  in  common  use,  is 
more  secure  than  lateral  splints,  and  gives  good  re- 
sults, but  it  needs  carefid  watching  at  first,  both  to 
detect  displacement  and  to  prevent  strangulation  of 
the  limb.  It  should  be  carried  from  the  wrist  to  the 
shoulder,  and  may  include  a  few  spica  turns  over 
the  shoulder  and  about  the  chest  to  aid  immobiliza- 
tion and  oppose  overriding.  The  forearm  should  be 
flexed  and  supported  by  a  sling  at  the  wrist.  Snug 
support  under  the  elbow  in  low  fractures  can  produce 
an  angular  deviation  inward  of  the  lower  fragment 
(Fig.  106),  which  greatly  disfigure  the  limb,  especially 
when  the  forearm  is  extended;  this  deformity  is  con- 
sidered in  detail  in  the  subsequent  section  on  Supra- 
condyloid  Fractures.  A  posterior  moulded  plaster  or 
wire  splint  extending  under  the  forearm  and  over 
the  back  of  the  shoulder  is  convenient  and  efficient. 
A  weight  attached  to  the  elbow  is  sometimes  useful 
to  prevent  shortening  or  to  overcome  that  which 
is  already  present;  it  will  lengthen  a  limb  even  after  the  lapse  of  two 
or  three  weeks. 

I  have  found  it  advantageous  in  cases  of  fracture  by  direct  violence, 
especially  in  women  and  the  alcoholic,  to  keep  the  patient  in  bed  for 
about  a  week,  or  until  the  danger  of  acute  inflammatory  complications 
had  passed.  Stromeyer's  cushion,  designed  particularly  for  the  treat- 
ment of  compound  fractures,  is  useful  as  a  support.  It  has  the  form 
of  a  triangular  pyramid  (Fig.  107),  the  long  lines  of  which  are  twelve 
or  fifteen  inches  long.  It  should  be  firm  enough  to  keep  its  shape 
under  pressure,  and  its  upper  end  should  be  blunter  than  shown  in  the 


Fracture  of  lower 
portion  of  shaft ;  an- 
gular displacement ; 
cubitus  varus. 


232 


FRACTURES. 


figure.     It  is  secured  in  place  (Fig.  108)  by  tying  the  upper  pair  of 

straps  about  the  opposite  shoulder  and  the  lower  pair  about  the  waist. 

In  the  treatment  of  compound  fractures  the  general  principles  laid 

down  in  Chapter  YII.  are  to  be  followed.     I  habitually  treat  them  in 


Fig.  107. 


Fig.  108. 


Stromeyer's  axillary  cushion. 


Stromeyer's  cushion. 

bed  for  the  first  fortnight  with 
tlie  limb  on  a  pillow,  trusting 
to  the  position  and  the  support 
of  a  bulky  dressiag  of  the 
wound  for  the  desired  immo- 
bilization. If  prompt  union 
of  the  wound  is  not  obtained 
moulded  splints  can  be  applied 
Resection  of  the  ends  of  the  fragments  or  their 


outside  the  dressing. 

direct  suturing  is  rarely  indicated 

When  there  is  reason  to  fear  serious  injury  to  bloodvessels  or  nerves 
fixed  dressings  and  bandages  should  be  avoided  until  after  the  extent 
of  the  injury  shall  have  become  apparent.  Reduction  should  be  made 
as  completely  as  possible  and  the  limb  supported  upon  cushions. 


3.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  LOWER  END  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 

This  group,  like  that  of  fractures  at  the  upper  end  of  the  humerus, 
includes  a  number  of  varieties  differing  materially  in  character  and 
importance,  and  having  in  common  only  their  position  near  the  elbow, 
and  the  frequent  necessity  and  difficulty  of  making  a  differential  diag- 
nosis between  each  and  the  others  and  dislocation.  A  certain  lack  of 
agreement  among  writers,  as  to  the  sense  in  which  some  of  the  distin- 
guishing terms  are  used,  makes  it  desirable  to  define  those  that  are  to 
be  here  employed  at  the  same  time  that  the  limits  of  the  divisions  of 
the  main  group  are  traced.      These  divisions  are: 

A.  Fractures  Above  the  Condyles ;  Supracondyloid.  The  line  of  frac- 
ture crosses  the  expanded  part  of  the  bone  above  the  articular  surface 
transversely  or  obliquely,  and  may  or  may  not  open  the  articulation. 

B.  Fractures  of  the  Internal  Epicondyle  or  Epitrochlea.  The  line  of 
fracture  is  entirely  extra-articular,  and  the  piece  broken  off  consists  of 
the  whole  or  part  of  the  epicondylew  And  by  the  internal  epicondyle 
or  epitrochlea  is  meant  the  whole  of   the  projecting  tuberosity  that  lies 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS.  233 

above  and  on  the  inner  side  of  the  trochlea,  and  part  of  wliich  is  devel- 
oped about  a  separate  centre  of  ossification. 

C.  Fractures  of  the  External  Epicondyle.  The  line  of  fracture  is  prob- 
ably extra-articular;  the  fragment  is  very  small,  consisting  of  the  epi- 
condyle proper,  either  alone  or  with  some  of  the  adjoining  bone. 

D.  Fractures  of  the  Internal  Condyle.  In  these  the  line  of  fracture 
passes  from  a  point  on  the  inner  border  of  the  bone  above  the  tip  of 
the  epicondyle  obliquely  downward  and  outward  to  the  articular  sur- 
face. 

E.  Fractures  of  the  External  Condyle.  Similar  to  the  preceding  vari- 
ety, except  that  the  line  of  fracture  begins  upon  the  outer  side  and 
passes  downward  and  inward. 

F.  Intercondyloid  or  T-shaped  Fractures.  These  are  a  combination  of 
the  first,  fourth,  and  fifth,  the  extremity  being  separated  from  the  shaft 
and  split  into  two  or  more  pieces. 

G.  Separation  of  the  Epiphysis.  The  fracture  follows  the  line  of  the 
conjugal  cartilage. 

H.  Fracture  of  the  Articular  Process.  In  this  more  or  less  of  the  por- 
tion of  bone  covered  by  articular  cartilage  is  broken  off;  the  most 
common  form  is  fracture  of  the  capitellum. 

These  fractures  are  much  more  common  than  those  of  either  the 
upper  end  or  shaft.  The  relativ^e  frequency  of  the  varieties  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  list  has  not  been  satisfactorily  determined;  published 
statistics  differ  quite  widely,  and  the  differential  diagnosis  is  often  so 
difficult  (partly  because  of  the  extreme  youth  of  many  of  the  patients) 
that  doubt  must  sometimes  remain  whether  a  case  has  been  properly 
assigned  to  its  class.  In  the  Out-patient  Department  of  the  House  of 
Relief  between  January  1,  1895,  and  October  1,  1897,  forty-eight  of 
these  fractures  were  received,  divided  as  follows:  Supracondyloid  8, 
intercondyloid  7,  external  condyle  15,  internal  condyle  10,  internal 
epicondyle  8.^ 

The  great  relative  frequency  of  these  fractures  in  children  makes 
necessary  a  brief  account  of  the  somewhat  complex  development  of 
this  end  of  the  bone.  According  to  Henle,  the  epiphysis  at  birth  is 
wholly  cartilaginous  below  a  transverse  line  passing  through  the  lower 
part  of  the  olecranon  fossa;  in  a  month  or  two  this  line  descends  cen- 
trally to  the  lower  edge  of  the  fossa,  becoming  convex,  and  during  the 
first  or  second  year  a  centre  of  ossification  appears  in  the  capitellum. 
Between  the  eighth  and  twelfth  years  this  nodule  enlarges,  nearly  or 
quite  reaching  the  trochlear  groove,  a  nodule  appears  in  each  epicondyle, 
and  the  diaphysis  sends  a  prolongation  down  into  the  inner  portion  of 
the  trochlea.  Between  the  twelfth  and  fifteenth  years  the  nodule  of  the 
capitellum  unites  with  that  of  its  epicondyle,  and  after  that  the  final 
point  of  ossification,  that  of  the  trochlea,  appears;  it  is  a  thin  concave 

1  Excluding  cases  associated  with  dislocation  of  the  elbow,  examination  of  the  record  suggests 
that  two  or  three  of  those  classed  as  fractures  of  the  internal  condyle  were  supracondyloid. 
Thirty  of  the  patients  were  under  eleven  years  of  age,  and  7  others  were  less  than  twenty  years 
old  ;  8  were  more  than  twenty  years  old,  and  in  3  the  age  was  not  noted.  Of  the  8  fractures  in 
adults  3  were  of  the  epicondyle,  2  of  the  external  condyle,  1  of  the  internal  condyle,  1  supracon- 
dyloid, and  1  intercondyloid.  Counting  the  intercondyloid  as  a  variety  of  the  supracondyloid 
and  adding  to  the  latter  the  doubtful  ones  classed  as  "of  the  Internal  condyle,  the  order  of  fre- 
quency would  be ;  1.  Supracondyloid.   2.  External  condyle.   3.  Internal  condyle.    4.  Epicondyle. 


234 


FRACTURES. 


cap  or  shell,  closely  applied  to  the  downward  projection  of  the  corre- 
sponding portion  o£  the  diaphysis,  and  ujiites  with  the  nodule  of  the 
cajntellum  about  the  fifteenth  year;  soon  afterward  the  nodule  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  trochlea,  capitellum,  and  external  epicondyle  unites 


Fig.  109. 


Twelfth  to  fifteenth  year.  Eighth  to  twelfth  year.  First  to  second  year. 

Ossification  of  the  lower  epiphysis  of  the  humerus. 


with  the  diaphysis,  and  subsequently  the  nodule  of  the  internal  epicon- 
dyle unites.  Kocher's  statement,  following  Farabeuf,  that  the  trochlear 
nodule  is  the  first  to  unite  with  the  diaphysis  seems  to  be  an  error  due 
to  misinterpretation  of  the  peculiar  descent  of  the  diaphysis  into  the 
trochlea,  probably  through  ignorance  of  the  late  appearance  of  the 
trochlear  nodule.  It  thus  appears  that  the  epiphysis  after  about  the 
fifth  year  is  an  irregular  strip  of  cartilage  containing  one,  or  two,  bony 
nodules  in  its  thicker  outer  portion,  and  none  in  its  thin  saucer-like 

trochlear  portion,  which  latter  is  continuous 
Fi«- 110.  by  a  sort  of  neck  with  the  cartilaginous  and 

bony  internal  epicondyle. 


A.  Fractures  above  the  Condyles- 
condyloid. 


-Supra- 


These  fractures  are  those  which  come  next 
in  order  of  position  after  fractures  of  the 
lower  third  of  the  shaft, and  require  separate 
mention  because  of  the  special  questions  in- 
volved in  the  differential  diagnosis  by  reason 
of  the  proximity  of  the  elbow-joint  and  by 
the  possible  extension  of  the  fracture  into  the 
joint.  The  line  of  fracture  may  be  trans- 
verse or  oblique,  and  oblique  either  from 
side  to  side  or  from  before  backward,  and 
it  may  open  the  joint  by  crossing  the  ole- 
cranon or  coronoid  fossa  or  by  the  extension 
into  it  of  a  fissure  between  the  condyles. 
The  cause  is  violence  acting  upon  the 
front  or  back  of  the  lower  end  of  the  bone,  usually  through  the  bones 
of  the  forearm,  as  in  a  fall  upon  the  outstretched  hand,  or,  as  indi- 
cated by  Kocher's  experiments,  by  torsion.  The  commonest  cause 
appears  to  be  a  fall  upon  the  hand  in  which  the  end  of  the  humerus 


Supracondyloid  fracture  of  the 
humerus. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 


235 


is  pressed  backward  (^'extension  fracture")  either  directly  by  the 
partly  flexed  forearm  or  ])ossibly  by  hyperextension  of  the  joint.  In 
this  case  the  line  of  fracture  is  oblique  from  behind  downward  and 
forward,  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  fragment  often  ending  in  a  sharp 
point  on  its  anterior  aspect.      When  the  force  acts  in   the  opposite 


Fig.  111. 


Fig.  112. 


'  Extension  "  and  "  flexion  "  fractures  of  lower  end  of  the  humerus. 
Fig.  113.  Fig.  114. 


Supracondyloid  fracture.    A.  Front.    B.  Rear  view. 


direction,  against  the  back  of  the  elbow,  a  much  more  rare  occurrence, 
and  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  is  forced  forward  (''  flexion  frac- 
ture"), the  line  of  fracture  runs  from  in  front  downward  and  back- 
ward, and  the  sharp  point  is  found  at  the  upper  end  of  the  lower 
fragment  in  front  (Pigs.  Ill  and  112).  Figs.  113  and  114  represent 
a  specimen  of  this  kind  which  I  obtained  from  a  patient  who  died  of 


236 


FRACTURES. 


delirium  tremens  shortly  after  the  accident.  While  carrying  a  flagstone 
he  fell  upon  the  elbow,  flexed  at  a  right  angle,  with  the  edge  of  the 
stone  resting  in  the  flexure  of  the  joint;  the  fracture  was  almost  ex- 
actly in  the  frontal  plane,  as  if  the  condyles  had  been  cut  off  by  an 
axe  descending  along  the  anterior  surface  of  the  humerus.  The  lower 
fragment  was  slightly  displaced  forward  and  upward.  In  both  forms 
the  higher  the  fracture  the  less,  apparently,  is  the  obliquity;  in  one 
which  I  had  an  opportunity  directly  to  examine  in  the  course  of  an 
operation  undertaken  to  increase  the  range  of  motion  after  healing 
with  displacement,  the  line  of  fracture  appeared  to  have  been  almost 
exactly  transverse  from  side  to  side  and  but  slightly  oblique  from  before 
backward  and  upward.  The  lower  fragment  was  displaced  backward. 
The  character  and  extent  of  displacement  vary  with  the  direction  of 
the  line  of  fracture;  as  the  latter  is  so  often  oblique  downward  and 
forward,  the  lower  fragment  is  commonly  displaced  backward  and 
upward,  and  not  infrequently  the  sharp  end  of  the  upper  fragment  is 
forced  through  the  overlying  muscles  and  even  the  skin  on  the  antero- 
internal  aspect.  To  this  displacement  backward  may  be  added,  or  for 
it  may  be  substituted,  an  angular  displacement,  the  apex  directed  for- 
ward, which  accentuates  the  prominence  of  the  back  of  the  elbow.  In 
the  less  common  cases  in  which  the  obliquity  is  downward  and  back- 


FiG.  115. 


Fig.  116. 


Supracondyloid  fracture  with  angalar  dis- 
placement ;  marked  cubitus  varus. 


Supracondyloid  fracture  with  angular  displace- 
ment ;  marked  cubitus  varus.    Front  view. 


ward  the  displacement  of  the  fragment  is  forward  and  upward,  but  is 
much  less  marked  than  in  the  other  form,  although  occasionally  the 
upper  fragment  has  been  forced  through  the  triceps  and  the  skin. 
If  displacement  persists  the  range  of   motion  in  the  elbow  may  be 


PLATE  11. 


Fig.  1.  — Old  Supra-eondyloid  Fracture  of  the  Hunnerus.     Cubitus  Varus. 


Fig.  2.  —  Fracture  of  Head  and  Neck  of  Radius. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS.  237 

restricted  by  direct  bony  contact  or  by  fibrous  bands  attaching  the  torn 
and  bruised  muscles  to  tlie  bone. 

A  late  and  most  important  displacement,  which  ajjparently  is  due  in 
great  part  to  the  dressing,  to  the  support  of  the  limb  by  a  bandage  or 
sling  under  the  elbow,  aided  perhaps  by  muscular  contraction,  is  the 
angular  lateral  deviation  of  the  lower  fragment  with  the  apex  directed 
outward,  which  is  shown  in  Figs.  115  and  11(3.  The  deformity  of  the 
elbow  which  results  is  very  noticeable  in  extension  and  has  often  been 
attributed  solely  to  the  ascent  of  the  internal  condyle  after  its  fracture, 
but  there  is  good  reason  to  believe,  I  think,  that  it  is  much  more  fre- 
quently the  result  of  a  supracondyloid  fracture  followed  by  this  angular 
displacement.  A  number  of  specimens  have  been  described,  and  I  pos- 
sess two  (Figs.  106,  115,  and  116);  the  one  represented  in  Fig,  116 
corresponds  almost  exactly  with  the  condition  of  the  bones  shown  in 
the  skiagram  (Plate  II.,  fig.  1)  of  the  limb  shown  in  Fig.  117. 

Fig.  117. 


Supracondyloid  fracture  ;  cubitus  varus. 

The  artery  of  the  median  or  musculo-spiral  nerve  may  be  torn  or 
compressed,  but  this  injury  is  much  less  frequent  than  might  be  antici- 
pated from  the  extent  and  direction  of  the  displacement. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  deformity,  loss  of  function,  abnormal 
mobility,  and  pain.  The  deformity  may  be  marked  or  slight,  the 
former  especially  when  the  line  of  fracture  is  oblique  from  behind 
downward  and  forward  and  the  lower  fragment  is  displaced  and  tilted 
backward;  this  causes  a  prominence  of  the  back  of  the  elbow  which 
in  some  stages  resembles  that  of  a  dislocation,  but  is  readily  distin- 
guished from  it  by  noting  that  the  relations  of  the  olecranon  and  epi- 
condyles  are  normal  and  that  the  head  of  the  radius  is  in  place. 

The  determination  of  these  relations  is  the  first  step  to  be  taken  in 
the  examination  of  most  injuries  of  the  elbow;  it  is  conveniently  done 
by  placing  the  tips  of  the  thumb  and  middle  finger  on  the  two  epicon- 
dyles  respectively  and  that  of  the  index  finger  upon  the  point  of  the 
olecranon,  and  noting  their  correspondence  or  lack  of  correspondence 
with  the  normal  in  the  positions  of  extension  and  of  flexion  at  a  right 
angle,  ordinarily  using  the  other  elbow  in  comparison.  The  head  of 
the  radius  can  be  felt  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  distant 
from  the  external  epicondyle  in  the  direction  of  the  wrist.  Fig.  118 
shows  these  relations. 


238 


FRACTURES. 


Left  arm  from  (a)  outer  side,  (b)  behind  :  to  show 
relations  of  the  olecranon  and  epicondyles  in  (a)  flex- 
ion and  (&)  extension. 


Swelling  is  marked  and  uniform;  eccliymosis  is  usually  present  after 
a  few  hours;  voluntary  motion  is  inhibited  by  pain,  passive  motion 
restricted.  Abnormal  lateral  mobility— adduction  and  abduction  of 
the  forearm — exists  and  is  most  surely  recognized  if  the  test  is  made 
while  the  elbow  is  extended.      If  the  condyles  are  firmly  grasped  with 

one   hand  and  the  shaft  with 
^iG- 118.  the  other,  free  mobility  of  one 

upon  the  other,  usually  with 
crepitus,  is  found.  Pressure 
upward  with  the  hand  under 
the  flexed  elbow  causes  pain. 
Pressing  the  condyles  together 
does  not  cause  pain  unless  the 
line  of  fracture  also  runs  be- 
tween them  (T-fracture),  nor 
can  the  condyles  be  moved 
independently  of  each  other. 
Pressure  with  the  tip  of  the 
finger  along  the  supracondy- 
loid  ridges  may  detect  irregu- 
larity and  cause  pain  at  the 
point  of  fracture  if  the  displacement  is  slight;  if  it  is  marked  the 
lower  end  of  the  upper  fragment  can  be  readily  recognized,  usually 
in  front,  at  or  close  above  the  flexure  of  the  elbow. 

Treatment.  In  view  of  the  proximity  of  the  joint  the  important  indi- 
cation is  to  secure  repair  without  displacement;  and  the  displacements 
which  threaten  are  the  primary  overriding  and  the  late  lateral  angular 
deviation  (Fig.  115).  The  overriding  can  be  corrected  by  traction, 
preferably  with  the  elbow  at  a  right  angle,  and  its  recurrence  effectively 
opposed  by  anterior  and  posterior  moulded  splints,  or  a  plaster  encase- 
ment, aided  sometimes  by  a  weight  attached  to  the  forearm  close  by 
the  elbow,  with  the  wrist  supported  by  a  sling,  as  the  same  indication 
is  met  in  fractures  of  the  shaft.  Frequent  inspection,  and  possibly 
readjustment,  will  be  needed  during  the  first  two  or  three  weeks. 
Lateral  angular  displacement  is  unlikely  to  occur  if  the  limb  is  not 
supported  at  the  elbow;  it  should  be  further  opposed  by  taking  care 
that  the  inner  upper  portion  of  the  forearm  (with  the  attached  lower 
fragment)  is  kept  well  down,  pronated,  while  the  moulded  splint  is 
hardening.  Fixation  in  the  position  of  full  extension,  which  has  been 
recommended  more  particularly  in  fracture  of  the  internal  condyle 
with  the  object  of  maintaining  the  normal  outward  deviation  (abduc- 
tion) of  the  forearm,  is,  I  think,  undesirable.  I  have  used  it  in  the 
form  of  vertical  suspension  in  compound  fractures  with  great  advan- 
tage during  the  first  fortnight,  but  the  advantage  comes  from  the 
suspension,  in  controlling  the  reaction,  not  from  its  effect  upon  the 
position  of  the  lower  fragment ;  that,  I  think,  is  likely  to  tilt  back- 
ward in  tlie  extended  position,  producing  an  angular  displacement,, 
apex  forward. 

In  a  few  cases  after  union  has  taken  place  the  deformity  produced 
by  angular  inward   displacement  has  been   relieved  by  excision  of  a 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS.  239 

wedge-shaped  piece  from  the  outer  side  of  the  humerus  just  above  the 
epicondyle,  thus  brioging  the  lower  fragment  into  line  with  the  shaft. 

B.  Fractures  of  the  Internal  Epicondyle  rEpitrochlea). 

By  the  epitrochlea  is  meant  the  projecting  spur  of  bone  on  the  side 
of  the  trochlea;  its  lower  limit  is  sharply  defined,  but  above  it  is  con- 
tinuous with  the  condyloid  ridge. 

The  first  author  who  called  attention  to  this  fracture  was  Granger/ 
in  1818.  It  is  more  common  in  children  than  in  adults;  of  the  ten 
cases  above  mentioned,  not  associated  with  dislocation  of  the  elbow, 
treated  in  the  House  of  Relief  in  two  and  a  half  years,  the  ages  were 
one,  five,  ten,  ten,  fourteen,  seventeen,  twenty-eight,  thirty-four,  and 
forty-three  years.  The  fracture  frequently  accompanies  dislocation  of 
the  elbow,  being  produced,  I  think,  by  the  pull  of  the  flexor  muscles 
of  the  forearm  which  are  attached  to  it  and  which  are  put  upon  the 
stretch  by  the  forcible  abduction  of  the  forearm  which  is  so  common  a 
first  step  in  the  production  of  a  backward  or  outward  dislocation.  In 
cases  not  thus  complicated  the  cause  appears  commonly  to  be  external 
violence  acting  directly  upon  the  back  of  the  epitrochlea. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  vary  somewhat  with  the  size  of  the  frag- 
ment, for  when  the  latter  is  small  it  is  held  in  place  by  the  iintorn  por- 
tion of  the  muscular  attachments  upon  it  and  the  adjoining  bone,  but 
when  it  is  large  enough  to  include  the  greater  part  of  the  attachment 
displacement  takes  place  downward  and  forward  in  the  direction  of  the 
muscles.  If  the  swelling  is  not  too  great  the  fragment  can  be  seized 
between  the  thumb  and  finger  and  moved,  usually  with 
crepitus.  Ecchymosis  is  common,  and  the  functions  of  ^^°-  ^^^• 
the  joint  may  be  diminished  by  pain  or  the  fear  of  it. 

In  a  few  cases  the  ulnar  nerve  has  been  injured  by 
the  original  violence  or  irritated  by  pressure  of  the  dis- 
placed fragment  or  a  portion  of  callus.  In  three  of 
Granger's  cases  there  was  partial  paralysis  of  motion 
and  sensation  in  the  region  supplied  by  the  ulnar  nerve, 
and  repeated  crops  of  vesicles  formed  upon  the  corre- 
sponding part  of  the  hand  during  the  two  or  three 
months  following  the  injury.  All  the  symptoms  dis- 
appeared after  a  time.  Richet^  observed  a  case  of  frac- 
ture of  the  epitrochlea  with  dislocation  of  the  elbow 
inward  due  to  a  fall  upon  the  ice.  After  reduction  of 
the  dislocation  the  ulnar  nerve  was  found  to  be  com-  Fracture  of  the  in- 
pletely  paralyzed.  A  month  later  the  little  finger  was  temai  epicondyle  of 
so  insensitive  that  the  patient  amused  himself  and  trochlea).  (Guelt.) 
amazed  his  play-fellows  by  holding  it  for  more  than  a 
minute  in  the  flame  of  a  candle.  The  deep  burn  which  was  the 
result  took  several  weeks  to  heal;  afterward  sensibility  returned 
gradually  and  became  complete. 

Denuce^  was  consulted  by  a  man  suffering  with  an  intense  neuralgia 

1  Granger :  Edinburgh  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  vol.  xiv.  p.  196. 

2  Richet :  Anatomie  Medico-Chirurgicale,  4th  ed.,  p.  672,  note. 
2  Denuc6 :  Diet,  de  Mod.  et  Chir.  Pratiques,  art.  Coude,  p.  721. 


240  FRACTURES. 

of  the  ulnar  nerve  following  a  fall  upon  the  elbow  three  months  before. 
He  recognized  deformity  of  the  epitrochlea,  made  an  incision,  and 
found  the  nerve  hypertrophied  and  resting  upon  a  bony  prominence 
formed  by  the  epitrochlea  displaced  and  united  in  its  false  position. 
The  projecting  part  of  the  bone  was  excised,  and  the  neuralgia  ceased. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  simple  :  immobilization  of  the  elbow 
in  the  flexed  position  so  as  to  relax  the  muscles  that  arise  from  the  epi- 
trochlea and  thus  diminish  the  force  that  tends  to  draw  it  forward  and 
downward.  It  is  f atile  to  attempt  to  keep  the  fragment  in  place  by 
pressure  upon  it  from  the  outside.  Even  if  it  remains  displaced  down- 
ward and  forward  the  deformity  is  slight  and  entails  no  loss  of  function. 
Immobilization  should  be  maintained  until  consolidation  has  taken 
place,  the  length  of  time  necessary  for  which  varies  with  the  age  of  the 
patient  and  the  extent  of  the  unreduced  displacement.  In  children, 
and  without  displacement,  union  is  sufficiently  firm  at  the  end  of  ten 
days  or  a  fortnight  to  allow  splints  to  be  laid  aside  and  the  arm  to  be 
carried  in  a  sling,  and  in  three  weeks  the  arm  may  be  left  unsupported 
and  free. 

In  a  few  cases  the  fragment  has  been  excised  because  of  pain  or  fear 
lest  it  should  interfere  with  function;  it  has  also  been  proposed  to 
secure  it  in  place  by  transfixion  with  a  pin  or  by  incision  and  suture, 
but  the  measure  seems  wholly  unnecessary. 

C,  Fractures  of  the  External  Epicondyle. 

This  is  a  much  rarer  accident  than  the  preceding,  and  as  the  frag- 
ment that  is  broken  off  is  small,  and  as  the  cause  appears  to  be  always 
direct  violence,  which  is  usually  accompanied  by  bruising  and  swelling, 
the  exact  nature  of  the  injury  may  easily  pass  unrecognized.      An 
anatomical  demonstration  of  the  fracture  has  never 
Fig.  120.  been  made,  except  in  connection  with  more  exten- 

"^  sive  fractures  of  the  elbow. 

I  In  the  sense  in  which  the  term  is  here  used  the 

epicondyle  is  the  small  prominence  above  and  on 
the  outer  side  of  the  capitellum,  composed  in  part  of 
^  bone  formed  about  a  separate  centre  of  ossification, 

\and  in  part  of  the  projecting  portion  of  the  shaft  or 
condyle  itself.      To  it  are  attached  the  external 
tr  4   *^     lateral  ligament  of  the  joint  and  part  of  the  ex- 

t  f  t  W     tensor  muscles  of  the  forearm. 

J       \  I  Most  surgeons  deny  the  possibility  of  an  extra- 

1  articular  fracture  of  this  part,  and  group  all  frac- 

'^  tures  of   the  region  as  of  the  external  condyle. 

Fracture  of  the  external  Anatomically  speakinff  it  is  certainly  possible  for 

■epicondyle  of  the  humerus.  ,  c.j  ,i  -ii         i  i 

(GuELT.)  such  a  tracture  to  occur;  the  epicondyle,  though 

small,  is  still  large  enough  to  be  broken  in  such  a 
way  that  the  line  of  fracture  may  lie  entirely  outside  the  joint. 

Gurlt  describes  as  extra-articular  fractures  of  the  external  epicon- 
dyle two  specimens  preserved,  the  one  at  Giessen,  the  other  at  Berlin. 
In  each  the  fracture  has  united  with  considerable  displacement  down- 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 


241 


ward  of  the  fragment,  which  appears  in  the  description  and  figure  (Fig. 
120)  too  large  to  have  been  entirely  extra-articular.  Still,  his  personal 
examination  of  the  specimens  was  more  likely  to  lead  to  a  correct 
opinion  of  them  than  a  verbal  description  or  a  figure  is. 

There  is  little  to  be  added.  The  cause  must  be  direct  violence,  or 
possibly  forcible  adduction  of  the  forearm  acting  through  the  lateral 
ligament ;  the  displacement  must  be  slight  and  unimportant  ;  the 
treatment,  rest. 


Fig.  121. 


D.  Fractures  of  the  Internal  Condyle. 

The  line  of  fracture  runs  from  a  point  on  the  inner  border  of  the 
epitrochlea  or  of  the  ridge  above  it  downward  and  outward,  ending  on 
the  outer  half  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
trochlea  or  at,  or  even  a  little  beyond,  its 
junction  with  the  capitellum  (Fig.  121). 

The  common  cause  appears  to  be  vio- 
lence acting  from  below  upward  upon  the 
trochlea,  as  in  a  fall  upon  the  flexed  elbow, 
or  by  forced  adduction  of  the  forearm, 
turning  upon  the  head  of  the  radius  as  a 
centre,  and  breaking  off  the  condyle  by 
forcing  it  upward  or  backward. 

The  fragment  may  be  displaced  upward, 
backward,  or  in  both  direclions,  and  may 
also  be  rotated.  As  the  ulna  remains  at- 
tached to  the  fragment  and  is  itself  held 
in  place  by  its  attachments  to  the  radius, 
the  displacement  of  the  fragment  cannot 
be  great  unless  there  is  associated  disloca- 
tion of  the  radius  from  the  capitellum,  as  is 
occasionally  observed.  A  late  displacement,  similar  in  cause  and  effect 
to  that  observed  after  supracondyloid  fracture,  occurs  here  also  ; 
pressure  upward  against  the  flexed  elbow,  as  by  a  snug  sling,  is  trans- 
mitted through  the  olecranon  to  the  fragment  and  raises  it  above  its 
proper  place,  thus  changing  the  direction  of  the  transverse  axis  of  the 
joint  and  substituting  adduction  of  the  forearm — cubitus  varus — for 
the  slight  normal  abduction.  Possibly  the  contraction  of  the  triceps 
and  brachialis  anticus  may  aid  in  producing  this  result.  There  is  also 
reason,  I  think,  for  the  suspicion  that  the  elevation  of  the  condyle 
found  in  some  cases  is  the  result  not  of  displacement  before  union, 
but  of  arrested  growth  by  the  interference  of  the  fracture  with  the 
conjugal  cartilage  on  that  side.  This  is  suggested  by  the  perfect  out- 
line of  the  supracondyloid  ridge  and  the  absence  of  marked  irregu- 
larity on  the  anterior  and  posterior  surfaces.  The  fact,  if  it  is  one, 
could  be  determined  by  observing  the  gradual  increase  of  the  deform- 
ity, adduction  of  the  forearm,  during  the  years  following  fracture  in 
a  young  person. 

The  swelling,  as  in  most  of  these  fractures  at  the  elbow,  is  uniform, 
rarely  more  marked  on  the  side  of  the  injury  except  at  first;  loss  of 

16 


Upper  and  lower  limits  of  fracture  of 
the  internal  condyle. 


242  FRACTURES. 

function  is  marked,  the  arm  generally  being  held  at  an  angle  of  about 
125  degrees,  and  the  range  even  of  passive  motion  without  anaesthesia 
is  restricted.  The  characteristic  symptoms  are  independent  mobility 
of  the  condyle,  usually  with  crepitus,  pain  on  pressing  the  condyles 
together  and  on  pressure  with  the  tip  of  the  finger  at  the  point  where 
the  line  of  fracture  crosses  the  supracondyloid  ridge,  and  sometimes 
an  irregularity  in  the  line  of  the  ridge  at  that  point.  The  independent 
mobility  is  recognized  by  grasping  the  fragment  between  the  thumb 
and  lingers  and  moving  it  slightly  backward  and  forward  while  the 
other  condyle  and  the  shaft  are  held  with  the  other  hand.  Pain  can 
also  be  caused  by  pressure  upward  against  the  olecranon  or  backward 
through  the  forearm  while  the  elbow  is  partly  flexed.  If  the  limb  can 
be  fully  extended  abnormal  lateral  mobility  of  the  forearm—adduction 
and  abduction — is  found,  especially  abduction.  The  same  mobility 
exists  when  the  joint  is  more  or  less  flexed,  but  the  observation  cannot 
be  safely  made,  at  least  in  the  young,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  dis- 
tinguishing between  it  and  rotation  of  the  humerus;  full  extension  is 
necessary  for  the  test,  and  this  can  rarely  be  had  except  with  the  aid 
of  general  anaesthesia.  The  relations  of  the  epitrochlea  and  tip  of  the 
olecranon  are  preserved,  and  their  elevation  or  displacement  backward 
with  reference  to  the  external  epicondyle  is  generally  too  slight  to  be 
recognized  through  the  swelling. 

Associated  dislocation  of  the  radius  from  the  capitellum  is  recognized 
by  the  presence  of  its  head  below  and  behind  the  outer  condyle  and  by 
the  marked  displacement  backward  of  the  internal  condyle  and  olecra- 
non, which  leaves  the  outer  condyle  and  lower  end  of  the  shaft  as  an 
easily  recognizable  prominence  in  the  flexure  of  the  joint. 

The  main  point  to  be  considered  in  the  treatment  is  the  correction  or 
prevention  of  such  displacement  as  would  seriously  interfere  with  the 
functions  of  the  joint  or  the  appearance  of  the  limb,  notably  the  ascent 
of  the  condyle  by  which  the  axis  of  the  forearm  would  be  directed 
inward  (adduction).  The  fragment  is  too  small  to  be  acted  upon 
directly  by  any  dressing,  and  its  position  must,  therefore,  be  controlled 
through  the  ulna  to  which  it  is  attached.  Ordinarily  this  can  be  satis- 
factorily done  by  a  fixed  dressing  with  the  elbow  at  a  right  angle,  either 
a  tin  posterior  splint  or,  preferably,  a  moulded  one  or  a  plaster  encase- 
ment. The  essential  points  are  that  the  fragment  should  be  kept  well 
down  in  place  while  the  dressing  is  hardening,  if  a  moulded  one  is  used, 
and  that  it  should  not  be  pressed  upward  during  repair  by  the  bandage 
which  supports  the  forearm;  this  should  lie  near  the  wrist,  not  under 
the  elbow.  Full  flexion  and  full  extension  of  the  joint,  which  meas- 
urably control  the  position  of  the  fragment  by  the  tension  of  the  pos- 
terior and  anterior  portions  of  the  capsule  respectively,  have  been 
recommended  ;  in  each  position  tilting  of  the  fragment  sometimes 
occurs.  Full  flexion  is  a  much  more  convenient  attitude  than  full 
extension,  unless  the  patient  is  kept  in  bed;  but  it  is  no  more  con- 
venient than  rectangular  flexion  and,  I  think,  gives  no  more  security 
against  displacement.  It  is  usually  desirable  in  fracture  complicated 
by  dislocation  of  the  radius,  in  order  to  oppose  recurrence. 

If  the  fragment  is  rotated  or  tilted  and  cannot  otherwise  be  brought 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 


243 


into  place  it  should  be  exposed  by  an  incision;  advantage  may  be  taken 
of  this  to  fix  the  fragment  in  place  by  periosteal  sutures  or  even  by 
transfixion  with  a  pin. 

Immobilization  is  required  for  about  three  weeks,  a  sling  for  another 
week,  and  then  the  limb  abandoned  to  natural  use  without  forced  pas- 
sive motion;   the  latter,  for  reasons  given 
in    Chapter  VII.,   is    more    likely    to    do  fig.  122. 

harm  than  good,  for  it  may  increase  the 
irritation  wliich  provokes  overgrowth  of 
callus.  Even  with  satisfactory  reduction 
the  range  of  motion  may  be  diminished  by 
callus  obstructing  the  olecranon  or  coro- 
noid  fossa. 

E.  Fractures  of  the  External  Condyle. 

These  are  more  common  than  fractures 
of  the  internal  condyle,  and  much  more 
frequent  in  the  young  than  in  adults.  The 
cause  is  a  fall  upon  the  hand  while  the 
elbow  is  flexed  or  upon  the  inner  and  pos- 
terior portion  of  the  flexed  elbow;  in  the 
former  the  force  is  transmitted  through  the 
radius  to  the  capitellum  in  a  backward  or 
backward  and  upward  direction,  in  the 
latter  through  the  olecranon  upward  and 
outward  against  the  outer  slope  of  the  trochlea.  In  one  or  two  cases  I 
have  thought  the  cause  was  a  blow  upon  the  back  of  the  condyle. 

The  line  of  fracture  runs  obliquely  from  the  outer  ridge  of  the 
humerus  above  the  epicondyle  downward  and  inward  into  the  joint, 
ending  usually  in  the  groove  of  the  trochlea,  coinciding  in  part  at  least 
with  the  epiphyseal  line,  so  that  the  fragment  comprises  the  epicondyle, 
the  capitellum,  and  the  outer  portion  of  the  trochlea.  As  the  fragment 
remains  attached  to  the  radius  and  ulna  by  the  lateral  ligament  and 
capsule,  the  displacement  is  usually  slight  when  the  forearm  is  in  its 
proper  position,  but  there  is  tendency  to  tilting  (flexion)  of  the  frag- 
ment, and  sometimes  it  is  markedly  rotated  about  one  or  another  axis, 
so  far  in  one  of  Kocher's  cases  that  the  fractured  surface  looked  out- 
ward, and  in  two  of  mine  upward.  If  the  forearm  is  abducted  the 
fragment  is  displaced  backward  or  upward  and  outward;  if  adducted, 
forward  or  downward.  If  the  elbow  is  simultaneously  dislocated  back- 
ward or  outward  the  fragment  accompanies  the  radius. 

A  late  condition  sometimes  found,  such  as  those  shown  in  Figs. 
123  and  124,  and  usually  attributed  to  a  primary  displacement  left 
uncorrected,  appears  to  me  to  be  due  more  probably  to  arrest  of  devel- 
opment at  the  base  of  the  capitellum.  Displacement  upward  must  take 
place  along  the  line  of  fracture,  and  consequently  it  must  also  be  out- 
ward, as  is  not  sufficiently  the  case  in  those  specimens.  The  position 
of  the  head  of  the  radius  could  be  more  plausibly  explained  by  the 
elongation  which   follows  the  removal  of   pressure  than  by  forcible 


Lines  of  fracture  of  external 
condyle. 


244 


FRACTURES. 


ascent  of  the  entire  bone  beside  the  ulna.    Usually  this  condition  leads 
to  marked  abduction  o£  the  forearm — cubitus  valgus. 

Swelling  appears  first  on  the  outer  side  and  then  becomes  uniform; 
ecchymosis  appears  below  the  condyle,  or  on  the  inner  side  if  the  patient 
has  remained  in  bed  wdth  the  limb  abducted.  Loss  of  function  is  not 
so  marked  as  in  fracture  of  the  internal  condyle;  pain  is  felt  on  press- 
ing the  broken  condyle  against  the  shaft,  inward,  upward,  or  forward; 
also  on  pressure  with  the  tip  of  the  finger  on  the  ridge  close  above  the 
epicondyle.     Abnormal  mobility  appears  as  adduction  of  the  forearm 


Fig.  123. 


Fig.  124. 


Fracture  of  external  condyle  ;  late  result. 
(Helfeeich.) 


Old  fracture  of  external  condyle. 


(also  painful),  with  less  or  no  abduction,  and  can  sometimes  be  recog- 
nized by  grasping  the  fragment  between  the  thumb  and  finger  and 
moving  it  backward  and  forward  while  the  shaft  is  firmly  held;  crepi- 
tus may  be  perceived  at  the  same  time.  If  the  fragment  is  notably 
displaced  the  irregularity  may  be  recognized  by  palpation;  and  if  the 
ulna  is  at  the  same  time  dislocated  backward  from  the  trochlea  the  con- 
dition is  recognized  by  noting  the  common  signs  of  dislocation  on  the 
inner  side — backward  projection  of  the  olecranon,  prominence  of  the 
trochlea  in  the  flexure  of  the  elbow — and  the  position  of  the  fragment 
in  close  relations  with  the  head  of  the  radius  behind  and  above  its 
proper  position.  The  much  rarer  dislocation  outward  could  be  recog- 
nized in  like  manner. 

The  difficulty  in  treatment  lies  more  in  the  reduction  of  displacement, 
if  it  is  marked,  than  in  the  maintenance  of  the  proper  position  if  that 
is  secured.     In  most  cases,  those  without  much  displacement,  immobil- 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 


245 


ization  for  three  weeks  at  a  right  angle  by  a  posterior  moulded  splint 
is  sufficient,  although,  of  course,  pains  must  be  taken  to  make  reduc- 
tion as  complete  as  possible. 

When  the  fragment  has  suffered  one  of  the  rarer  displacements  by 
rotation  it  is  generally  impossible  to  restore  it  to  place  without  an 
operation.  In  two  such  cases  I  opened  the  joint  by  an  incision  on  the 
outer  side  and,  with  considerable  difficulty  in  one,  turned  the  fragment 
back  into  place  and  obtained  a  good  result.  Kocher  twice  excised  the 
fragment  under  such  circumstances,  and  reports  a  satisfactory  result; 
both  were  old  cases. 


F.  Intercondyloid,  T-shaped,  or  Y-shaped  Fractures. 

These  fractures  are  commonly  caused  by  great  violence,  and  conse- 
quently are  often  compound  either  by  the  direct  action  of  the  violence 
upon  the  skin  or  from  within  outward  by  the  sharp  end  of  one  of  the 
fragments. 

In  many  the  main  line  of  fracture  is  the  same  as  in  supracondyloid 
fracture,  with  an  additional  line  passing  down  into  the  joint  between 
the  condyles;  in  the  others  the  variations  in  the  form  and  extent  of  the 
fracture  and  the  degree  of  displacement  are  very  great,  the  essential 


Fig.  125. 


Fig.  126. 


Intercondyloid  fracture  of  the  humerus. 


Intercondy]oid  fracture  of  the  humerus. 
Front  view.    (Guelt.) 


features  being  the  separation  of  both  condyles  from  the  shaft  and  from 
each  other,  the  variations  appearing  in  the  number  and  position  of  the 
fragments  and  lines  of  fracture.  When  the  fracture  between  the  con- 
dyles is  a  mere  fissure  the  condyles  remain  together,  and  the  displace- 
ments are  those  of  supracondyloid  fracture;  in  the  other  cases  the 
displacements  are  too  varied  and  irregular  for  classification  and  the 
condyles  may  be  widely  separated  from  each  other,  the  olecranon  pass- 
ing up  between  them. 


246 


FRACTURES. 


Occasionally  the  nerves  or  vessels  crossing  the  front  of  the  joint  are 
torn  or  compressed. 

Symptoms,  The  symptoms  in  many  cases  are  those  of  supracondy- 
loid  fracture  with,  in  addition,  independent  mobility  of  the  condyles 
upon  each  other  and  pain  when  they  are  pressed  together.  In  cases 
with  the  more  varied  displacements  the  deformity  is  great  and  the  inde- 
pendent mobility  of  the  condyles  upon  each  other  and  the  shaft  is 
readily  recognized  if  they  can  be  grasped  through  the  swollen  tissues. 


Fig.  127. 


Fig.  128. 


Intercondyloid  fracture  of  the  humerus. 
Rear  view.    (Gurlt.) 


Comminuted  intercondyloid  fracture  of  the 
humerus.     (Gurlt.) 


In  respect  of  treatment  much  that  has  been  said  of  that  of  supra- 
condyloid  fracture  can  be  repeated.  Cases  with  comminution  and  much 
displacement  are  quite  certain  to  result  in  marked  limitation  of  motion 
in  the  joint.  Reduction  by  manipulation  through  the  unbroken  skin 
is  largely  problematical,  and  the  limb  should,  therefore,  be  kept  in  the 


Fig.  129. 


Interrupted  plaster  splint. 

attitude  which  will  be  most  useful  if  stiifness  results.  In  maintaining 
reduction  I  have  been  best  satisfied  with  plaster  splints,  anterior  and 
posterior,  held  snugly  at  and  above  the  condyles  while  they  were  hard- 
ening. Vertical  suspension  occasionally  does  well,  especially  in  com- 
pound fractures,  but  I  have  never  continued  its  use  for  more  than  about 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS.  247 

ten  days,  resorting  then  to  moulded  splints  with  the  elbow  flexed,  and 
with  fresh  reduction  if  necessary. 

In  compound  fractures  it  may  sometimes  be  advisable  to  remove  some 
of  the  smaller  fragments  or  cut  off  sharp  ends;  and  in  one  case  in 
which  the  fragments  could  not  otherwise  be  held  together  I  transfixed 
them  with  a  long  drill  which  was  left  in  place  for  a  fortnight.  Kocher 
recommends  the  removal  of  the  external  condyle,  on  the  ground  that  it 
facilitates  drainage  and  ensures  a  greater  range  of  motion  without  seri- 
ously diminishing  the  stability  of  the  joint.  Occasionally  it  has  seemed 
advisable  to  remove  both  condyles;  the  resulting  joint  is  likely  to  be 
troublesoraely  loose,  although  not  so  much  so  as  when  the  olecranon 
also  has  been  removed. 

Interrupted  splints  add  to  the  facility  of  change  of  dressing  of  the 
wound.     One  form  is  shown  in  Fig.  129. 

G.  Separation  of  the  Epiphysis. 

To  the  account  of  the  development  of  the  epiphysis  previously  given 
(p.  233)  must  be  added  that  the  views  of  others  differ  therefrom  in 
some  important  details,  and  that  some  of  the  appearances  shown  on 
section  can  be  explained  only  on  the  supposition  that  the  development 
(especially  of  the  trochlea)  differs  widely  in  individuals,  or  (which  seems 
to  me  more  probable)  that  the  sections  have  been  made  in  different 
planes.  The  accounts  which  seem  most  trustworthy  represent  the 
trochlear  portion  of  the  epiphysis  as  remaining  wholly  cartilaginous 
much  longer  than  the  other  portions,  and  as  having  a  concave  upper 
surface  which  steadily  deepens  so  that  before  its  union  with  the  diaph- 
ysis  it  has  become  a  relatively  thin  saucer-like  scale  capping  a  project- 
ing portion  of  the  shaft,  and  is  connected  with  the  capitellum  on  one 
side  and  with  the  epitrochlea  on  the  other  only  by  a  thin  neck.  This 
seems  to  make  the  separation  of  the  entire  epiphysis,  with  or  without 
the  epitrochlea,  in  one  piece  from  the  shaft  very  improbable  except  at 
an  early  age;  that  it  has  thus  been  separated  is  demonstrated  by  a  few 
specimens,  but  the  diagnosis  in  the  great  majority  of  supposed  cases 
rests  only  upon  doubtful  clinical  evidence.  Moreover,  some  writers 
and  reporters  of  cases  describe  under  this  title  fractures  in  which  the 
line  diverges  widely  into  the  shaft  on  the  inner  side.  As  was  explained 
in  Section  E  of  this  chapter,  it  is  probable  that  some,  perhaps  many,  of 
the  fractures  of  the  external  condyle  in  the  young  are  separations  of 
that  portion  of  the  epiphysis  which  is  constituted  by  the  external  epi- 
condyle  and  capitellum. 

Among  the  specimens  described  are  those  of  Little,^  Reeve,^  Lange,^ 
and  two  of  Bardenheuer's;*  in  the  first  two  a  portion  of  the  shaft 
adhered  to  the  epiphysis;  in  Lange's  the  patient  was  ten  years  old, 
the  separation  (compound)  was  wholly  through  cartilage,  and  the  epi- 
condyles  were  separated  from  the  fragment  and  also  from  the  shaft; 
the  fragment  was  widely  displaced  from  the  shaft  and  the  bones  of  the 

1  Little  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  November,  1865,  p.  133. 

2  Reeve  :  Quoted  bv  Hamilton,  Fractures  and  Dislocations,  6th  ed.,  p.  272. 

3  Lange  :  Medical  Record,  July,  1880,  p.  48. 

*  Bardenheuer  :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  63a,  p.  736. 


248  FRACTURES. 

forearm,  but  was  still  attached  to  the  shaft  by  the  loosened  periosteum. 
In  one  of  Bardenheuer's  the  separation  appears  to  have  been  below 
both  epicondyles,  and  the  fragment  was  displaced  backward  and  inward 
with  the  forearm;  in  the  second  the  fragment,  which  is  not  described 
in  detail,  was  displaced  backward,  also  preserving  its  relations  with  the 
bones  of  the  forearm.  A  specimen  apparently  of  pure  cartilaginous 
separation  was  in  the  Bellevue  Hospital  Museum,  but  has  now  been 
lost. 

The  cause  appears  usually  to  have  been  a  fall  upon  the  elbow  or  the 
outstretched  hand;  in  Lange's  the  elbow  was  caught  between  an  eleva- 
tor and  a  beam. 

The  displacement  in  all  the  certain  cases  has  been  great,  and  in  all 
but  Bardenheuer's  the  injury  was  compound.  In  the  cases  diagnosti- 
cated without  direct  examination  of  the  fragment  the  displacement  has 
been  sometimes  marked,  sometimes  slight,  the  diagnosis  in  the  former 
being  made  by  palpation  of  the  fragment,  in  the  others  upon  the  abnor- 
mal lateral  and  antero-posterior  mobility  of  the  upper  end  of  the  fore- 
arm with  fine  crepitus  and  on  the  exclusion  of  other  forms  of  fracture. 
Schiiller  and  Bruns  think  the  injury  more  frequent  than  the  paucity 
of  reported  cases  indicates. 

In  respect  of  the  symptoms  and  diagnosis  it  is  not  easy  to  do  more 
than  indicate  what  the  symptoms  are  likely  to  be.  The  only  case  in 
my  own  experience  in  which  the  diagnosis  seemed  to  be  certain,  or  at 
least  highly  probable,  was  a  boy  ten  years  old  who  had  fallen  backward 
upon  his  hand  after  a  jump.  He  was  brought  to  me  a  week  later  by 
Dr.  McAnliffe.  The  elbow  was  held  at  an  angle  of  110  degrees  and 
could  not  be  flexed  within  a  right  angle.  Marked  abnormal  lateral 
mobility  of  the  forearm,  especially  adduction.  The  olecranon  was  dis- 
placed slightly  backward  from  the  plane  of  the  internal  epicondyle; 
the  head  of  the  radius  rested  normally  against  the  external  condyle. 
Close  above  the  external  epicondyle  the  line  of  fracture  could  be  dis- 
tinctly felt,  the  lower  fragment  projecting  plainly  backward.  The 
internal  epicondyle  was  continuous  with  and  immovable  upon  the  shaft. 
Traction  upon  the  forearm,  aided  by  pressure  of  the  thumb  against  the 
olecranon  and  external  condyle  while  the  fingers  made  counter  pressure 
against  the  shaft,  easily  brought  the  bones  into  place  with  a  slight  snap 
and  cartilaginous  crepitus,  and  nearly  full  flexion  was  then  possible. 

Another  case  which  apparently  had  a  claim  to  inclusion  in  the  class 
was  one  which  I  did  not  see  until  two  months  after  the  injury  had  been 
received.  The  articular  portion  of  the  humerus  was  then  so  far  dis- 
placed inward  that  the  external  epicondyle  or  the  adjoining  ridge  had 
ulcerated  through  the  skin.  The  injury  when  recent  had  been  mis- 
taken by  an  experienced  surgeon  for  a  backward  dislocation,  and  this 
indicates  what  has  been  a  prominent  feature  in  several  of  the  reported 
cases,  namely,  the  backward  displacement  of  the  forearm  and  its  easy 
restoration  to  place.  Kocher,  analyzing  five  personal  cases  of  what  he 
terms  fj-actura  diaconrhjliea,  in  which  this  form  is  plainly  included, 
speaks  of  pain  on  pressing  the  extended  or  flexed  forearm  against  the 
arm,  and  it  would  seem  that  that,  together  with  abnormal  mobility  and 
cartilaginous  crepitus,  would  have  to  furnish  the  basis  of  the  diagnosis. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS. 


249 


The  treatment  is  reduction  of  the  displacement  and  immobilization 
at  a  right  angle,  with  special  precautions  against  displacement  inward. 
As  the  patients  are  young,  with  small  bones  thickly  covered  with  fat, 
the  difficulties  of  accurate  retention  are  great. 

H.  Fractures  of  the  Articular  Process,  in  Whole  or  in  Part. 

These  include  fractures  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the  capitellum,  of  the 
inner  portion  of  the  trochlea,  and  of  the  capitellum  and  trochlea  together. 

A  few  specimens  of  fracture  in  adults  passing  wholly  or  mainly  below 
the  epicondyles  are  known,  and  Kocher,  who  includes  them  with  separa- 
tion of  the  epiphysis  under  the  title  '' fractura  diacondylica,"  found 

Fig.  1150. 


Anchylosis  alter  fracture  below  the  epicondyle. 

that  the  lesion  could  be  produced  experimentally  by  a  blow  upon  the 
lower  surface  of  the  bone  in  the  direction  of  its  long  axis.  In  a  speci- 
men in  the  museum  of  Bellevue  Hospital,  New  York,  the  line  of  frac- 
ture passes  between  the  capitellum  and  the  shaft  into  the  olecranon  and 
coronoid  fossae  and  then  upward  and  inward  to  end  on  the  ridge  above 
the  epitrochlea;  repair  has  taken  place  with  displacement  forward  of 
the  capitellum,  excessive  callus  on  the  inner  half,  and  bony  union 
between  the  olecranon  and  humerus  (Fig.  130);  it  is  an  intermediate 


250 


FRACTURES. 


Fig.  131. 


form  between  the  very  low  supracondyloid  fractures  and  those  that 
are  below  the  epioondyles. 

The  direction  and  character  of  the  violence  apparently  concerned  in 
the  production  of  these  fractures  suggest  a  well-marked  displacement 
of  the  fragment  forward  and  upward  in  combination  with  the  radius 
and  ulna  which  probably  could  be  recognized  by  palpation  and  the 
abnormal  mobility.  The  indications  for  treatment  Avould  be  to  press 
the  fragment  downward  and  backward  into  place  and  keep  it  there  by 
pressure  o\  traction  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  forearm.  The  prog- 
nosis, in  respect  of  the  preservation  of  function,  seems  bad  because  of 
the  intra-articular  position  of  the  line  of  fracture. 

Fracture  of  the  capitellum  alone,  in  whole  or  in  part,  has  been 
observed  in  a  number  of  cases.  Hahn^  reports  an  old  specimen  in 
which  the  capitellum  had  united  with  the  front  of  the  humerus  after 
displacement  upward  and  rotation.  Kocher  figures  four  specimens 
representing  larger  or  smaller  portions  of  the  capitellum  removed  by 
operation  in  fresh  cases;  Figs.  131  and  132  represent  the  largest  and 
smallest.  SteinthaP  reports  a  case  similar  to  Hahn's. 
The  capitellum  was  removed  by  operation,  with  im- 
provement of  function. 

In  two  of  Kocher' s  cases  the  cause  was  violence  ex- 
erted through  the  radius,  the  elbow  being  flexed,  once 
in  a  fall  upon  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  once  by 
pressure  against  the  palm  while  the  back  of  the  elbow 
rested  against  a  wall;  in  the  other  two  the  injury  was 
received  in  an  effort  to  raise  or  hold  a  heavy  object, 
apparently  with  the  elbow  partly  flexed.  The  mechan- 
ism in  the  latter  cases  seems  to  me  to  be  pressure  by 
the  head  of  the  radius  upward  against  the  lower  anterior 
portion  of  the  capitellum  under  the  pull  of  the  biceps. 

In  a  personal  case  the  capitellum  was  broken  off  and 
the  upper  posterior  angle  of  the  olecranon  broken 
(extra-articular)  by  the  fall  of  a  heavy  stone.  The 
injury  was  compound  and  the  skin  so  contused  that  it 
sloughed;  the  ensuing  suppuration  led  to  later  excision 
of  the  end  of  the  humerus.  Eecovery  with  preserva- 
tion of  rotation  of  the  forearm. 

The  local  reaction,  as  evidenced  by  pain,  swelling, 
and  loss  of  function,  is  comparatively  slight  or  tardy 
in  appearing;  in  three  of  six  reported  cases  the  frag- 
ment was  displaced  upward  within  the  capsule  of  the 
joint,  in  the  other  three  (all  Kocher' s)  backward,  lying 
between  the  head  of  the  radius  and  the  olecranon,  where 
it  could  be  easily  felt.      Kocher  remov^ed  the  fragment 


Fig.  132. 


Fracture  of  capitel 
lum. 


Ill  all  his  cases  and  secured  a  good  result. 


Fracture  of  the  trochlea  alone  is  very  rare.  Laugier 
first  called  attention  to  it  in  1853  in  the  report  of  a  case  in  which  the 
diagnosis  rested  only  on  scanty  clinical  evidence.      I  have  had  a  case 


1  Hahn  :  Quoted  by  Gurlt,  loc.  cit.,  p.  801. 


Steinthal:  Centralb.  f.  Chir.,  1898,  p.  17. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  HUMERUS.  251 

in  which  a  fragment  of  the  lower  part  of  the  inner  rim  of  the  trochlea, 
about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  had  been  broken  off  and  could 
be  easily  felt  beneath  the  epitrochlea.  The  displacement  was  slight, 
so  I  did  not  excise  the  fragment,  but  simply  immobilized  the  joint. 
The  result  was  good. 

Diagnosis. 

There  is  so  much  in  common  in  these  injuries  of  the  lower  end  of 
the  humerus  that  it  is  well  to  summarize  the  methods  of  examination 
and  the  principles  of  treatment. 

In  most  cases  of  injury  the  diagnosis  at  first  sight  rests  between 
fracture,  dislocation,  and  sprain;  the  first  two  have  positive  signs  by 
which  they  can  be  affirmatively  recognized,  the  latter  has  its  own  signs, 
but  its  diagnosis  must  be  confirmed  by  exclusion  of  the  other  injuries. 

If  the  case  is  seen  early  the  absence  of  swelling  greatly  facilitates 
examination;  if  excessive  swelling  is  present  it  may  be  diminished  by 
vertical  suspension  of  the  limb  or  by  the  use  of  the  elastic  bandage, 
and  the  fluoroscope  or  the  skiagram  may  give  information  that  cannot 
be  got  at  the  time  by  palpation.  The  region  in  which  swelling  begins, 
or  to  which  it  remains  limited,  is  the  one  which  specially  requires  close 
examination. 

After  the  history  of  the  accident  has  been  obtained — usually  too 
vague  or  uncertain  to  be  of  much  value — and  in  the  absence  of  indi- 
cations pointing  clearly  to  one  or  another  portion  of  the  bone  or  one  or 
another  kind  of  injury,  the  surgeon  seeks  to  place  the  ends  of  his 
thumb,  index,  and  middle  finger  on  the  two  epicondyles  and  the  tip  of 
the  olecranon  in  order  to  determine  their  relative  positions  and  to  note 
if  their  relations  are  normal  in  such  attitudes  as  he  can  give  to  the 
joint.  This  examination,  if  it  can  be  satisfactorily  made,  should  at 
once  determine  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  dislocation  of  the  ulna, 
and  of  the  radius  if  the  head  of  that  bone  is  next  found. 

If  dislocation  has  thus  been  excluded  and  if  the  patient  is  not  too 
young,  he  next  seeks  the  indications  given  by  pain,  grasping  the  elbow 
with  one  hand  and  the  shaft  of  the  humerus  with  the  other  and  press- 
ing the  two  together  and  then  sideways,  with  thumb  and  fingers  on  the 
epicondyles,  determining  also  by  the  latter  movement  the  presence 
or  absence  of  abnormal  mobility  of  the  lower  end  upon  the  shaft;  if 
the  results  suggest  supracondyloid  fracture  confirmation  is  sought  by 
exploration  of  the  condyloid  ridge  for  points  of  pain  and  irregularity 
of  outline,  and  the  shaft  is  traced  downward  to  determine  its  relations 
to  the  condyles.  The  condyles  are  also  pressed  together  to  note  the 
pain  of  a  fissure  running  down  between  them,  or  each  is  grasped 
between  the  thumb  and  fingers  and  the  effort  made  to  move  them  on 
each  other. 

The  positive  sign  of  fracture  of  either  condyle  is  its  independent 
mobility,  recognized  by  grasping  it  between  the  thumb  and  fingers  and 
moving  it  backward  and  forward.  Corroborative  evidence,  or  evidence 
that  may  be  deemed  sufficient  in  absence  of  independent  mobility,  is 
pain  on  point  pressure  on  the  condyloid  ridge  and  abnormal  abduction 
or  adduction  of  the  forearm,  adduction  in  fracture  of  the  external, 


252  FRACTURES. 

abduction  in  that  of  the  internal  condyle,  and  pain,  especially  on  move- 
ment in  the  opposite  direction. 

Fracture  of  the  internal  epicondyle  is  shown  by  its  abnormal  mo- 
bility. 

The  positive  evidence  in  every  case  is  the  independent  mobility  of 
the  fragment,  usually  with  crepitus,  and  only  when  that  is  unrecog- 
nizable because  of  the  impossibility  of  properly  grasping  the  fragment 
should  the  surgeon  rest  his  diagnosis  upon  other  symptoms.  If  this- 
rule  and  that  of  always  determining  the  relative  positions  of  the  ends 
of  the  bone  constituting  the  joint  were  followed,  the  disastrous  con- 
founding of  fractures  and  dislocations  would  be  much  less  frequent. 

Treatment. 

The  tendency  to  displacement  except  by  the  unsupported  or  im- 
properly supported  weight  of  the  limb  is  so  slight  that  if  reduction 
can  be  made  a  satisfactory  result  should  be  obtained  in  most  cases, 
the  exceptions  being  those  in  which  the  functions  of  the  joint  are  dimin- 
ished by  obstructive  callus  or  by  periarticular  thickening.  Consequently 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  effect  complete  reduction,  especially  when 
the  fracture  extends  into  the  joint,  even,  if  necessary,  by  exposure 
through  an  incision,  and  then  to  prevent  its  recurrence  by  so  support- 
ing the  limb  that  this  cause  of  displacement  may  not  become  operative. 
The  most  important  point  in  most  cases  is  that  the  flexed  forearm  should 
not  be  supported  at  the  elbow.  If  a  sling,  with  or  without  a  splint, 
is  drawn  snugly  about  the  neck  and  under  the  elbow  the  weight  of  the 
limb  is  borne  in  great  part  by  the  olecranon;  and  this  pressure  being 
transmitted  through  it  to  the  internal  condyle,  or  to  both  in  supra- 
condyloid  fracture,  inevitably  forces  the  fragment  upward  and  produces 
the  disfiguring  deformity  of  cubitus  varus.  The  corresponding  dis- 
placement in  fracture  of  the  external  condyle,  cubitus  valgus,  is  much 
less  easily  produced.  Consequently  the  flexed  forearm  should  be  sup- 
ported at  the  wrist,  and  the  limb  protected  by  a  splint,  preferably  one 
of  plaster  of  Paris  extending  along  the  posterior  aspect  from  the  wrist 
to  the  shoulder.  For  the  details  of  special  cases  which  cannot  well  be 
summarized  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  preceding  sections,  and  for 
fractures  of  the  adjoining  portions  of  the  radius  and  ulna  to  the  follow- 
ing chapter. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES   OF  THE  FOREARM. 

1.  IN  THE  VICINITY  OF  THE  ELBOW-JOINT. 

A.  Fractures  of  the  Olecranon. 

The  frequency  of  fractures  of  the  olecranon  lias  been  very  differently 
estimated  by  different  writers,  Malgaigne  placing  it  among  the  rarest, 
only  nine  cases  in  a  total  of  more  than  2300  fractures  treated  during 
eleven  years  at  the  Hotel-Dieu.  The  table  in  Chapter  I.  gives  26 
cases  in  a  total  of  4539. 

The  line  of  fracture  may  lie  close  to  and  parallel  with  the  upper  end 
of  the  process,  or  at  any  intermediate  point  above  the  base  of  the  coro- 
noid  process,  crossing  the  bone  transversely  or  obliquely  or  along  a 
V-shaped  line  corresponding  somewhat  to  the  borders  of  the  triangular 
subcutaneous  surface  of  the  olecranon.  In  rare  cases  it  is  comminuted, 
and  sometimes  is  compound. 

The  commonest  cause  by  far — 36  out  of  45  cases  collected  by  one 
writer — is  a  fall  upon  the  elbow.  The  mechanism,  however,  is  appar- 
ently not  simply  that  of  fracture  by  direct  violence,  the  bone  is  not 
broken  solely  by  a  force  acting  directly  upon  the  end  of  the  apophysis, 
but  the  contraction  of  the  triceps  must  play  an  important  part  in  it. 
Among  the  reasons  for  this  belief  are  the  usual  absence  of  the  signs  of 
direct  violence  upon  the  surface  of  the  region  sufficient  to  have  caused 
the  fracture,  and  the  impossibility  of  producing  similar  fractures  upon 
the  cadaver  by  this  means.  When  the  fracture  is  produced  experi- 
mentally by  direct  violence,  by  a  blow  with  a  blunt  object,  the  bone  is 
not  broken  cleanly  and  transversely  at  its  narrowest  part,  as  is  the  case 
in  most  fractures  observed  clinically,  but  it  is  crushed  and  split  into 
several  pieces.  The  explanation  that  seems  most  plausible  is  that  a 
sudden  change  is  effected  in  the  position  of  the  forearm  by  the  fall 
when  the  muscles  are  all  tense.  The  man  falls  with  his  elbow  partly 
bent,  and  all  his  muscles  rigid  with  the  effort  to  save  himself;  his  out- 
stretched hand  or  the  back  of  his  forearm  encounters  some  solid  object, 
and  the  flexion  of  the  limb  is  suddenly  and  violently  increased,  while 
the  olecranon  is  held  immovable  by  the  triceps.  The  consequence  is 
that  the  ulna  is  bent  about  the  elbow,  and  breaks  at  the  weakest  part 
of  the  olecranon  if  the  violence  is  received  near  the  elbow,  or,  perhaps, 
at  some  part  of  its  much  thinner  shaft  if  the  violence  is  received  upon 
the  hand;  in  short,  the  bone  is  broken  across  the  elbow  as  a  stick  is 
broken  across  the  knee. 

Occasionally  the  olecranon  has  been  broken  in  an  attempt  to  reduce 
an  old  dislocation  or  to  mobilize  a  stiff  elbow;  and  it  has  been  alleged 


254  FRACTURES. 

that  a  blow  upon  the  back  of  the  uhaa  near  the  elbow  can  break  or 
crack  the  olecranon  from  the  articular  surface  outward. 

Muscular  action,  contraction  of  the  triceps,  appears  to  be  an  occa- 
sional cause,  as  in  throwing  a  ball  or  vigorously  pushing  with  the  elbow 
partly  flexed.  In  such  fractures  the  fragment  torn  off  is  small,  little 
more  than  the  cortical  layer  of  the  summit  of  the  process  to  which  the 
triceps  is  principally  attached;  in  other  cases  the  line  of  fracture  lies 
usually  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  process,  directly  under  the  centre 
of  the  sigmoid  fossa,  that  which  is  called  by  some  the  centre,  by  others 
the  base  of  the  olecranon. 

Another  variety  of  fracture,  partial  or  complete,  and  produced  from 
within  outward,  has  been  spoken  of  by  different  writers  as  theoretically 
possible,  but  has  only  recently  been  observed  and  described  clinically. 
Pingaud'  produced  it  experimentally  in  the  effort  to  dislocate  the  ulna 
backward  by  over-extension  (extension  beyond  the  straight  line)  of  the 
forearm.  The  end  of  the  olecranon  is  pressed  against  the  humerus, 
the  lateral  ligaments  resist  the  movement,  and  the  prolongation  of  the 
effort  results  in  fracture  of  the  olecranon  or,  much  more  commonly,  of 
the  thinner  and  weaker  shaft  of  the  ulna.  Qniutin^  reports  three 
cases  of  incomplete  fracture  of  the  olecranon;  the  surface  articulating 
with  the  humerus  was  broken,  the  dorsal  portion  was  unbroken;  in  all 
the  swelling  was  moderate,  the  pain  severe,  flexion  and  extension  com- 
plete but  slow.  In  the  first  case,  seen  a  week  after  the  accident,  a  small 
prominence  could  be  felt  on  the  side  of  the  olecranon,  and  behind  it 
was  a  notch;  the  upper  end  could  be  sprung  back  a  little.  In  the 
second  case  a  short  shallow  groove  could  be  felt  on  the  outer  side  of 
the  olecranon,  at  its  base;  and  in  the  third  the  olecranon  could  also  be 
sprung.  Quintin  thinks  this  fracture  is  frequently  overlooked  and 
treated  as  a  simple  contusion.  The  symptoms  in  the  three  cases 
described  will,  perhaps,  hardly  be  considered  entirely  demonstrative,  in 
the  absence  of  corroborative  testimony  of  direct  examination,  of  a 
recent  fracture;  and,  indeed,  it  is  only  by  admitting  that  the  injury  is 
a  common  one  and  has  heretofore  always  been  overlooked  that  its 
occurrence  three  times  during  a  short  period  in  the  experience  of  one 
observer  can  seem  probable. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  of  the  fracture  are  pain,  swelling,  dis- 
placement, and  mobility  of  the  upper  fragment,  sometimes  crepitus, 
and  loss  of  power,  especially  of  active  extension. 

As  the  result,  apparently,  of  theoretical  considerations,  and  of  what 
has  been  observed  in  exceptional  cases,  the  tendency  to  displacement 
upward  of  the  fragment  by  the  contraction  of  the  triceps  has  been 
somewhat  overstated.  This  action  of  the  muscle  is  greatly  restricted 
by  the  lateral  aponeurotic  attachments  and  ligaments,  and  by  the  exten- 
sion of  the  insertion  of  the  triceps  along  the  lateral  and  posterior  aspects 
of  the  olecranon,  all  of  which  must  be  ruptured  before  the  fragments 
can  be  widely  separated  and  the  upper  one  drawn  high  up.  In  a  dis- 
cussion in  the  Soci^t6  de  Chirurgie  which  followed  the  presentation  by 

1  Piugaud  :  Diet.  Encyclop^dique,  art.  Coude,  pp.  517  and  631. 

-  Quintin  :  Beitrag  zur  Lehre  von  den  BrUchen  des  Olekranon,  Bonn,  1881,  Abstract  in  Central- 
blatt  fiir  Cliirurgie,  1881,  p.  763. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  255 

Bardinet  of  a  paper  upon  this  subject,  Robert,  Richet,  and  Gosselin 
testified  to  the  usual  absence  of  separation  in  their  experience,  and 
similar  testimony  has  since  been  furnished  in  abundance. 

If  the  thick  periosteum  and  tendinous  attachments  on  the  sides  and 
back  of  the  olecranon  are  torn,  nothing  remains  to  hold  the  fragments 
together,  and  separation  may  be  effected  either  by  the  contraction  of 
the  triceps,  drawing  the  upper  fragment  away  from  the  shaft  of  the 
bone,  or  by  the  flexion  of  the  forearm,  drawing  the  bone  away  from  the 
fragment.  In  either  case  coaptation  is  effected  by  extending,  straight- 
ening, the  forearm  upon  the  arm,  because  the  triceps  cannot  draw  the 
fragment  above  the  position  which  it  takes  in  complete  extension  unless 
the  ligaments  which  bind  it  to  the  humerus  are  torn,  and  this  is  a 
complication  which  apparently  happens  very  rarely. 

In  old  ununited  cases  the  gradual  retraction  of  the  triceps  draws  the 
fragment  upward,  but  not  even  in  such  has  it  risen  above  the  olecranon 
fossa. 

Another  displacement,  one  that  is  important  because  of  the  danger 
that  the  skin  may  be  broken  by  the  pressure  to  which  it  leads,  is  an 
angular  one  observed  in  a  few  cases  when  the  line  of  fracture  has  been 
near  the  base  of  the  coronoid  process,  and  especially  when  its  direction 
has  been  obliquely  downward  and  backward  and  the  upper  fragment 
has  ended  in  a  sharp  lower  edge  or  point. 

Mobility  of  the  fragment  is  recognized  by  grasping  it  between  the 
thumb  and  finger  and  moving  it  laterally,  or  by  flexing  the  forearm 
gently  while  the  finger  is  pressed  against  the  groove  or  crack  left  by 
the  separation  when  it  is  slight.  If  the  fragments  are  brought  together 
by  extending  the  forearm  or  drawing  the  upper  fragment  down,  crepi- 
tus can  be  felt. 

If  the  swelling  is  sufficient  to  prevent  recognition  of  these  objective 
signs,  the  fracture  may  be  suspected  from  the  history  of  the  case  and 
the  loss  or  marked  diminution  of  the  power  of  active  extension. 

Repair.  It  is  very  important,  with  reference  both  to  the  treatment 
and  prognosis,  that  the  character  and  extent  of  the  displacement  should 
be  known.  As  a  rule,  union  takes  place,  but  it  is  fibrous,  not  bony; 
and  the  restoration  of  function  depends  in  a  measure  upon  the  length 
of  the  fibrous  band.  I  say  ''in  a  measure,"  for  experience  has  shown 
in  not  a  few  cases  that  there  may  be  excellent  control  over  the  limb 
even  with  a  long  fibrous  band  between  the  two  fragments.  The  dis- 
ability sometimes  observed  under  the  opposing  conditions,  limitation  of 
motion  when  the  band  is  short,  is  due  to  adhesions  between  the  frag- 
ment and  the  humerus,  or  to  change  in  the  flexibility  and  length  of  the 
capsular  bands.  The  process  of  repair  involves  two  dangers:  defective 
union  or  failure  of  union  between  the  fragments,  and  the  formation  of 
intra-articular  bands  or  changes  in  the  articular  and  peri-articular 
tissues. 

Instances  of  bony  union  do  exist.  Malgaigne  figures  and  describes 
one  in  his  Atlas  (Plate  XXIV.,  Fig.  2),  which^  however,  differs 
notably  from  the  ordinary  fracture,  the  line  having  run  so  obliquely  as 
to  bring  away  with  the  olecranon  a  lateral  half  of  the  coronoid  pro- 
cess.    Many  instances  of  union  with  very  slight  separation,  if  any, 


256 


FRACTURES. 


and  apparently  bony,  have  been  reported,  but  in  only  a  few  has  the 
character  of  the  union  been  established  by  autopsy.  Gurlt^  describes 
and  pictures  two:  one,  a  fracture  half  an  inch  from  the  apex  of  the 
process,  united  with  slight  displacement  of  the  fragment  upward  and 
only  a  small  amount  of  callus  on  the  outer  side;  the  line  of  fracture  is 
partly  visible  upon  the  surface  of  section,  and  complete  extension  of 
the  joint  is  prevented  by  an  overgrowth  of  bone  at  the  apex.  The 
other  is  an  oblique  fracture  (Fig.  133),  and  has  united  so  completely 
that  the  only  sign  of  it  is  '^  a  shallow  groove  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  olecranon  running  obliquely  backward  from  the  radial  to  the  ulnar 

side.  The  articular  cartilage  is  lack- 
ing in  part,  and  the  callus  conse- 
quently visible."  Apparently  bony 
union  is  more  probable  when  the 
fracture  is  oblique. 

The  length  of  the  fibrous  band  va- 
ries within  very  wide  limits.  Fig. 
134,  taken  from  Malgaigne,  repre- 
sents a  comparatively  short  band  and 
■one  that  presents  another  peculiarity  in  that  it  consists  of  two  lateral 
bands  with  a  central  interval  or  gap.  This  is  by  far  the  most  common 
mode  of  reunion,  and  although  several   cases  have  been  reported  in 


Fig.  133. 


Fracture  of  olecranon  ;  bony  union.  (Guelt, 


Fig.  134. 


Fracture  of  the  olecranon  ;  fibrous  union.    (Malgaigne.  ) 

which  the  patient  appeared  to  have  regained  full  use  of  the  arm,  not- 
withstanding fibrous  union  with  separation  to  the  extent  of  half  an 
inch  or  more,  yet  actual  deficiency  in  the  power  of  active  extension  of 
the  forearm  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  frequent  result  of  fibrous  union,  and 
its  degree  will  vary  directly  with  the  length  of  the  band.  The  dis- 
ability may  be  unnoticed  by  others,  and  its  consequences  may  be 
avoided  or  diminished  by  care  in  the  use  of  the  arm,  by  avoidance  of 
positions  and  movements  which  require  the  especial  action  of  the  tri- 
ceps, but  it  exists  and  can  be  readily  demonstrated.  Malgaigne 
describes  a  case  in  which  the  fragment  apparently  had  not  reunited 
with  the  shaft,  and  yet  the  patient  could  use  the  limb  actively,  and 
even  handle  a  sword  or  a  foil.  On  examination  it  was  found,  however, 
that  the  vigor  and  strength  of  the  arm  depended  largely  upon  its  posi- 
tion, being  greatest  when  the  hand  was  supinated  and  the  arm  depend- 


1  Gurlt :  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  i.  p.  41,  Fig.  9,  and  p.  310,  Fig.  121. 


PLATE   III. 


Fig.  1. — Fracture  of  Olecranon  ;    Dislocation  forward  of  Radius 
and   Remainder  of  Ulna. 


Fig.  2. — Fracture  of  Forearm;    Angular  Displacement. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  257 

ent,  and  disappearing  almost  entirely  when  the  arm  was  raised  above 
the  horizontal  line. 

Failure  of  union,  as  in  the  case  just  mentioned,  is  not  very  uncom- 
mon; the  upper  fragment  may  remain  freely  movable,  or  it  may  become 
adherent  to  the  humerus.  An  example  of  the  latter  condition  came 
under  my  observation  in  Bellevue  Hospital.  The  patient,  John  A., 
iifty-six  years  old,  was  admitted  in  August,  1880,  for  some  slight  affec- 
tion, and  while  examining  him  I  noticed  the  defect  of  the  riglit  elbow. 
He  said  that  when  about  twenty  years  okl  he  fell  from  a  truck,  striking 
upon  the  elbow.  The  limb  was  treated  in  a  rectangular  splint.  The 
upper  fragment,  as  shown  in  Fig.  135,  was  slightly  drawn  up  and  some- 
what tilted,  and  was  firmly  adherent  to  the  humerus.  The  forearm 
could  be  completely  flexed  and  could  be  extended  to  135  degrees,  the 
force  of  extension  being  very  feeble. 

Fig.  135. 


A' 
Ununited  fracture  of  the  olecranon,    a,  the  upper  fragment ;  b,  the  external  condyle. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  union  takes  place  with  but  little  separation 
and  with  full  restoration  of  function,  so  far  at  least  as  power  is  con- 
cerned, although  extension  is  often  incomplete. 

A  still  more  unfortunate  result,  anchylosis  of  the  joint,  has  followed 
in  a  small  number  of  cases.  Malgaigne  quotes  from  Camper  and 
Trioen  an  anatomical  specimen  of  bony  fusion,  and  although  it  is  not 
specifically  asserted  that  the  union  was  between  the  ulna  and  the 
humerus,  this  seems  probable  from  the  context.  Thierry,  according 
to  Pingaud,  reported  two  cases  of  articular  rigidity  that  had  lasted,  the 
one  for  six  months,  the  other  for  a  year,  in  spite  of  the  most  persistent 
efforts  to  overcome  it.  I  have  seen  a  case  in  which  the  joint  was  stiff 
in  full  extension  after  wiring  of  the  fragments,  although  the  operation- 
wound  had  healed  without  suppuration. 

The  course  of  the  fracture  is  ordinarily  very  simple  and  uncompli- 
cated; the  swelling  subsides  promptly  and  union  takes  place  in  from 
three  to  four  weeks. 

Treatment.  Discussion  concerning  the  proper  treatment  of  fracture 
of  the  olecranon  has  turned  mainly  upon  the  position  to  be  given  to 
the  limb,  some  favoring  the  extended  position  in  order  to  secure  closer 

17 


258  FRACTURES. 

union  of  the  ligaments,  others  recommending  flexion,  either  because 
they  did  not  fear  separation  of  the  fragments  and  sought  the  position 
that  could  be  kept  with  the  least  discomfort,  or  because  they  feared 
anchylosis  and  wished  to  have  the  limb  in  the  most  favorable  position 
if  it  should  occur.  It  is  evident  from  the  facts  that  have  been  already 
stated  that  neither  the  first  nor  the  third  reason  is  sufficient  to  establish 
a  rule  of  practice  to  be  followed  in  all  cases.  The  probability  of  the 
occurrence  of  anchylosis  after  simple  fracture  is  very  small,  so  small 
that  it  ought  not  to  be  weighed  against  that  of  non-union  when  the 
fragments  are  separated  rather  widely.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sepa- 
ration at  first  is  so  slight  in  many  cases  and  the  extended  position  so 
unnecessary  to  overcome  it  that  if  partial  flexion  is  more  comfortable 
to  the  patient,  if  it  makes  the  restraint  less  irksome,  it  should  not  be 
denied  him.  Furthermore,  there  appears  to  be  danger  of  two  displace- 
ments in  complete  extension :  if  the  fracture  is  at  or  near  the  base  of 
the  process  the  ulna  can  be  readily  dislocated  forward;  and  secondly, 
effusion  into  the  joint  or  swelling  of  the  capsule  may  prevent  the  tip  of 
the  olecranon  from  sinking  into  the  olecranon  fossa  to  the  usual  depth, 
and  under  such  circumstances  complete  extension  of  the  forearm  would 
cause  a  tilting,  an  angular  displacement  of  this  fragment.  This  latter 
point  has  been  made  by  several  writers  upon  theoretical  grounds  alone, 
but,  although  it  seems  plausible,  no  confirmatory  observation  has  been 
made,  so  far  as  I  know. 

The  aim  of  treatment  should  be  to  secure  bony  union  if  possible,  and, 
failing  that,  close  fibrous  union,  and  this  consideration  will  regulate  the 
position  to  be  given  to  the  arm.  If  there  is  wide  separation  which 
increases  as  the  elbow  is  flexed,  if  the  fragments  cannot  be  brought 
well  together  except  by  extending  the  forearm,  that  position  must 
be  taken  and  kept  until  consolidation  is  well  advanced.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  separation  is  slight  and  the  upper  fragment 
follows  the  movements  of  the  lower,  if  they  can  be  easily  brought  to- 
gether and  kept  so  by  moderate  traction  upon  the  upper  one,  the 
patient  may  be  safely  allowed  the  comfort  of  the  partly  flexed  posi- 
tion. 

Apparently  it  is  not  often  necessary  to  take  especial  measures  to  draw 
the  upper  fragment  down  to  the  lower  one,  and  even  when  there  is  con- 
siderable separation  between  them  in  the  flexed  position  it  is  usually 
sufficient  simply  to  extend  the  elbow.  Some  methods  of  treatment, 
however,  have  been  designed  with  the  especial  intention  of  drawing 
the  fragment  down,  and  it  has  been  sought  to  accomplish  this  by  figure- 
of-eight  bandages  passing  above  and  below  the  fragment  and  crossing  in 
front  of  the  elbow,  or  by  circular  bands  about  the  arm  drawn  together 
by  longitudinal  ones.  In  others,  strips  of  adhesive  plaster  have  been 
applied  to  the  skin  above  the  olecranon,  drawn  down  snugly,  and  fast- 
ened to  the  skin  of  the  forearm  or  to  the  splints;  sometimes  the  plaster 
is  cut  in  the  form  of  a  U,  the  olecranon  lying  in  the  angle  and  the  two 
sides  passing  along  the  forearm. 

Metal  hooks  similar  to  those  used  in  fracture  of  the  patella  have 
also  been  used  here  successfully,  although  not  frequently.  I  do  not 
know  when  or  by  whom  they  were  first  employed,  but  Busch  recom- 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  259 

mended  them  in  18G4,  and  Pingaud'  speaks  of  the  use  of  a  similar 
method  ''a  very  long  tim(;  ago"  by  l-'rof.  Rigaud,  of  Strasburg.  It 
is  sufficient  that  the  hook  should  have  but  a  single  point  at  the  upper 
end,  and  that  the  other  end  should  be  made  fast  to  a  gypsum  bandage 
covering  the  arm  and  forearm  and  provided  with  a  large  fenestra 
behind  the  elbow. 

The  best  splint  is  an  anterior  one  made  fast  to  the  limb  by  a  roller 
bandage  or  a  fenestrated  gypsum  bandage.  It  is  not  worth  while,  I 
think,  to  try  to  force  the  upper  fragment  down  by  turns  of  a  roller 
bandage,  because  this  can  be  done  much  more  effectively  when  necessary 
by  adhesive  plaster  or  hooks.  In  short,  the  treatment  to  be  recom- 
mended is  as  follows  :  If  the  separation  is  slight  and  is  not  increased 
by  the  flexed  position  it  is  only  necessary  to  immobilize  the  limb  with 
the  forearm  slightly  flexed,  about  midway  between  complete  extension 
and  flexion  at  a  right  angle,  and  for  this  purpose  an  anterior  splint  of 
wood  or  of  plaster  of  Paris  is  sufficient  and  convenient.  If  the  frag- 
ment shows  any  tendency  to  be  drawn  up  it  should  be  secured  with 
adhesive  plaster.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  notable  separation, 
and  if  the  separation  is  increased  by  flexion  of  the  forearm,  the  exten- 
sion should  be  complete  enough  to  bring  the  fragments  together,  and  it 
should  be  aided  by  adhesive  plaster  or  hooks.  The  fenestrated  gypsum 
bandage  seems  to  be  the  one  best  fitted  for  this  purpose,  and  the  fenes- 
tra should  be  large  enough  and  so  placed  as  to  permit  inspection  of  the 
seat  of  fracture.  If  Malgaigne's  hooks  are  used  in  connection  with  it 
one  hook  or  pair  of  hooks  should  be  forced  through  the  tendon  of  the 
triceps  down  to  the  bone,  and  the  other  pair  fixed  to  the  gypsum 
bandage  below  the  fenestra.  In  one  of  three  cases  recorded  by  Quin- 
tin,^  the  hooks  remained  in  place  four  weeks  without  causing  any 
inflammatory  symptoms. 

If  the  patient  is  rheumatic,  or  if  the  reaction  has  been  severe  and 
prolonged  and  anchylosis  is  feared,  it  is  well  to  change  the  degree  of 
flexion  slightly  from  time  to  time  after  the  pain  and  inflammation  have 
disappeared ;  and  if  the  tendency  to  separation  is  slight  this  change  of 
position  may  be  begun  quite  early.  It  must  be  done  very  gently  and 
cautiously,  and  the  upper  fragment  must  be  supported  by  the  finger  in 
order  that  the  adhesions  may  not  be  ruptured.  In  a  case  reported  by 
Pingaud,^  the  callus  was  broken  by  this  attempt  at  passive  motion; 
and  as  the  surgeon  did  not  dare  to  immobilize  the  joint  again  for  three 
or  four  weeks  he  applied  a  plaster  bandage  to  the  forearm,  and  used  it 
as  the  support  for  a  pair  of  Malgaigne's  hooks  by  which  he  was  enabled 
to  keep  the  fragment  perfectly  in  place,  and  at  the  same  time  to  move 
the  elbow  as  much  as  he  wished. 

Lauenstein^  used  in  one  case  a  method  of  preliminary  treatment 
recommended  by  Volkmann  in  fracture  of  the  patella:  aspiration  of 
the  joint  to  remove  the  blood  and  synovia.  There  was  separation  to 
the  extent  of  half  an  inch  and  the  joint  was  distended;  he  removed  50 
c.c.  (about  1 J  ounces),  dressed  the  limb  in  the  extended  position  upon 

1  Pingaud  :  Diet.  Encyclop(jdique,  art.  Coude,  p.  639  (1878). 

-  Qninlia  :  CentralblHtt  fur  Chirurgie,  1881,  p.  764. 

3  Pingaud  :  Gazette  Hebdomadal  re,  May  21,  1875. 

i  Lauenstein  :  Centralblatt  fUr  Chirurgie,  1881,  p.  172. 


260 


FRACTURES. 


aa  anterior  splint,  and  drew  down  the  fragment  by  means  of  longitu- 
dinal strips  of  adhesive  plaster  renewed  about  once  a  week.  Recovery 
followed  without  displacement  and  with  full  use  of  the  joint.  Another 
case  is  reported  in  the  Cent ralblalt  fur  Chirurgie,  1885,  p.  570. 

In  a  few  cases  the  fragments  have  been  wired  together;  if  resort  to 
such  a  measure  were  deemed  necessary  1  should  prefer  sutures  through 
the  fibro-periosteura  adjoining  the  fracture,  or  a  suture  through  the 
tendon  of  the  triceps  and  a  hole  drilled  transversely  in  the  ulna  below 
the  fracture. 

In  a  few  cases  of  fibrous  union  with  much  separation  and  consequent 
disability  operative  measures,  according  to  some  of  the  various  plans 
mentioned  in  Chapter  YIII,,  have  been  undertaken  to  obtain  closer 
union;  and  since  the  introduction  of  the  antiseptic  method  some  sur- 
geons have  obtained  good  results  by  excising  the  fibrous  band  and 
wiring  the  fragments  together. 

B.  Fractures  of  the  Coronoid  Process.^ 

This  fracture,  the  frequency  of  which  has  been  much  disputed,  is 
unquestionably  very  rare  except  as  a  complication  of  dislocation  of  the 
ulna  backward. 

So  far  as  can  be  inferred  from  the  few  detailed  descriptions  of  speci- 
mens the  line  of  fracture  crosses  the  process  transversely  or  somewhat 
obliquely  at  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  below  its  apex,  and  may 
reunite  with  a  close  bony  union  or  by  a  fibrous  band.  When  the 
union  is  close  and  bony  there  may  be  a  somewhat  exuberant  callus 
upon  the  anterior  aspect  of  the  process,  due  probably  to  the  stripping 
up  of  the  periosteum  or  tendon. 


Fig.  136. 


Fig.  137. 


Fracture  of  the  coronoid  process  of  the  right  ulna. 
United  with  exuberant  callus  ou  the  anterior  surface, 
line  of  fracture  still  visible  on  the  articular  surface. 
<a,  a  small  fragment  broken  from  the  articular  border 
of  the  olecranon  and  reunited.    (Gurlt.) 


Fracture  of  the  coronoid  process  and 
the  head  of  the  radius    (Bryant.) 


In  Annandale's  three  cases  the  fracture  was  associated  with  an  old 
unreduced  dislocation  of  the  elbow  backward,  and  the  process  had 
united  with  the  back  of  the  humerus. 

The  mechanism  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  is  by  indirect  violence 

1  The  references  to  the  specimens  in  the  first  edition  are  :  Cooper,  Fractures  and  Dislocations,  p. 
411 ;  S.  Cooper  and  Gibson,  quoted  by  Hamilton  ;  Velpeau,  Annales  de  la  Chir.,  1843,  vol.  ix.  p.  98  ; 
Bfirard,  Diet,  de  Med.,  en  30  vols  ,  art.  Coude,  p.  22s  ;  Gurlt,  vol.  i.  p.  41  ;  Bryant's  Surg.,  3d  Am. 
«d.,  vol.  1.  p.  837  ;  two  in  Holmes's  System,  Am.  ed.,  vol,  i.  pp.  859,  860  ;  Annandale,  Medical  Times 
and  Gazette,  1875,  vol.  i.  p.  576,  and  Edinburgh  Medical  Journal,  February,  1885,  p.  681.  For  a  per- 
sonal case  see  the  following  section,  Fractures  of  the  Head  and  Neck  of  the  Radius. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  261 

exerted  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  dislocation  of  the  joint  backward  and 
to  break  off  the  point  of  the  process  as  it  is  forced  past  the  trochlea, 
and  in  such  cases  there  is  also  sometimes  fracture  of  the  anterior  por- 
tion of  the  head  of  the  radius.  In  one  case  mentioned  by  Lotzbeck' 
the  process  appeared  to  have  been  broken  off  by  direct  violence;  a 
soldier  was  struck  in  the  elbow  by  a  piece  of  a  shell  which  caused  a 
severe  contusion  but  no  open  wound.  Two  months  afterward  the  coro- 
noid  process  could  be  felt  as  a  movable  body,  and  by  pressing  it  down 
it  could  be  made  to  rub  against  the  ulna  with  a  creaking  sound.  Acu- 
puncture proved  the  supposed  fragment  to  be  a  hard  solid  body.  In 
another  case,  that  of  a  boy  fourteen  years  old,  the  process  was  broken  off 
by  extreme  flexion  of  the  elbow.  A  somewhat  similar  personal  expe- 
rience may  be  mentioned  as  corroborative  of  this  mechanism  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  I  excised  an  elbow  for  suppurative  disease  of  the  joint, 
using  OUier's  postero-lateral  incision.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  clean- 
ing of  the  external  condyle,  and  before  the  olecranon  had  been  touched, 
I  asked  the  assistant  to  flex  the  elbow;  he  did  so  with  some  force,  and 
felt  something  snap.  About  half  an  inch  of  the  coronoid  process  was 
found  to  have  been  broken  off.  It  seemed,  however,  to  be  unusually 
long  and  prominent,  possibly  by  ossification  of  the  attached  capsule  in 
consequence  of  the  prolonged  inflammation. 

As  regards  experiment  upon  the  cadaver  we  have  the  assertion  of 
Malgaigne,^  that  in  producing  dislocations  backward  he  broke  off'  the 
end  of  the  coronoid  process  quite  frequently,  and  the  more  detailed 
results  of  Lotzbeck  who  fixed  the  elbow  in  a  slightly  flexed  position  by 
means  of  a  gypsum  bandage  and  then  by  striking  upon  the  palm  of 
the  hand  broke  the  coronoid  process  five  times  in  ten  attempts.  A^ary- 
ing  the  experiment  by  extending  the  elbow  completely  he  succeeded  in 
producing  the  fracture  only  once. 

The  mechanism  of  this  production  and  the  anatomical  relations  of 
the  process  explain  the  union  with  slight  displacement  shown  in  some 
of  the  specimens  and  the  difficulty  of  diagnosis  during  life.  The  ten- 
don of  the  brachialis  anticus  is  inserted  not  upon  the  tip  of  the  process 
but  upon  its  anterior  aspect  and  base,  and  the  articular  capsule  is 
attached  all  along  its  edge.  When  it  is  broken  off  by  being  forced 
backward  against  the  trochlea  its  connection  with  the  ulna  is  preserved 
in  front  by  the  tough  attachments  of  the  tendon,  and  therefore  instead 
of  being  displaced  bodily  along  the  anterior  aspect  of  the  bone  it  is 
probably  only  tilted  forward.  Its  vitality  is  assured  in  any  case  by 
its  connection  with  the  capsule,  and  when  the  dislocation  is  reduced 
the  fragment  is  held  exactly  in  place  by  the  tendon  of  the  brachialis 
anticus  in  front  and  the  humerus  behind. 

The  symptoms  and  the  means  of  diagnosis,  in  view  of  the  uncer- 
tainty of  the  diagnosis  in  the  supposed  cases,  cannot  be  positively 
described;  those  which  have  been  deemed  sufficient  are  :  dislocation 
backward,  easy  reduction,  great  tendency  to  recurrence,  possibly  crepi- 
tus, and  the  presence  of  a  hard  movable  body  in  front  of  the  elbow  in 
the  line  of  the  tendon  of  the  brachialis  anticus.      In  a  personal  case 

1  Lotzbeck  :  Schmidt's  Jahrbueh,  1866,  vol.  exxix.  p.  134. 

2  Malgaigne  :  Luxations,  p.  634. 


262  FRACTURES. 

the  supposed  fragment  could  be  readily  grasped  between  the  thumb 
and  finger  and  moved  freely  to  and  fro. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  consists  in  immobilization  of  the  joint 
flexed  to  a  riglit  angle  or  beyond.  The  degree  of  flexion  and  the  com- 
pleteness of  the  immobilization  may  vary  with  the  tendency  to  dis- 
placement. If  the  latter  is  great,  experience  has  shown  that  it  is  best 
opposed  by  increasing  the  flexion;  and,  of  course,  complete  immobil- 
ization gives  additional  security.  The  immobilization  should  be  main- 
tained as  long  as  the  teudency  to  dislocation  exists;  when  that  ceases 
the  splint  becomes  unnecessary,  and  the  only  indication  then  is  to  main- 
tain suflicient  flexion  to  favor  prompt  aud  close  union.  The  slight 
motion  in  the  joint  permitted  by  a  sling,  if  it  is  painless,  diminishes 
the  resulting  stiffness. 

C.  Fractures  of  the  Head  and  Neck  of  the  Eadius. 

Our  knowledge  of  this  variety  of  fracture  is  drawn  from  about  a 
score  of  specimens,  old  or  recent,  and  a  few  more  or  less  doubtful  clin- 
ical cases. ^  The  line  of  fracture  may  separate  a  small  portion  of  the 
head,  about  one-third,  or  a  much  larger  portion,  passing  down  through 
the  neck,  or  may  split  the  head  into  two  or  more  pieces  and  separate 
all  of  them  from  the  shaft.  I  know  of  only  one  specimen  (Mutter)  of 
fracture  of  the  neck  without  splitting  of  the  head,  but  two  specimens 
of  separation  of  the  epiphysis  have  been  reported. 

Cause.  The  cause  may  be  a  blow  upon  the  head  of  the  bone  (Stim- 
son,  Cheyne,  Delorme),  or  a  wrench  of  the  forearm,  probably  forced 
abduction  (Stimson),  or  the  injury  may  occur  as  an  incident  of  a  back- 
ward dislocation  of  both  bones  of  the  forearm;  the  latter  seems  to  be 
by  far  the  most  frequent  cause.  The  form  of  the  fracture  varies  with 
the  cause  :  fracture  of  a  small  portion  of  the  head  is  the  form  seen  in 
dislocation  and  in  fracture  by  direct  violence;  the  more  extensive  frac- 
tures— splitting  of  the  head  and  complete  separation  from  the  shaft — 
are  rarer  and  are  seen  when  the  limb  has  been  violently  wrenched.  I 
have  seen  three  of  the  former — two  in  dislocation  and  one  by  direct 
violence — and  three  of  the  latter  verified  by  arthrotomy  and  two  prob- 
able cases  observed  clinically. 

In  the  cases  accompanying  dislocation  a  small  piece,  comprising 
about  one-third  of  the  periphery,  is  broken  off,  probably  the  portion 
that  is  anterior  when  the  head  is  forced  past  the  capitellum.  I  have 
found  it  lying,  after  reduction  of  the  dislocation,  beneath  the  external 
epicondyle  betweeo  the  radius  and  the  olecranon,  and  the  portion  of 
the  head  of  the  radius  accessible  to  palpation  did  not  comprise  the  gap 
left  by  the  fracture. 

In  a  case  of  fracture  by  direct  violence  (kick  by  a  horse)  Cheyne 
found  the  fragment  in  the  same  place  and  removed  it,  as  he  did  also 
in  another  supposed  to  be  by  direct  violence;  in  another  Delorme 

1  See  the  last  five  of  the  references  quoted  in  the  preceding  section  :  Hodges,  Boston  Medical  and 
Surgical  Journal,  1866,  p.  383,  and  1877,  p.  65  ;  seven  cases  or  specimens  quoted  or  described  in  the 
first  edition  ;  Cheyne,  British  Medical  Journal,  March  7,  1891 :  Delorme,  Gaz.  des  Hop.,  March  17, 
1891 ;  Stimson,  New  Yorli  Medical  Journal,  Nov.  24,  1888,  and  Jan.  30,  1892,  and  Annals  of  Surgery, 
March  and  April,  1898 ;  Helferich,  Fractures  and  Dislocations,  p.  172  ;  Jayle,  Bull,  de  le  Soc.  Anat., 
January,  1893  ;  Pinner,  Deutsche  Zeitschr.  fur  Chir.,  1883,  p.  631. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM. 


263 


recognized  abnormal  mobility  of  the  undisplaced  fragment  and  treated 
it  by  immobilization,  obtaining  complete  restoration  of  function.  In 
mine  the  patient  did  not  come  under  observation  until  after  suppura- 
tion of  the  joint  had  occurred;  resection  was  done. 

My  three  certain  cases  of  fracture  by  violence  acting  through  the 
forearm  resemble  one  another  closely.  h\  each  the  cause  was  a  fall 
from  a  height,  the  arm  being  caught  under  the  body.  I  imagine  that 
the  immediate  cause  was  violent  abduction  of  the  forearm.  Fig.  138 
shows  the  lines  of  fracture.  In  the  first,  one  of  the  two  smaller  frag- 
ments was  displaced  outward  and  backward,  and  a  primary  excision  of 
the  head  and  neck  was  done,  with  a  good  functional  result.  It  was 
thought  that  the  coronoid  process  also  was  broken.  In  the  second 
there  was  no  recognizable  displacement  at  first,  and  I  was  not  entirely 
certain  of  the  character  of  the  injury;  after  immobilization  for  four 
weeks  the  functional  result  seemed  so  likely  to  be  bad  that  I  opened 
the  joint  and  removed  the  head  and  neck,  finding  the  larger  fragment 
displaced  angularly  outward  and  backward  and  reunited  with  the  shaft. 
In  the  third  case  there  were  two  large  pieces  and  a  crush  of  the  inter- 


FiG.  138. 


Fracture  of  head  and  neck  of  radius,    a,  first  case  ;  b,  second  case  ;  c,  third  case  ;  the  portion 
corresponding  to  the  gap  was  crushed. 

mediate  portion,  also  fracture  of  the  coronoid  process  and  slight  dis- 
placement backward  of  the  ulna.  I  saw  the  patient  a  month  after  the 
accident  and  removed  the  head  of  the  radius.  The  cases  are  reported 
in  detail  in  the  references  given  above.  In  one  case  observed  clinically 
(details  in  first  edition)  reunion  followed,  with  a  good  functional  result, 
notwithstanding  a  notable  enlargement  of  the  upper  end  of  the  radius; 
in  the  other  rotation  of  the  forearm  was  lost. 

Two  of  Mutter's  specimens  and  Helferich's  show  a  small  portion  of 
the  head  broken  off  and  reunited  with  displacement.  Mutter's  third 
specimen  shows  union  with  marked  angular  displacement  after  fracture 
of  the  neck  at  the  upper  margin  of  the  bicipital  tuberosity.  In  Pin- 
ner's the  small  fragment  was  eburnated  but  not  reunited,  and  in 
Delorme's  the  fragment  reunited  with  conservation  of  function. 

These  cases  show  that  union  is  possible,  even  probable,  after  fracture 
of  the  neck  or  of  the  head;  in  my  case  in  which  suppuration  followed 
the  patient  was  a  delicate  strumous  lad  in  whom  any  serious  joint  lesion 
would  have  been  likely  to  have  that  result. 

Mutter's  specimen  of  fracture  of  the  neck  alone  is  without  history 
of  the  cause  or  symptoms;  in  Annandale's  the  patient,  a  man  forty 


264  FRACTURES. 

years  old,  received  a  severe  jar  of  the  elbow  by  striking  his  wrist 
against  his  knee  while  shovelling.  He  did  not  seek  treatment  until 
six  weeks  later.  After  a  month's  immobilization  the  joint  was  opened; 
the  head  was  found  loose  and  the  neck  atrophied. 

Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis  after  fracture  of  a  small  portion  accom- 
panying a  dislocation  or  by  direct  violence  is  easy  if  the  fragment  is 
displaced  to  the  position  beside  the  olecranon  which  it  has  occupied  in 
most  of  the  reported  cases,  for  it  can  then  be  readily  palpated.  Its 
removal  is  easy,  and  its  loss  appears  to  entail  no  disability.  The  loss 
of  rotation  observed  in  one  case  after  removal  was  probably  due  to 
adhesions  between  the  surface  of  fracture  and  the  capsule. 

In  the  cases  of  more  extensive  breaking  the  diagnosis  is  easy  if  there 
is  enough  displacement  of  the  head  to  be  recognized  by  palpation  and 
if  its  separation  from  the  sliaft  is  shown  by  its  .failure  to  share  in  rota- 
tory movements  of  the  forearm.  In  my  second  case  the  head  rotated 
with  the  shaft,  and  the  only  sign  pointing  to  its  fracture  was  an  occa- 
sional click  perceived  during  rotation  of  the  forearm;  there  was  also 
marked  abnormal  lateral  mobility,  especially  adduction  of  the  forearm, 
and  sharp  pain  on  abduction. 

The  proper  treatment  of  this  condition  is  not  so  clear;  one  of  my 
cases  regained  good  use  of  the  joint  without  operation;  another  did  the 
same  after  a  primary  excision;  the  third  and  fourth  had  completely 
lost  rotation  and  preserved  only  20  to  40  degrees  of  flexion  and  exten- 
sion at  the  end  of  four  and  five  weeks  when  I  removed  the  reuniting 
fragments;  the  removal  considerably  improved  the  condition. 

Fracture  through  the  neck  alone  should  theoretically  show  failure  of 
the  head  to  share  in  the  rotation  of  the  forearm,  with  crepitus,  if  it  is 
held  firmly  against  the  ulna  by  the  pressure  of  the  thumb  during  the 
manipulation.  In  the  treatment  the  possibility  of  angular  displace- 
ment shown  in  Mutter's  specimen  and  observed  by  Hamilton  in  three 
cases  supposed  to  be  of  this  character  should  be  borne  in  mind.  It 
has  been  attributed  to  the  pull  of  the  biceps  upon  the  lower  fragment, 
but  considering  that  injuries  of  the  elbow  are  commonly  treated  in  the 
flexed  position  which  would  prevent  that  pull  I  doubt  that  agency, 
although  unable  to  suggest  a  satisfactory  one.  Possibly  the  pressure 
of  the  soft  parts  in  the  flexure  of  the  joint  when  it  is  flexed,  or  abduc- 
tion of  the  forearm  by  the  weight  of  the  arm  when  the  wrist  rests  upon 
the  front  of  the  body  may  be  a  factor.  If  the  pull  of  the  biceps  is 
the  cause  it  could  be  met  by  full  flexion  of  the  joint. 


2.  FRACTUEES  OF  THE  SHAFT. 

A.  Fractures  of  the  Shafts  of  Both  Bones. 

The  relative  frequency  of  fracture  of  both  bones  may  be  seen  by 
reference  to  the  table  in  Chapter  I.  It  occurs  rarely  in  the  upper  third 
and  with  about  equal  frequency  in  the  middle  and  lower  thirds.  Usu- 
ally the  radius  is  broken  nearer  the  elbow  than  the  ulna. 

Cause.     The  cause  may  be  direct  or  indirect  violence  or  muscular 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  265 

action,  a  fall  upon  the  hand,  or  the  bending  of  the  forearm  across  some 
object,  or  by  a  transverse  blow. 

Only  a  few  instances  of  fracture  by  muscular  action  have  been 
recorded,  and  even  in  those  there  was  a  contributing  external  force, 
such  as  shovelling  or  rising  u|)on  the  hand  in  bed. 

Partial  or  incomplete  fractures  —  ^'green-stick  fractures" — are, 
according  to  Malgaigne,  more  common  in  the  forearm  than  elsewhere, 
and  are  usually  due  to  a  fall  upon  the  hand. 

Displacements.  The  displacements  are  of  the  usual  kinds  :  overriding 
in  oblique  fractures,  lateral  with  or  without  overriding  in  the  trans- 
verse fractures,  and  angular  displacement  of  one  or  both  bones  in  both 
forms.  Rotatory  displacement  of  the  radius  alone,  especially  when  it 
is  broken  above  the  insertion  of  the  pronator  teres,  was  first  pointed 
out  apparently  by  Lonsdale.  He  suggested  that  the  upper  fragment 
might  be  strongly  supinated  by  the  biceps,  while  the  lower  fragment 
was  kept  in  the  usual  semi-prone  position,  and  he  thought  this  might 
be  a  cause  of  the  inability  to  supinate  the  hand  completely  sometimes 
observed  after  fracture.  Flower  and  Hulke^  say  they  have  found  proof 
of  the  correctness  of  this  conjecture  in  the  examination  of  numerous 
specimens  of  united  fracture  of  the  radius,  '^  in  a  great  number  of 
which  the  lower  fragment  was  much  less  supinated  than  the  upper," 
and  Agnew  says  there  are  similar  specimens  in  the  collections  of  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  ^Jr. 
Callender^  examined  eighteen  specimens  of  united  fracture  of  the  shaft 
of  the  radius  in  the  London  museums,  and  found  in  fifteen  of  them 
rotatory  displacement  averaging  36  degrees,  the  extremes  being  6 
degrees  and  64  degrees.  The  displacement  in  every  case  was  that 
pointed  out  by  Lonsdale,  supination  of  the  upper  fragment.  The 
agency  of  this  rotatory  displacement — supination  of  the  upper  frag- 
ment— in  preventing  full  supination  of  the  lower  segment  after  heal- 
ing appears  much  more  likely  to  be  efficient  in  fractures  below  the 
insertion  of  the  pronator  radii  teres,  for  that  muscle  is  the  main  oppo- 
nent of  the  exaggerated  supination  of  the  upper  fragment  which  would 
then  be  necessary  to  the  full  supination  of  the  lower. 

In  angular  displacement  one  bone  may  be  bent  while  the  other 
remains  nearly  straight,  possibly  with  ov^erriding,  or  the  fragments 
of  both  bones  may  be  inclined  in  the  same  direction,  forward,  back- 
ward, or  to  either  side,  or  there  may  be  lateral  inclination  in  opposite 
directions,  each  bone  being  inclined  toward  the  other;  and  if  the  frac- 
tures are  at  the  same  level  the  four  ends  may  thus  be  brought  into 
contact,  and  the  possibility  created  of  a  union  that  will  abolish  the 
power  of  rotation  of  the  limb.  In  a  case  seen  by  Malgaigne  the  ends 
of  the  upper  fragments  were  brought  together  and  interposed  between 
the  ends  of  the  lower  fragments,  and  in  addition  there  was  a  displace- 
ment produced  by  supination  of  the  lower  segment  of  the  limb,  one 
which  brought  the  lower  fragment  of  the  radius  behind  the  upper  one, 
and  that  of  the  ulna  in  front  of  its  upper  one.  A  displacement,  the 
direct  opposite  of  the  latter,  has  also  been  observed  and  described  by 

1  Hulke  :  Holmes's  System  of  Surgery,  Am.  ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  860. 

2  Callender :  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Reports,  vol.  i.,  1865,  p.  297. 


266  '  FRACTURES. 

Malgaigne,  the  lower  segment  of  the  limb  being  more  prouated  than 
the  upper  one.  Overriding  of  the  fragments  has  been  observed  to  a 
distance  of  more  than  three  inches  (eight  centimetres). 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  the  usual  ones  of  fracture:  pain, 
deformity,  abnormal  mobility,  crepitus,  and  loss  of  power. 

The  course  is  usually  simple  and  the  prognosis  favorable,  but  both 
may  be  gravely  modified  by  laceration  or  bruising  of  the  soft  parts  or 
by  the  occurrence  of  acute  inflammatory  reaction  or  of  gangrene,  and 
in  addition  the  prognosis  may  be  made  unfavorable  by  an  irreducible 
displacement  or  comminution  or  loss  of  substance  of  one  of  the  bones. 
Displacement  affects  the  prognosis  when  it  increases  the  chances  that 
union  may  take  place  between  the  two  bones,  and  comminution  or  loss 
of  substance  by  favoring  the  occurrence  of  pseudarthrosis. 

In  simple  cases  without  marked  displacement  or  complication  com- 
plete union  may  be  expected  in  a  month,  but  in  no  other  limb  do  inflam- 
matory complications  and  gangrene  occur  so  frequently,  even  under 
prudent  treatment.  The  gangrene  may  be  limited  to  points  where  the 
splints  have  made  pressure  or  to  portions  of  the  hand  and  fingers,  but 
it  is  very  likely  to  involve  the  entire  member  if  it  is  overlooked  at  the 
beginning  or  not  effectively  combated.  Diffuse  phlegmonous  inflam- 
mation of  the  forearm  may  follow  severe  bruising  of  the  soft  parts  or 
may  even  take  its  rise  in  the  fracture.  Its  importance  lies  in  the  danger 
to  the  life  and  limb  which  follows  the  burrowing  of  the  pus,  the  open- 
ings which  it  necessitates,  and  the  matting  together  of  the  tendons  and 
their  sheaths. 

Ischsemic  contraction  of  the  muscles  (p.  68)  is  of  especial  importance 
because  of  its  marked  interference  with  the  usefulness  of  the  hand. 

The  cause  of  gangrene  in  many  cases  and  of  ischsemic  contraction 
has  been  pressure  exerted  by  splints  or  bandages,  and  the  necessity  for 
caution  and  watchfulness  to  avoid  this  accident  cannot  be  urged  too 
strongly.  The  practice  of  applying  a  roller  bandage  to  the  limb  under 
the  splints  is  extremely  dangerous,  and  so  also  is  the  use  of  splints  of 
soft  material,  pasteboard  and  the  like,  which  take  the  shape  of  the 
limb  and  are  fastened  to  it  with  a  roller  bandage.  There  is  the  same 
compression,  the  same  chance  of  strangulation  in  this  case  as  when  the 
roller  is  applied  directly  to  the  skin.  It  is  not  safe  to  depend  upon 
the  sensations  of  the  patient,  upon  pain,  to  give  warning  of  threaten- 
ing strangulation;  cases,  in  both  old  and  youngs  have  been  reported  in 
which  total  gangrene  of  the  distal  portion  of  the  limb  has  occurred 
without  attracting  the  attention  of  the  patient  or  his  attendants  by  any 
symptoms  except  the  final  change  in  the  color  of  the  exposed  fingers. 

The  persistence  of  angular  displacement  of  both  bones,  or,  to  a  less 
degree,  of  the  radius  alone,  seriously  affects  the  prognosis  by  its  inter- 
ference with  rotation.  In  rotation  only  the  radius  moves,  and  its  move- 
ment is  about  an  axis  running  from  its  upper  end  to  the  lower  end  of 
the  ulna,  so  that  in  full  pronation  the  radius  crosses  the  ulna  obliquely, 
and  in  supination  is  parallel  to  it  and  at  its  maximum  distance  from  it 
at  the  centre.  If  now  the  bones  are  bent,  say  in  the  middle  third,  the 
radius  of  rotation  of  the  radius  at  the  apex  of  the  angle  is  correspond- 
ingly increased,  and  this  angle  must,  therefore,  move  to  a  greater  dis- 


PLATE   IV. 


Fig.  1.  —  Fracture  of  Radius  ;     marked  Angular   Displacement 


Fig.  2. — Recent  Colles'   Fracture  in  a  Boy  12  years  old;    showing 

Epiphyses. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM. 


2fn 


tance  from  the  ulna  than  normal  in  supination;  such  a  movement  is 
prevented  by  the  interosseous  membrane,  and  rotation  is  correspond- 
ingly diminished.  This  is  the  most  frequent  cause  of  diminution  or 
loss  of  rotation  after  fracture.  The  marked  disi)lacement  of  the  radius 
in  the  case  represented  in  Plate  IV.,  fig.  7,  caused  the  loss  of  only 
half  of  the  rotation. 

The  possibility  of  union  between  the  bones  as  well  as  the  fragments 
should  also  be  borne  in  mind.  Its  occurrence  is  more  likely  when  the 
natural  interval  between  them  is  destroyed  or  diminished  by  displace- 
ment, but  this  approximation  is  not  essential.  Excessive  formation  of 
callus,  in  consequence  of  laceration  of  the  intermediate  tissues  and  irrita- 
tion especially  of  the  interosseous  membrane,  is  sufficient  in  itself  to 
produce  this  result  so  destructive  of  the  usefulness  of  the  limb.     The 


Fig.  139. 


Fig.  140. 


Fracture  of  tLe  forearm,  angular  displacement, 
and  union  between  ttie  bones. 


Fracture  of  the  forearm,  with  formation 
of  a  lateral  joint. 


occurrence  is  favored  also  by  correspondence  in  the  position  of  the  frac- 
tures, for  the  fragments  are  more  likely  to  fall  into  abnormal  contact 
with  each  other,  and  the  granulations  which  form  the  callus  about  each 
fracture  may  easily  unite  if  each  spreads  over  only  half  the  intermediate 
space  (Fig.  139).  It  has  occasionally  happened  that  the  two  calluses 
have  come  into  contact  and  formed  a  lateral  joint  (Fig.  140),  instead 
of  uniting.  Slight  inclination  of  the  hand  to  one  side  or  the  other  is  a 
not  infrequent  result  and  may  be  due  to  the  position  of  the  sling  in 
which  the  arm  is  supported;  thus,  if  the  weight  of  the  arm  is  borne 
upon  the  sling  at  or  above  the  point  of  fracture  the  unsupported  hand 
drops  downward  and  the  lower  fragment  deviates  toward  the  ulnar 
side,  as  in  the  figures;  while  if  the  sling  passes  under  the  hand  or  wrist 


268  FRACTURES. 

and  leaves  the  forearm  unsupported  the  latter  sinks  down  between  the 
wrist  and  elbow  and  the  lower  fragment  deviates  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion toward  the  radial  side. 

Delay  or  failure  of  union  of  either  or  both  bones  is  not  very  uncom- 
mon, especially  of  the  radius,  and  cases  are  reported  in  which  the  union 
of  one  of  the  bones  has  been  delayed  four  or  five  months,  and  has  then 
taken  place  without  operative  aid.  Failure  of  union  entails  a  disability 
that  is  often  practically  complete,  and  Agnew's  tables  do  not  indicate 
that  the  prospects  of  relieving  it  by  operation  are  very  great,  since  out 
of  thirty-seven  cases  a  cure  was  obtained  in  only  nineteen. 

Treatment.  Reduction  must  be  effected,  when  necessary,  by  exten- 
sion and  counter-extension  aided  by  cautious  pressure  upon  the  bones 
near  the  seat  of  fracture.  The  importance  of  reduction  is  exception- 
ally great,  because  of  the  special  function  of  rotation  of  the  forearm 
which  may  be  so  easily  destroyed  by  displacement.  Overriding  is  to 
be  overcome  by  traction;  the  forearm  and  fingers  are  flexed,  counter- 
extension  is  made  by  an  assistant  who  grasps  the  arm  close  above  the 
elbow,  and  traction  by  the  surgeon  himself  or  another  assistant  grasp- 
ing the  hand.  If  there  is  angular  displacement  the  traction  should  be 
first  made  in  the  direction  of  the  lower  fragment,  and  when  this  is 
thought  to  be  sufficient,  and  while  it  is  still  maintained,  the  lower  seg- 
ment of  the  limb  is  brought  into  line  with  the  upper  one,  the  latter 
being  steadied  by  the  hand  of  the  surgeon  or  pressure  being  made 
upon  the  projecting  angle  with  the  thumbs.  This  pressure  may  be 
safely  made  if  the  angle  is  directed  forward  or  backward,  but  it  must 
be  used  with  great  caution  when  the  angle  is  lateral,  for  there  is  danger 
that  it  may  force  the  bone  upon  which  it  is  made  too  near  its  fellow, 
and  that  when  the  manoeuvre  is  completed  the  position  of  the  frag- 
ments may  resemble  that  of  the  arms  of  an  X,  each  pair  being  displaced 
angularly  toward  the  other.  To  avoid  this  result  the  hand  should  be 
supinated  while  reduction  is  making,  because  in  this  position  the  inter- 
val between  the  bones  at  the  centre  of  the  limb  is  greatest  and  most 
accessible,  and  the  surgeon  should  seek  to  force  or  keep  the  fragments 
apart  by  pressing  his  thumbs  in  between  them  in  front  and  his  fingers 
behind. 

The  position  in  which  the  forearm  is  usually  kept  during  treatment 
is  that  which  is  midway  between  pronation  and  supination.  It  is  the 
one  which  the  limb  naturally  assumes  when  it  is  suspended  beside  the 
body  with  the  elbow  bent  at  a  right  angle  and  is  the  one  which  is 
borne  with  the  least  fatigue  and  discomfort.  But  while  this  position 
meets  the  indications  sutficiently  in  the  simple  and,  indeed,  in  most 
cases,  it  was  long  since  recognized  by  some  surgeons  that  the  bones  of 
the  forearm  are  normally  separated  most  widely  from  each  other  at  the 
centre  when  the  limb  is  supinated,  and  that  consequently  this  position 
is  the  one  in  which  the  arm  should  be  kept  whenever  there  appears  to 
be  danger  of  the  bones  uniting  with  each  other.  According  to  Mal- 
gaigne,  fractures  of  the  forearm  were  treated  in  the  supine  position  by 
the  contemporaries  of  Hippocrates,  but  the  practice  was  condemned  by 
that  writer;  it  was  reinvented  by  Pare,  and  abandoned  by  him  when  he 
learned  that  Hippocrates  had  disapproved  of  it,  a  yielding  to  authority 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  269 

that  seems  to  have  been  unusual  with  that  vigorous-minded  surgeon, 
and  again  reinvented  by  Malgaigne,  who  afterward  learned  that  Lons- 
dale had  preceded  him  by  a  few  years.  Lonsdale'  recommended  the 
position  for  a  reason  mentioned  above,  the  difference  between  tlie  degree 
of  supination  of  the  upper  fragment  of  the  radius  and  that  of  its  lower 
fragment;  Malgaigne  recommended  it  because  of  the  greater  distance 
between  the  centres  of  the  bones  when  they  are  in  this  position. 

The  difficulty  which  Lonsdale  sought  to  avoid,  supination  of  the 
upper  fragment,  appears  not  to  have  much  importance  when  the  frac- 
ture of  the  radius  is  above  the  insertion  of  the  pronator  radii  teres  and 
to  be  rare  when  it  is  below  it;  that  which  Malgaigne  had  in  mind — 
possible  union  of  the  two  bones — is  rare  even  when  the  two  bones  are 
broken  at  the  same  level.  The  principal  faults  to  be  avoided  are  angu- 
lar displacement  and  overriding,  and  so  far  as  these  are  concerned  the 
attitude  of  pronation  or  supination  seems  to  be  indifferent.  The  objec- 
tion to  the  attitude  of  supination  is  its  greater  constraint  and  incon- 
venience; if  the  attitude  is  desirable  the  discomfort  can  be  avoided  by 
confinement  to  bed  with  the  arm  abducted  and  the  elbow  flexed  at  a 
right  angle,  in  which  position  the  forearm  rests  easily  in  full  supination 
on  its  ulnar  side. 

A  common  method  of  treatment  is  to  fix  the  limb  between  two  light 
wooden  splints  broad  enough  to  overlap  it  slightly  when  applied  to  the 
palmar  and  dorsal  surfaces.  The  palmar  splint  should  extend  from  the 
fold  of  the  elbow  to  the  roots  of  the  fingers,  the  dorsal  one  should  be 
shorter  and  not  reach  beyond  the  wrist.  Each  splint  should  be  padded 
with  cotton,  and  patients  usually  find  it  agreeable  to  have  the  end  cor- 
responding to  the  palm  of  the  hand  very  thickly  padded,  or  a  small 
roll  of  bandage  fastened  obliquely  to  it  so  that  the  fingers  can  close 
easily  over  it. 

In  simple  cases  uncomplicated  by  threatening  displacement,  the 
splints  are  applied  to  the  semi-pronated  limb  and  fastened  by  two 
strips  of  adhesive  plaster  wrapped  about  them,  one  near  the  elbow,  the 
other  at  the  wrist,  the  hand  is  made  fast  to  the  palmar  splint  by  a  few 
turns  of  a  bandage,  and  the  limb  is  placed  in  a  sling  that  supports 
both  the  elbow  and  hand. 

The  limb  should  be  frequently  inspected  at  first  in  order  to  guard 
against  excessive  pressure  either  by  bandages  too  tightly  applied  at 
first,  or  made  too  tight  by  the  swelling  of  the  parts,  and  the  splints 
should  be  removed  in  the  second  week  to  detect  and  remedy  any  new 
displacement. 

A  roller  bandage  should  not  be  applied  to  the  limb  under  the  splints; 
it  exposes  to  displacement  by  pressing  the  bones  toward  each  other, 
and  to  gangrene  or  ischseraic  contraction  by  constriction.  The  com- 
plete plaster-of-Paris  dressing  is  objectionable  for  the  same  reasons 
during  the  first  few  days,  but  it  or  moulded  plaster  splints  including 
the  lower  portion  of  the  arm  may  be  used  after  the  first  week  if  care 
is  taken  not  to  make  lateral  pressure. 

Anterior  and  posterior  splints  immobilize  the  limb  sufficiently  to 

1  Lonsdale  :  London  Medical  Gazette,  1832,  vol.  ix.  p.  910. 


270  FRACTURES. 

meet  every  indication  except  that  of  opposing  the  tonicity  of  the  mus- 
cles and  the  occurrence  of  overriding.  When  the  lines  of  fracture  are 
transverse  or  toothed  the  bones  themselves  afford  sufficient  protection, 
and  in  any  case  flexion  of  the  elbovi^  relaxes  many  of  the  muscles  and 
diminishes  the  risk,  which,  moreover,  is  not  a  great  one. 

In  compound  fractures  great  caution  should  be  used  in  removing 
fragments  or  excising  portions  of  bone,  lest  failure  of  union  should 
follow.  If  the  extent  and  position  of  the  wound  are  such  that  efficient 
splints  cannot  be  used  at  first,  the  patient  should  be  kept  in  bed  with 
the  arm  abducted  and  the  elbow  flexed,  and  traction,  elastic  or  by 
weight,  made  by  means  of  adhesive  plaster  attached  to  the  hand  and 
wrist.  Counter-extension  can  be  made  from  the  lower  part  of  the  arm 
by  a  broad  bandage,  the  limb  being  meanwhile  supported  upon  cushions 
or  suspended,  and  preferably  steadied  by  a  splint  placed  outside  the 
dressings  of  the  wound. 

B.  Fracture  of  the  Shaft  of  the  Ulna. 

Fractures  of  the  shaft  of  the  ulna  alone  are  almost  invariably  the 
result  of  direct  violence,  of  a  blow  received  upon  the  arm  while  it  is 
raised  to  protect  the  head,  or  of  a  fall  upon  the  ulnar  side  of  the  fore- 
arm. 

Displacement,  Displacement  may  be  entirely  absent,  and  when  pres- 
ent may  be  in  any  direction.  Its  extent  and  direction  seem  to  depend 
almost  entirely  upon  the  fracturing  force.  Most  recent  writers,  follow- 
ing the  example  of  Pouteau,^  have  alleged  that  the  broad  articulation 
of  the  ulna  with  the  humerus  prevented  lateral  displacement  of  the 
upper  fragment,  and  that  the  lower  fragment  was  therefore  the  only 
one  that  could  be  displaced  toward  the  radius.  Even  if  the  articula- 
tion was  absolutely  free  from  lateral  mobility,  the  inference  that  has 
been  thus  drawn  would  not  be  correct,  because  the  radius  can  be 
moved  toward  the  ulna  after  fracture  of  the  latter  and  thus  the  exact 
equivalent  of  the  displacement  of  the  ulna  toward  the  radius  produced. 
The  only  muscle  which  acts  directly  upon  the  lower  fragment  is  the 
pronator  quadratus,  the  tendency  of  which  is  to  draw  it  toward  the 
radius. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  may  be  limited  to  pain  and  swelling  at 
the  seat  of  fracture,  and  their  significance  may  be  rendered  obscure  by 
the  history  and  the  effect  upon  the  soft  parts  of  the  direct  violence 
which  has  caused  the  fracture.  If  the  radius  remains  entire  and  is 
not  dislocated  at  either  end,  there  can  be  no  shortening  of  the  limb,  no 
overriding  of  the  fragments,  and  displacement,  if  present,  must  be 
recognized  by  following  the  outline  of  the  bone  with  the  finger.  For- 
tunately this  exploration  is  made  easy  by  the  subcutaneous  position  of 
the  ulna.  Crepitus  and  abnormal  mobility  may  be  obtained  by  grasp- 
ing the  limb  above  and  below  the  fracture  and  making  pressure  alter- 
nately upon  the  fragments  with  the  fingers,  or  by  seizing  the  fragments 
between  the  thumb  and  fingers  and  moving  them  forward  and  back- 
ward upon  each  other. 

1  Pouteau  :  QEuvres  posthumes,  1783,  vol.  ii.  p.  258. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  271 

An  important  and  not  infrequent  complication  is  dislocation  of  the 
head  of  the  radius  forward;  it  should  always  be  suspected  when  there 
is  marked  displacement  of  the  fragments  of  the  ulna  or  unusual  swell- 
ing at  the  elbow. 

Fig.  141. 


Fracture  of  the  ulna  with  dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  radius  forward. 

The  prognosis  is  good  as  regards  repair  and  preservation  of  function. 

Reduction,  Reduction  can  be  made  only  by  appropriate  pressure  upon 
the  displaced  fragments,  traction  being  practically  without  value.  The 
displacement  which  it  is  most  important  to  overcome  is  the  lateral  one 
toward  the  radius,  and  that  should  be  met  in  the  same  way  as  after 
fracture  of  both  bones,  that  is,  by  pressing  the  thumb  and  fingers  in 
between  the  bones. 

As  the  radius  acts  as  a  splint  to  prevent  overriding  of  the  fragments 
the  surgeon's  chief  care  is  to  secure  immobility  and  prevent  lateral  or 
angular  displacement.  This  can  be  done  by  the  anterior  and  posterior 
splints  used  in  fracture  of  both  bones,  or  by  a  rectangular  splint  fast- 
ened against  the  inner  side  of  the  arm  and  semi-pronated  forearm,  or 
by  a  moulded  plaster  splint.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to 
keep  the  forearm  supinated,  and  in  others  the  bruising  of  the  soft  parts 
may  be  so  severe  as  to  forbid  the  use  of  splints  at  first.  The  arm 
should  be  kept  in  a  sling  and  the  same  precautions  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  undue  pressure  by  the  sling  upon  the  ulna  as  when  both  bones  have 
been  broken.  Many  surgeons  place  the  limb  in  a  pasteboard,  felt,  or 
plaster  gutter  in  order  to  avoid  this  danger. 

C.  Fracture  of  the  Shaft  of  the  Radius. 

As  far  as  can  be  judged  from  general  impressions  and  statistics  that 
are  somewhat  scanty,  isolated  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  the  radius  is  less 
frequent  than  that  of  the  ulna,  and  appears  also  to  be  generally  caused 
by  direct  violence,  sometimes  by  a  fall  upon  the  hand.  In  three  cases 
reported  by  Falkson^  fracture  in  the  middle  third  with  angular  dis- 
placement forward  was  caused  by  pressure  along  its  longitudinal  axis, 
the  palm  of  the  hand  in  dorsal  flexion  and  the  back  of  the  elbow 
having  been  caught  between  heavy  objects  which  were  approaching 
each  other.  Occasionally  it  has  been  broken  by  muscular  action — 
forcible  rotation. 

1  Falkson  :  Centralblatt  fur  Chirurgie,  1885,  p.  913. 


272 


FRACTURES. 


Fig.  142. 


Displacements.  The  displacements  vary  somewhat  with  the  seat  of 
fracture,  the  causes  being  the  fracturing  force  and  the  action  of  the 
biceps  and  pronator  muscles.  The  more  common  displacement  appears 
to  be  an  angular  one,  the  apex  of  the  angle  directed  forward  and  inward. 
Plate  IV.  represents  an  extreme  form.  If  the  fracture  is  in  the 
lower  third  and  the  displacement  inward,  as  in  Fig.  142,  the  styloid 
process  is  raised  and  the  hand  inclined  toward 
the  radial  side,  so  that  the  deformity  resembles 
that  of  a  Colles's  fracture. 

The  possible  loss  of  supination  in  consequence 
of  union  with  a  rotatory  displacement,  the  upper 
fragment  being  completely  supinated  by  the 
biceps  while  the  lower  is  kept  partly  pronated 
by  the  dressings,  wliich  was  pointed  out  by 
lionsdale,  and  has  been  spoken  of  in  the  sec- 
tion on  fracture  of  both  bones,  is  also  to  be 
borne  in  mind  after  fracture  of  the  radius  alone, 
especially  if  the  seat  of  fracture  is  above  the  in- 
sertion of  the  pronator  teres,  and  is  to  be  met, 
if  at  all,  in  the  same  manner,  that  is,  by  keep- 
ing the  forearm  supinated,  but  it  does  not  appear 
to  interfere  noticeably  with  function. 

If  the  fracture  is  at  or  below  the  middle  of 
the  bone  the  tendency  of  the  biceps  and  pronator 
teres  is  to  draw  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  frag- 
ment forward  and  inward,  and  that  of  the  pro- 
nator quad  rat  us  and  supinator  longus  is  to  draw 
the  upper  end  of  the  lower  fragment  toward  the 
ulna. 

Overriding  has  been  observed  only  when  dis- 
location of  the  lower  end  of  the  ulna  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  fracture. 
Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis  is  made  by  recognition  of  the  displacement, 
if  it  exists,  of  crepitus  and  abnormal  mobility  obtained  by  grasping 
the  fragments  with  either  hand  and  moving  them  upon  each  other  or 
by  placing  a  thumb  upon  the  head  of  the  radius  and  rotating  the  wrist 
gently. 

Treatment.  The  indications  for  treatment  are  the  same  as  after  frac- 
ture of  both  bones,  except  so  far  as  the  uninjured  ulna  may  be  utilized 
as  a  splint  or  as  its  dislocation  may  require  more  or  less  prolonged 
extension.  If  displacement  exists  the  fragments  should  be  pressed 
back  into  place  as  before  described,  and  if  the  fracture  is  low  down 
and  the  lower  fragment  is  inclined  toward  the  ulna  it  will  perhaps  be 
found  easier  to  bring  it  back  into  line  by  drawing  the  hand  forcibly 
downward  and  toward  the  ulnar  side  than  by  pressing  the  fingers  in 
between  the  bones.  Extension  and  counter-extension  at  the  wrist  and 
«lbow  may  be  required  to  overcome  dislocation  of  the  lower  fragment 
upward  from  the  ulna. 

The  arm  should  be  secured  upon  well-padded  anterior  and  posterior 
wooden  or  moulded  splints  in  the  semi-prouated  position.    Dislocation 


IFracture  of  the  shaft  of  the 
radius.    (Malgaigne.) 


PLATE   V. 


Fig.  1.— Recent  Colles'   Fracture;    Male,  22  years. 
See  aJso  Plate  IX.,  Fig.  1. 


Fia.  2.— Old  Colles'    Fracture. 


[To  face  page  275.J 


PLATE  VI. 


'y        ■^yngagg 


Fig.  1.  -  Recent  CoUes'   Fracture;    Comminution;    Male,  45  years. 


Fig.  2.— Recent  Colles'   Fracture;    Comminution;    Male,  40  years. 
See  also  Plate  IX.,  Fig.  2. 


PLATE  VII. 


Fig.  1.-  Recent  Colles'  Fracture;    Male,  26  years.     Fell  from  a 
height  of  four  feet. 


Fig.  2. — Same  as   Fig.  1.     Side  view. 


PLATE  VIII. 


Fig.   l.-Same  as  Plate  VII.      After  reduction. 


"ig.  2.— Recent  Colles'      Fracture;     Male,  36  years. 
Fell  from  a  height. 


PLATE    IX. 


Fig.  1.— Recent  CoUes'   Fracture;    Male,  22  years. 
Same  as  Plate  V.,  Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2.- Recent  Colles'  Fracture;    Male,  40  years. 
Same  as  Plate  VI.,  Fig.  2 


X 


PLATE  XI. 


Fig.  1.— Arrest  of  Growth  of  Radius  after  Colles'   Fracture  at  age  of 
12  years.     Present  age,  19  years. 


Fig.  2.— Separation  of  Radial    Epiphysis;    Boy,  IS  years. 


PLATE  Xll. 


Fig.  1. — Normal  Wrist;    Adult  Male. 


Fig.  2.— Normal  Wrist;    Adult  Female.     Fracture  of  Third  Metaeai-pal. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  273 

at  the  lower  radio-ulnar  articulation  or  change  in  the  direction  of  the 
lower  articular  surface  of  the  radius  may  make  it  desirable  to  use  a 
moulded  splint  that  will  include  the  hand  and  perhaps  the  lower  part 
of  the  arm,  or  a  long  rectangular  one  for  the  jmrpose  of  extension  and 
counter-extension,  or  to  keep  the  hand  inclined  toward  the  ulnar  side. 


3.  FRACTURES  IN  THE  VICINITY  OF  THE  WRIST. 

A.  Fractures  of  the  Radius.     CoUes's  Fracture. 

Under  this  term  are  included  fractures  of  the  radius  near  the  wrist, 
which,  while  differing  from  each  other  in  many  respects,  liave  in  com- 
mon a  characteristic  deformity,  and  often  a  certain  difficulty  in  making 
reduction. 

Next  after  the  ribs  the  lower  end  of  the  radius  is  the  part  of  the 
skeleton  most  frequently  broken.  While  the  fracture  occurs  at  all 
ages,  it  is  most  frequent  in  the  elderly.  It  is  very  remarkable,  and 
worthy  of  mention  as  a  proof  of  the  difficulty  of  diagnosis  in  fractures 
near  a  joint,  as  well  as  of  the  force  of  authority  and  tradition,  that  the 
real  nature  of  this  common  injury  which  comes  so  frequently  under 
the  notice  of  all  surgeons  should  not  have  been  recognized,  and  that  it 
should  have  been  taken  almost  always  for  a  dislocation  of  the  wrist 
backward,  until  about  one  hundred  years  ago.  The  first  mention  of 
the  injury  as  a  fracture  is  generally  attributed  to  J.  L.  Petit,  but,  I 
think,  incorrectly,  for  I  find  no  reference  to  it  in  his  chapter  on  frac- 
tures, while  the  chapter  on  dislocation  of  the  wrist  contains  a  very  good 
clinical  description  of  it. 

Pouteau'  is  the  first  author  to  describe  it  as  a  fracture  and  to  point 
out  the  previous  universal  error  in  diagnosis.  He  describes  its  pathol- 
ogy, attributes  its  production  to  the  violent  contraction  of  the  prona- 
tors, and  gives  its  symptoms  and  treatment,  adding  that  there  is,  per- 
haps, no  fracture  so  easy  to  recognize  at  a  glance.  The  fact  that  he 
includes  in  his  description  fractures  of  both  bones  does  not,  I  think, 
diminish  the  credit  due  him  for  his  recognition  of  the  error  of  his  pred- 
ecessors and  contemporaries.  His  view  of  the  subject  does  not  appear 
to  have  commended  itself  to  his  immediate  successors,  and,  during  the 
thirty  years  following  its  publication,  only  an  occasional  mention  is 
made  of  even  the  possibility  of  such  a  lesion,  and  the  common  injury 
was  still  deemed  a  dislocation. 

The  next  writer  upon  the  subject  failed  in  like  manner  to  impress 
his  opinion  upon  his  immediate  contemporaries,  and  although  justice 
was  ultimately  done  him,  and  the  fracture  is  now  known  widely  by  his 
name,  the  recognition  did  not  come  until  after  his  death.  Mr.  Colles 
published  his  brief  but  accurate  account  of  the  fracture  in  1814,^  but 
Dr.  R.  W.  Smith,  writing  in  1847,^  says:  ^'Subsequent  authors  have 
repeated  what  Mr.  Colles  had  said  upward  of  thirty  years  since,  but 
no  writer  (as  far  as  1  have  been  able  to  ascertain),  not  even  the  distin- 

1  Pouteau  :  (Euvres  posthumes,  1783,  vol.  ii.  p.  251. 

2  Colles  :  Edinburgh  Med.  and  Surg.  Journal,  April,  1814,  vol.  x.  p.  182. 

3  R.  W.  Smith  :  Fractures  in  the  Vicinity  of  Joints,  Am.  ed.,  p.  129. 

18 


274  FRACTURES. 

guished  author  of  the  Surgical  Dictionary,  has  alluded  to  his  account 
of  the  injury." 

Sir  Astley  Cooper,  in  the  second  edition  of  his  Dislocations  and  Frac- 
tures of  the  Joints,  published  in  1823,  describes  fracture  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  radius,  and  adds  that  he  had  seen  this  iujury  frequently, 
but  did  not  understand  its  nature  until  taught  by  dissection;  but  he 
describes  at  the  same  time  dislocation  of  the  wrist,  and  evidently  did 
not  appreciate  the  full  character  and  frequency  of  the  fracture.  In  a 
subsequent  edition  he  describes  experiments  made  by  himself  upon  the 
cadaver  in  1833,  in  which  he  produced  the  fracture  by  hyperextension 
(extreme  dorsal  flexion)  of  the  hand.  The  same  failure  to  appreciate 
the  character  of  the  common  injury  which  was  coming  so  frequently 
under  the  care  of  every  surgeon  persisted,  notwithstanding  the  publi- 
cations of  Pouteau  and  Colles,  that  of  the  former  being  entirely  over- 
looked apparently,  and  that  of  the  latter  remembered  only  by  the 
Dublin  surgeons,  who  believed  in  the  fracture  and  gave  his  name  to  it. 
But  the  misapprehension  was  not  destined  to  last  long;  the  great  change 
which  took  place  in  the  science  of  medicine  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  under  the  inspiration  and  guidance  of  the  French 
physicians,  the  substitution  of  objective  knowledge  for  dogma,  of  clinical 
and  dead-house  observation  for  pure  speculation,  made  short  work  of 
this  error.  Dupuytren  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to  it  and  to  impress 
it  upon  the  profession;  a  post-mortem  examination  in  1820  showed  him 
the  real  character  of  the  injury,  and  his  hospital  service  gave  him  the 
clinical  opportunities  that  were  needed  for  study  and  demonstration. 
A  siiort  period  of  doubt  followed,  and  then,  about  1830,  the  fact  was 
universally  accepted,  and  the  second  stage — that  of  discussion  of 
details,  which  has  lasted  until  the  present  time — was  entered  upon. 

Mr.  Colles,  who  had  never  had  an  opportunity  to  dissect  a  specimen 
of  the  fracture,  speaks  only  of  the  symptoms  and  treatment.  His  only 
statement  concerning  the  fracture  itself  is  an  incorrect  one  :  ''  This 
fracture  takes  place  at  about  an  inch  and  a  half  above  the  carpal 
extremity  of  the  radius."  We  now  know  that,  while  the  line  of  frac- 
ture may  lie  at  the  point  he  mentioned,  it  is  usually  much  lower,  and  is 
often  associated  with  comminution  of  the  lower  fragment.  The  aver- 
age distance  is  differently  estimated,  possibly  because  some  have  meas- 
ured from  the  articular  edge  of  the  bone  and  others  from  the  styloid 
process;  but  the  weight  of  testimony  places  it  at  from  one-third  to 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  above  the  articular  border.  In  the  young  it 
sometimes  follows  the  epiphyseal  line.  Its  direction  is  usually  trans- 
verse, but  it  may  be  oblique  laterally  or  antero-posteriorly,  and  the 
lower  fragment  is  often  comminuted.  The  lower  fragment  is  some- 
times displaced  bodily  backward  without  crushiog,  as  in  Figs.  143  and 
144,  but  the  displacement  appears  more  often  to  be  almost  entirely 
angular,  the  lower  fragment  turning  upon  its  anterior  edge  as  upon  a 
hinge,  crushing  or  penetration  with  impaction  taking  place  posteriorly 
and  outwardly,  and  the  articulating  surface  looking  downward  and 
backward  instead  of  downward  and  forward  as  it  does  normally;  at  the 
same  time  the  styloid  process  rises  to  a  higher  level.  An  extreme 
example  of    this  displacement,  with   union,   is  shown  in   Fig.  145. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM. 


275 


Sometimes  the  styloid  process  of  the  ulna  is  broken  off,  apparently  by 
avulsion  throiijih  the  lateral  ligament  or  possibly  the  fibro-cartilage. 

Specimens  of  recent  fracture  are  not  very  common,  and  many  of 
those  we  possess  are  open  to  the  objection  that  the  fractures  have  been 
caused  by  violence  far  in  excess  of  that  whicli  causes  the  great  majority 
of  the  fractures  met  with  clinically,  the  patients  having  fallen  from 
a  considerable  height,  and  having  received  also  injuries  that  caused 
death  within  a  short  time  thereafter.  Others  are  obtained  from  elderly 
patients  who  have  received  the  fracture  in  the  usual  manner,  that  is, 
by  a  fall  upon  the  ground  while  walking,  and  have  then  died  in  a  few 
days  of  au  intercurrent  affection,  usually  pneumonia. 


Fig.  143. 


Fjg.  144. 


Fracture  of  the  lower  end  of  the 
radius.  Displacement  backward. 
(R.  W.  Smith.) 


Fracture  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  radius.  Displacement 
of  lower  fragment  backward. 


Fracture  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  radius.  Angu- 
lar displacement  of  the 
lower  fragment  back- 
ward wiih  impaction. 
(R.  W.  Smith.) 


The  Rontgen  rays  have  recently  added  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
details,  showing  that  the  surface  of  fracture  is  rarely  flat  and  trans- 
verse, that  comminution  or  splitting  of  the  lower  fragment  is  frequent 
even  in  early  adult  life,  that  the  displacement  backward  of  the  frag- 
ment is  not  commonly  so  marked  as  has  been  supposed  from  the  appear- 
ance of  the  limb,  and  that  the  styloid  process  of  the  ulna  is  rarely 
broken.  They  confirm  the  opinion  that  the  radial  side  of  the  bone  is 
shortened  and  show  that  the  carpus  preserves  its  relations  with  the 
articular  surface  of  the  radius,  passing  slightly  upward  toward  the 
radial  side  of  the  ulna  and  thus  making  the  latter  prominent.  In 
marked  backward  displacement  the  ulna  accompanies  the  fragment. 

The  figures  of  Plates  IV. -X.  show  the  different  levels  at  which 
the  fracture  occurs,  the  frequency  and  character  of  the  comminution, 
the  differences  in  dorsal  displacement,  and  the  marked  dorsal  pro- 
jection of  the  first  row  of  the  carpus  in  one.  Plate  XL,  fig.  1,  shows 
arrest  of  growth  after  fracture  at  the  age  of  twelve  years,  the  patient 


276 


FRACTURES. 


being  nineteen  years  old  when  the  picture  was  taken.  Plate  XII.  shows 
the  normal  wrist  in  the  adult  male  and  female;  the  notably  lower  posi- 
tion of  the  articular  surface  of  the  radius  as  compared  with  that  of  the 
ulna  in  the  female  was  found  in  most  of  the  female  cases  examined. 

In  specimens  obtained  after  repair  has  taken  place  without  reduction 
of  the  displacement  the  penetration  of  the  posterior  portion  appears  very 
marked  (Fig.  146),  often  more  so  than  it  really  is.  The  appearance  is 
due  in  part  to  the  formation  of  callus  upon  the  posterior  face  of  the 
upper  fragment  under  the  periosteum  which  is  stripped  up,  the  "  peri- 
osteal bridge"  which  is  so  often  found  at  one  side  of  a  fracture,  and 
in  part  to  condensation  of  the  spongy  tissues  during  repair. 


Fig.  146. 


Fig.  147. 


United  fracture  of  the  radius.    (R.  W. 

SiMITH  ) 


Recently  united  fracture  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  radius.    (R.  W.  Smith.) 


Among  the  lesions  that  may  be  associated  with  the  principal  fracture 
are  :  fracture  of  the  ulna  near  its  lower  end,  fracture  of  the  styloid 
process  of  the  ulna,  rupture  of  the  radio-ulnar  and  intra-articular  liga- 
ments, and  perforation  of  the  skin  by  the  ulna.  The  first  is  rare,  and 
all  the  others  are  the  consequence  of  the  momentary  prolongation  of 
the  action  or  variation  in  the  degree  of  the  fracturing  force.  The 
Kontgen  rays  show  the  fracture  only  occasionally,  and  then  only 
as  the  breaking  off  of  the  tip  of  the  process,  so  that  I  think  it  probable 
that  the  more  extensive  injuries  heretofore  noted  were  in  cases  charac- 
terized bj  greater  causative  violence  and  wider  displacement.  The 
mechanism  appears  to  be  avulsion  through  the  cord-like  lateral  liga- 
ment which  is  attached  to  its  tip. 

Concerning  the  condition  of  the  intra-articular  fibro-cartilage  I  can 
find  but  little  that  is  positive,  since  the  only  sources  of  information  are 
the  autopsies  of  recent  fractures.  The  R5ntgen  rays  give  no  direct 
information  on  this  point,  for  the  cartilage  is  transparent  to  them;  its 
avulsion  from  the  ulna  or  radius  seems  inevitable  when  the  lower  end 
of  the  radius  is  markedly  displaced. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  277 

Although  much  stress  has  been  laid  by  some  upon  the  supposed  rup- 
ture of  the  internal  lateral  ligament,  fresh  specimens  and  experiment 
upon  the  cadaver  give  no  ground  for  the  belief  that  it  occurs  except  in 
cases  with  marked  displacement.  The  fact  that  the  end  of  the  ulna  is 
prominent  and  that  the  finger  can  be  pressed  in  on  the  side  below  it 
much  more  deeply  than  in  a  normal  joint  can  be  explained  by  the 
ascent  of  the  carpus,  which  would  draw  the  ligament  to  a  more  trans- 
verse position. 

1  believe  that  in  the  severer  cases  the  tendon  of  the  extensor  carpi 
ulnaris  is  torn  out  of  its  sheath  and  displaced  outwardly  from  the  ulna, 
for  I  have  noted  in  such  cases  the  absence  of  the  resistance  which  the 
tendon  normally  offers  to  the  finger  close  below  the  joint. 

I  have  not  met  with  the  record  of  any  case  in  which  the  radius  pro- 
jected through  the  skin,  except  after  separation  of  the  epiphysis,  but  I 
have  seen  fractures  compound  on  the  radial  side. 

Associated  fracture  of  the  scaphoid  (Rutherford)  and  of  the  semi- 
lunar (Hunt)  and  dislocation  of  the  semilunar  (Cameron)  have  been 
reported.  See  Fractures  of  the  Carpus  for  similar  injuries  produced 
experimentally. 

Cause.  The  cause  of  Colles's  fracture  is  usually  a  fall  upon  the  palm 
of  the  hand,  and  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  fall  is  only  to  the 
ground  while  walking.  This  is  true  of  almost  all  cases  in  which  the 
patients  are  somewhat  advanced  in  life;  in  the  younger  ones  the  vio- 
lence is  usually  greater,  as  a  fall  from  a  height. 

The  mechanism  by  which  the  fracture  is  produced  has  been  almost 
from  the  very  beginning  and  still  is  the  subject  of  much  discussion. 
Three  theories  have  been  advanced:  1.  Fracture  by  splitting  or  crush- 
ing; the  cancellous  tissue  is  crushed  or  comminuted  between  the  carpus 
and  the  diaphysis.  2.  Fracture  as  in  other  bones  by  decomposition  of 
the  force  and  yielding  at  the  weakest  point.  3.  Fracture  by  cross- 
strain  exerted  through  the  anterior  ligament  in  exaggerated  and  forced 
dorsal  flexion  (hyperextension)  of  the  hand.  I  believe  that  almost  all 
these  fractures  are  produced  according  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  first 
two  ways,  and  that  the  third  is  rarely  seen. 

In  the  first  the  weight  of  the  body  is  received  upon  the  ball  of  the 
hand — the  carpus — directly  in  the  line  of  the  long  axis  of  the  radius, 
and  the  inner  end  of  the  scaphoid  or  the  semilunar  splits  the  end  of 
the  radius  like  a  wedge.  This  is  shown  by  many  specimens  and  appears 
to  be  especially  frequent  in  the  elderly. 

In  the  second  the  line  of  the  force  is  slightly  inclined  from  the  long 
axis  of  the  radius,  making  an  angle  open  anteriorly.  The  arm  is  out- 
stretched and  not  directly  in  the  line  of  the  fall.  The  force  is  decom- 
posed as  usual,  part  being  taken  up  by  the  resistance  of  the  shaft  in  the 
long  axis,  and  part  acting  transversely  to  break  the  bone.  The  back- 
ward displacement  and  tilting  of  the  lower  fragment  indicate  the  direc- 
tion of  this  component.  The  objection  sometimes  urged  that  under 
such  circumstances  the  bone  should  always  break  (as  it  sometimes  does) 
at  a  higher  point  where  it  is  smaller  and  the  leverage  presumably 
greater  can  only  be  met  at  present  by  throwing  the  burden  of  proof 
upon  the  objectors.    It  seems  certain  that  this  is  the  way  in  which  the 


278  FBAGTUMES. 

violence  is  received  in  a  large  proportion  of  the  cases.  Henequin^ 
finds  an  explanation  of  the  seat  of  fracture  in  the  position  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  interosseous  ligament  the  fibres  of  which  run  obliquely- 
downward  from  the  radius  to  the  ulna,  the  lowest  ones  leaving  the 
radius  a  short  distance  above  its  lower  end;  consequently  a  force 
received  upon  the  lower  end  of  the  radius  (through  the  carpus)  is 
transmitted  not  directly  through  its  shaft  and  head  to  the  humerus, 
but  through  the  fibres  of  the  interosseous  ligament  to  the  ulna  and 
thence  to  the  humerus.  This,  he  thinks,  makes  the  lower  end  of  the 
radius  the  weakest  part  of  the  intermediate  segment,  and  therefore  the 
part  most  easily  broken. 

According  to  the  third  theory  a  cross-strain  is  exerted  upon  the  end 
of  the  bone  through  the  anterior  ligament  of  the  wrist;  the  force  is 
thought  to  be  received  upon  the  palm  of  the  extended  hand  at  a  point 
that  lies  posterior  to  the  posterior  border  of  the  end  of  the  radius,  the 
hand  is  bent  back,  the  ligament  is  put  upon  the  stretch,  and  the  bone 
is  broken  by  avulsion  The  theory  seems  to  have  originated  in  experi- 
ments upon  the  cadaver.  The  earliest  recorded  experiments  in  this 
direction  were  those  already  alluded  to  which  were  made  by  Sir  Astley 
Cooper  in  1833,  but  not  published  until  several  years  afterward;  the 
earliest  publication  appears  to  have  been  by  Bouchet^  in  1834.  The 
experiment  may  produce  a  transverse  fracture  within  a  short  distance  of 
the  articular  surface  of  the  radius,  but  quite  as  often  it  causes  rupture 
of  the  anterior  ligament  and  even  dislocation  or  fracture  of  one  or 
more  of  the  carpal  bones.  There  is  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  frac- 
ture can  be  produced  in  this  M^ay,  and  there  are  a  few  clinical  cases  in 
which  this  was  apparently  the  mode  of  production.  But,  with  the 
exception  of  these  few  cases,  in  which  the  mode  of  action  of  the  vio- 
lence was  distinctly  exceptional,  there  is  nothing  but  the  experiments 
to  support  the  theory.  In  other  clinical  eases  the  same  movement  has 
produced  dislocation  of  the  semilunar  or  fracture  of  the  scaphoid  or 
semilunar. 

The  violence  in  a  fall  is  not  usually  received  at  a  point  on  the  palm 
of  the  hand  posterior  to  the  line  of  the  radius;  it  is  received  at  the 
base  of  the  thumb,  at  a  point  corresponding  to  the  trapezium.  When 
the  hand  is  bent  backward  the  motion  takes  place  between  the  first  and 
second  rows  of  the  carpus;  the  first  row  remains  in  place  and  the 
second  row  swings  around  until  it  comes  almost  into  contact  with  the 
radius,  as  shown  in  Fig.  148.  This  figure  represents  a  section  made 
through  the  radius  and  the  second  metacarpal  bone  and  traversing  the 
point  upon  the  palm  which  receives  the  blow  in  a  fall,  and  as  the  posi- 
tion is  that  of  extreme  physiological  dorsal  flexion  it  is  evident  from 
it  that  no  cross-strain  can  be  exerted  until  after  this  limit  has  been 
passed  and  the  second  row  of  carpal  bones  have  obtained  a  bearing  upon 
the  radius.  Before  this  can  take  place  the  flexor  muscles  must  be 
overpowered,  and  that  is  a  fact  which  I  think  has  not  been  taken  prop- 
erly into  account  in  reasoning  from  the  results  of  experiments.  The 
strain  does  not  come  upon  the  ligament  unless  the  hand  is  caught  under 

1  Henequin  :  Revue  de  Chirurgie,  July,  1894. 

2  Bouchet :  Thfese  sur  les  Luxations  dii  Poignet.    Quoted  by  Malgaigne. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM. 


279 


the  body  in  the  fall  and  bent  far  back.  Ordinarily  the  hand  is  not 
bent  back  even  to  a  right  angle,  not  even  far  enough  to  make  the  ante- 
rior ligament  of  the  wrist  tense,  much  less  to  exert  a  fracturing  strain 


Fig.  148. 


Section  of  the  long  axis  of  the  radius ;  the  hand  in  dorsal  flexion.    Tr-m,  trapezium  ; 
Tr-d,  trapezoid. 

through  it.  Moreover  the  theory  fails  to  explain  the  comminution  so 
frequently  seen  and  fractures  above  the  conjugal  cartilage  in  the  young. 
Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  marked  and  characteristic,  but  crepi- 
tus and  abnormal  mobility,  so  common  in  other  fractures,  are  not  always 
easily  recognizable  in  this.   The  most  striking  features  of  the  deformity 

Fig.  149. 


Deformity  in  Colles's  fracture. 


are  the  prominence  of  the  dorsum  over  the  lower  fragment  and  that  of 
the  end  of  the  ulna.  The  former  so  changes  the  outline  of  the  forearm 
and  wrist  that  when  viewed  from  the  radial  side  its  appearance  is  like 
that  represented  in  Fig.  149,  and  was  aptly  compared  by  Yelpeau  to 
the  outline  of  a  silver  fork,  a  comparison  which  has  survived  in  the 


280  FRACTURES. 

name  "  silver-fork  fracture,"  by  which  it  is  sometimes  known.  The 
cause  of  this  change  in  the  outline,  so  far  as  it  is  due  to  the  position  of 
the  fragments,  is  shown  in  some  of  the  radiographs;  swelling  of  the 
soft  parts  and  even  projection  of  the  first  row  of  the  carpus  accounts 
for  some  of  it;  that  of  the  palmar  aspect  is  due  mainly  to  swelling  of 
the  soft  parts. 

The  radiographs  show  that  the  characteristic  deformity  is  present 
even  when  the  displacement  of  the  fragment  is  slight,  and  that  in  gen- 
eral this  displacement  is  much  less  than  has  heretofore  been  supposed. 

The  prominence  of  the  end  of  the  ulna  appears  to  be  due  to  the  dis- 
placement of  the  carpus  and  the  fragment  of  the  radius  upward  and 
somewhat  to  the  radial  side,  aided  sometimes  by  avulsion  of  the  styloid 
process  of  the  ulna,  or,  possibly,  the  equivalent  rupture  of  the  internal 
lateral  ligament.  That  ascent  of  the  end  of  the  radius  is  sufficient  to 
produce  this  prominence  is  shown  by  its  gradual  appearance  in  cases  of 
arrest  of  growth  at  the  lower  end  of  that  bone.      See  Plate  XI. 

If  the  surgeon  marks  the  positions  of  the  styloid  processes  by  press- 
ing the  end  of  a  finger  into  the  side  of  the  joint  below  and  against  the 
end  of  each,  he  will  see  that  that  of  the  radius  has  risen,  so  that  instead 
of  being  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  lower  (nearer  the  hand)  than  that  of 
the  ulna,  as  it  usually  is,  it  has  risen  to  the  same  level,  or  even  above  it. 

The  swelling  upon  the  anterior  surface  of  the  forearm  is  quite 
marked,  and  is  sharply  rounded  off  toward  the  wrist  with  deepening 
of  the  transverse  creases. 

Crepitus  and  abnormal  mobility  can  sometimes  be  obtained  by  grasp- 
ing the  lower  fragment  between  the  thumb  and  fingers  and  moving^it 
backward  and  forward  while  the  forearm  is  steadied  by  the  other  hand. 

Pressure  along  the  line  of  fracture  on  the  dorsum  of  the  radius  or 
of  the  hand  upward  against  the  forearm  is  painful. 

Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis  is  made  by  recognition  of  the  above  signs 
and  symptoms.  In  difficult  cases,  fat  people  and  children  without  dis- 
placement, it  may  be  made  upon  the  existence  of  a  well-defined  trans- 
verse line  of  tenderness  on  pressure  on  the  dorsum  of  the  radius, 
deepening  of  the  transverse  folds  on  the  palmar  aspect  of  the  wrist, 
loss  of  power  in  the  limb,  and  history  of  the  case. 

A  sprain  or  contusion  may  be  mistaken  for  a  fracture  if  the  limb 
has  been  broken  previously  and  has  united  with  deformity,  for  it  will 
present  many  of  the  physical  and  functional  signs.  The  question  there- 
fore should  always  be  asked  whether  the  wrist  has  suffered  a  previous 
injury. 

Course  and  Prognosis.  Firm  union  between  the  fragments  may  be 
expected  within  a  month.  The  prognosis  with  reference  to  deformity 
depends,  of  course,  upon  the  completeness  of  the  reduction  and  reten- 
tion. As  a  rule,  permanent  deformity  after  fracture  in  youth  is  slight 
or  entirely  absent;  but  in  adults  the  case  is  different,  either  because  the 
original  displacement  is  greater,  or  because  crushing  and  comminution 
make  complete  reduction  and  retention  practically  impossible. 

The  prognosis  with  reference  to  function  is  somewhat  better,  since 
the  persistence  of  even  marked  displacement  does  not  necessarily 
entail  disability.      The  range  of  motion  at  the  wrist  may  be  somewhat 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  281 

restricted,  and  yet  may  be  wide  enough  to  answer  all  purposes,  and  a 
change  in  the  direction  of  the  articular  surface  is  still  compatil^Ie  with 
free  and  painless  motion.  Rigidity  of  the  wrist  and  fingers  usually 
persists  for  some  weeks,  or  even  months,  and  in  exceptional  cases,  in 
the  old  and  rheumatic  and  in  those  where  there  has  l)een  much  inflam- 
mation of  the  sheaths  of  the  tendons  and  of  the  wrist-joint,  it  may 
persist  for  years.  1  have  seen  two  cases  in  which  the  hand  was  prac- 
tically useless  a  year  or  two  after  the  receipt  of  the  injury.  There 
was  much  deformity  in  one  of  them.  This  rigidity  of  the  fingers  is 
due  in  part  to  their  prolonged  immobilization  and  in  part  possibly  to 
inflammation  within  the  sheaths  of  their  tendons  in  the  forearm. 

The  possible  arrest  of  the  growth  of  the  bone  after  separation  of  the 
epiphysis  in  the  young  deserves  mention,  although  it  is  an  exceptional 
consequence  of  the  injury.      I  have  seen  two  such  cases.     (Plate  XI.) 

Treatment.  Complete  reduction  of  the  displacement  is,  of  course, 
essential  to  prevent  permanent  deformity.  The  ease  with  which  it  can 
be  accomplished  varies  greatly  in  different  cases.  Traction  upon  the 
hand  with  direct  pressure  upon  the  fragment  is  sometimes  sufficient  to 
correct  the  dorsal  displacement;  in  other  cases  forcible  pressure  must 
be  made,  the  forearm  is  grasped  with  the  fingers  upon  the  palmar 
prominence  and  the  thumbs  upon  the  dorsal  one,  and  the  pieces  pressed 
into  line.  Occasionally  an  anaesthetic  must  be  given  and  the  fragment 
mobilized  by  moving  it  forcibly  backward  and  forward  and  then  press- 
ing it  into  place. 

In  order  to  meet  the  two  indications — -the  prevention  of  posterior 
displacement  of  the  lower  fragment  and  of  projection  of  the  end  of  the 
ulna — a  great  variety  of  splints  have  been  devised,  most  of  them  upon 
the  theory  that  the  position  of  the  fragment  can  be  controlled  by  the 
attitude  given  to  the  hand.  Thus,  palmar  flexion  of  the  wrist  has 
been  employed  to  prevent  backward  displacement  of  the  fragment  of 
the  radius,  and  ulnar  flexion  to  prevent  the  prominence  of  the  ulna. 
The  theory  is  wrong  and  the  results  have  disappointed.  If  the  dorsal 
displacement  has  been  corrected  it  has  little  tendency  to  recur,  and  the 
attitude  of  the  hand  is  without  influence  upon  it;  the  projection  of  the 
end  of  the  ulna  cannot  be  prevented  by  ulnar  flexion  of  the  wrist,  for 
this  movement  does  not  bring  back  the  carpus  and  the  radial  fragment 
to  their  normal  positions. 

The  facts  to  be  borne  in  mind  are:  1.  That  dorsal  prominence  of  the 
fragment  is  to  be  prevented  by  correction  of  the  displacement  before 
the  application  of  a  dressing,  and  its  recurrence  prevented  by  direct 
action  upon  the  fragment,  not  by  indirect  action  through  the  hand. 
2.  That  some  permanent  shortening  of  the  radius,  especially  on  its 
outer  side,  if  its  cancellous  tissue  has  been  crushed,  as  is  the  rule  in 
the  old  and  frequent  in  others,  is  inevitable.  3.  That  the  prominence 
of  the  ulna  can  be  prevented  only  by  bringing  the  fragment  of  the 
radius  (and  thus  the  carpus)  fully  back  to  its  normal  position — a  prac- 
tical impossibility  in  many  cases.  Direct  lateral  pressure  upon  the 
sides  of  the  wrist  may  diminish  the  prominence  in  some  cases.  4. 
That  the  fingers  must  be  left  free  in  order  to  avoid  the  stiffening  caused 
by  their  confinement. 


282 


FRACTURES. 


A  suitable  dressing,  therefore,  is  one  which  immobilizes  the  fragment 
and  the  carpus  in  the  position  given  to  them  and  leaves  the  fingers  free 
to  be  flexed  and  extended  at  will;  and  as  the  tendency  to  recurrence  of 
the  dorsal  displacement  is  slight  special  precautions  against  it  are  rarely 
needed. 

Such  a  dressing  may  be  made  of  plaster-of-Paris  or  wooden  splints. 
The  most  convenient  attitude  is  that  of  partial  pronation  with  the  wrist 
in  slight  dorsal  flexion  and  the  fingers  flexed.  There  should  be  two 
splints,  palmar  and  dorsal,  the  former  extending  from  a  little  below 
the  elbow  to  the  metacarpo-phalangeal  joints,  the  latter  from  the  same 
height  to  the  carpo-metacarpal  joints. 


Fig.  150. 


\^  ooden  'splints  for  Colles's  fracture 

Wooden  splints  (Fig.  150)  should  be  three  inches  broad  and  padded, 
the  padding  being  a  little  thicker  on  the  palmar  splint  at  the  point  cor- 
responding to  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  fragment,  and  on  the  dorsal 
splint  at  the  point  corresponding  to  the  lower  fragment.  A  roller 
bandage  placed  obliquely  at  the  lower  end  of  the  palmar  splint  makes 
a  convenient  rest  for  the  hand,  maintains  dorsal  flexion  of  the  wrist, 
and  permits  the  fingers  to  be  clasped  over  it.  The  splints  are  secured 
in  place  by  two  adhesive  bands,  one  at  each  end,  and  by  a  roller 
bandage. 

Plaster-of-Paris  splints  (Fig.  151)  should  be  wide  enough  to  cover 
in  the  wrist,  and  the  lower  end  of  the  palmar  one  may  be  conveniently 
made  into  a  roll  to  fill  the  palm  of  the  hand.     The  dorsal  one  may 

Fig.  151. 


Plaster-of  Paris  splints  for  Colles's  fracture. 

extend  upon  the  back  of  the  hand.  They  should  be  secured  in  place 
by  a  roller  bandage,  and  while  the  plaster  is  setting  it  may  be  held 
snugly  against  the  sides  of  the  wrist  so  as  to  keep  the  ends  of  the 
radius  and  ulna  close  together.  They  are  especially  advantageous  in  per- 
mitting daily  massage  of  the  parts  :  the  dorsal  splint  is  removed  and 
massage  made  on  the  uncovered  portion  from  the  beginning,  and  the 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  283 

palmar  one  can  be  removed  for  the  same  purpose  (the  dorsal  one  being 
kept  in  place)  after  the  first  week.  The  patient  must  be  instructed  to 
keep  the  fingers  flexed  when  at  rest,  and  to  mov^e  them  frequently. 
It  is  well  also  to  keep  thumb  abducted. 

A  strip  of  adhesive  plaster  drawn  snugly  about  the  limb  at  the  lev^el 
of  the  fracture  may  be  used  in  addition  to  diminish  the  ulnar  promi- 
nence in  cases  with  comminution.  It  has  even  been  employed  as  the 
sole  dressing. 

The  question  sometimes  arises  whether  the  deformity,  persisting  for 
some  time  after  the  injury  and  the  result  of  an  error  in  diagnosis  or  of 
failure  of  treatment,  can  be  corrected.  Among  Dupuytren's  earliest 
cases  were  three  of  this  kind,  and  he  succeeded  in  overcoming  the 
deformity  by  steady  forcible  traction  and  pressure  upon  the  fragments 
on  the  twentieth,  twenty-ninth,  and  thirtieth  days  after  the  receipt  of 
the  injury,  the  patients  being  respectively  sixty-nine,  ten,  and  thirteen 
years  old.  A  few  cases  have  been  treated  by  refracture  or  by  incision 
and  osteotomy.  I  doubt  if  anything  more  than  an  improvement  in 
appearance  can  be  gained  thereby;  the  causes  of  loss  of  function  can- 
not be  thus  removed. 

B.  Fractures  at  the  Wrist  Other  than  CoUes's. 

Dr.  Rhea  Barton,^  of  Philadelphia,  described  clinically  a  fracture 
which  he  said  was  very  common,  and  which  he  supposed  to  be  the 
detachment  of  the  posterior  border  of  the  articular  surface  of  the 
radius.  It  does  not  appear  from  his  paper  that  he  had  ever  had  an 
opportunity  to  verify  the  diagnosis  by  examination.  A  few  specimens 
of  such  a  fracture,  most  of  them,  I  believe,  found  in  the  dissecting- 
room  and  without  history,  are  in  existence,  and  the  injury  is  known  in 
America  as  Barton's  fracture.  Dr.  Agnew^  figures  a  specimen  in  which 
the  fragment  is  much  larger.  It  is  perhaps  hardly  worth  while  to  try 
now  to  change  this  name,  but  there  are  three  good  reasons  why  the 
injury  should  not  be  known  as  Barton's  fracture  :  1st,  as  a  reference  to 
the  original  article  shows,  the  injury  which  Barton  described  clinically 
was  not  what  he  supjjosed  it  to  be  auatomically,  but  was  the  ordinary 
Colles's  fracture;  2d,  the  lesion,  as  he  supposed  it  to  be,  had  been 
observed  some  years  before  his  paper  was  published,  and  the  specimen 
was  presented  by  Lenoir^  to  one  of  the  Paris  societies;  and,  3d,  it 
deserves  to  be  classed  not  as  a  variety  of  fracture,  but  as  a  complica- 
tion of  dislocation  of  the  carpus  backward.  In  Lenoir's  case,  which  is 
described  as  a  dislocation  by  Voillemier  and  Malgaigne,  a  narrow  frag- 
ment of  the  posterior  articular  border  had  been  broken  off,  remained 
attached  to  the  capsule,  and  was  displaced  backward  with  the  bones  of 
the  wrist. 

An  analogous  case,  dislocation  of  the  carpus  forward  with  detachment 
of  the  anterior  border  of  the  articular  end  of  the  radius  and  fracture 

1  Barton  :  Medical  Examiner,  1838,  p.  365. 

2  Agnew  :  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  i.  p.  905. 

8  Lenoir:  Tliis  fact  is  mentioned  by  Voillemier,  in  the  Archives  Gen(?rales  de  Medecine,  1839, 
vol.  vi.  p.  402,  and  by  Malgaigne.  The  Society  referred  to  is  probably  the  Societe  Anatomique,  but 
I  have  failed  to  find  mention  of  the  specimen  in  its  Bulletins. 


284  FRACTURES. 

of  the  styloid  process,  was  reported,  with  the  specimen,  to  the  Soci4t§ 
Anatoraique,  by  Letenneur/  The  patient  was  brought  to  the  Hotel- 
Dieu  May  7,  1838,  having  received  this  injury  and  also  a  fracture  of 
the  scaphoid  bone  of  the  other  wrist,  by  falling  into  a  ditch  while 
intoxicated.  Mr.  Callender^  refers  to  a  somewhat  similar  specimen, 
but  one  in  which  the  fragment  is  much  larger,  in  the  following  words  r 
^'  The  line  of  fracture  is  four-tenths  of  an  inch  from  the  end  of  the 
radius  on  the  palmar  surface,  but  on  the  dorsal  passed  into — along  the 
edge  of — the  articular  facets." 

Other  irregular  fractures,  too  rare  to  be  classified  or  systematically 
described,  may  be  conveniently  mentioned  here.  1.  An  oblique  frac- 
ture running  downward  and  inward  and  detaching  the  styloid  process 
of  the  radius  with  more  or  less  of  the  articular  portion;  the  larger  the 
fragment  the  more  closely  will  the  symptoms  resemble  those  of  Colles's- 
fracture. 

2.  A  condition  which  is  the  direct  opposite  of  that  constituting 
Colles's  fracture;  the  lower  fragment  is  inclined  toward  the  palmar 
side,  and  the  crushing  is  also  on  that  side.  Mr.  Callender^  reports 
such  a  case  caused  by  forced  flexion  of  the  hand  in  a  fall  upon  it; 
there  was  a  well-marked  prominence  on  the  dorsum  of  the  forearm 
about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  above  the  wrist-joint,  and  opposite  it 
on  the  palmar  surface  was  a  considerable  depression.  The  lower  frag- 
ment of  the  radius  was  inclined  at  an  oblique  angle  to  the  palmar  sur- 
face, and  projected  at  the  wrist.  No  crepitus.  Reduction  could  not 
be  effected.  Ten  months  later  the  deformity  persisted,  with  good  rota- 
tion, exaggerated  flexion,  and  inability  to  extend  the  hand  beyond  a 
straight  line  with  the  forearm. 

Callender  mentions  also  two  specimens,  one  in  the  museum  of  West- 
minster Hospital,  the  other  at  St.  Bartholomew's,  which  show  the  cor- 
responding displacement  with  union.  In  one  the  styloid  process  of 
the  ulna  was  broken  and  the  lower  fragment  of  the  radius  displaced 
forward  and  outward,  especially  in  the  latter  direction,  with  penetra- 
tion on  the  palmar  surface  to  the  depth  of  more  than  three-tenths  of 
an  inch.  In  the  other  the  line  of  fracture  is  rather  more  than  an  inch 
above  the  end  of  the  bone;  there  is  a  prominent  angle  on  the  dorsal 
aspect  in  the  line  of  the  fracture  and  an  elevation  of  new  bone  on  the 
corresponding  part  of  the  palmar  surface;  the  triangular  fibro-cartilage 
was  almost  completely  separated  from  the  radius. 

R.  W.  Smith*  describes  and  figures  a  similar  case,  in  which  also  the 
fracture  was  caused  by  a  fall  upon  the  back  of  the  hand,  and  Dr. 
Hamilton  thought  he  also  had  seen  one. 

3.  Longitudinal  fracture  or  fissure  of  the  end  of  the  bone.  Dr. 
Bigelow^  reported  one  case  and  referred  to  a  second.  There  was  a  star- 
shaped  crack  on  the  articular  surface  without  displacement,  and  slight 
corresponding  cracks  in  the  shaft  for  more  than  inch  above.  At  first 
there  was  only  lameness  at  the  wrist,  bat  after  several  days  there  were 
swelling  and  tenderness,  the  persistence  of  which  led  Dr.  Bigelow  to 

1  Letenneur  :  Bulletins,  vol.  xiv.  p.  162.  -  Callender  :  Loc.  cit,  p.  291. 

3  Callender :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  289.  *  R.  W.  Smith  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  162. 

^  Bigelow  :  Boston  Med.  and  Surg.  Journal,  1858,  vol.  Iviii.  p.  99. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOREARM.  285 

make  the  diagnosis.    He  had  had  a  similar  ease  two  years  before,  with 
the  same  symptoms,  but  less  extensive  injury  to  tlic  bone. 

Probably  this  represents  an  incomplete  Colles's;  if  the  violence  had 
been  greater  the  fracture  would  have  been  the  usual  one. 

Fracture  of  the  styloid  process  of  the  radius  alone  is  rare.  In  the  few 
I  have  seen  and  in  reported  cases  the  fragment  has  been  quite  large, 
comprising  also  the  adjoining  part  of  the  bone.  Usually  the  displace- 
ment is  slight,  but  in  one  case  the  fragment  was  drawn  upward  one 
and  a  half  inches.  Immobilization  of  the  wrist  appears  to  be  all  that 
is  necessary. 

Of  transverse  fracture  of  the  radius  just  above  its  carpal  surface  v)Uh 
■duplacemeyit  of  the  fragment  forward,  which  has  already  been  spoken  of 
as  sometimes  produced  by  a  fall  upon  the  back  of  the  hand,  it  needs 
only  to  be  said  that  the  diagnosis  is  made  by  attention  to  the  position 
of  the  styloid  process  with  reference  to  the  carpus  and  the  ulna  and  by 
recognition  of  the  line  of  limited  tenderness  if  mobility  and  crepitus 
cannot  be  obtained.  The  treatment  should  be  the  same  as  in  Colles's 
fracture,  except  that  the  position  of  the  pads  should  be  changed  to 
meet  the  different  displacements.  The  subject  has  been  treated  in  detail 
by  Dr.  J.  B.  Roberts  in  Annals  of  Surgery,  January,  1897. 

Fracture  of  the  styloid  process  of  the  ulna  is  sometimes  observ^ed  sepa- 
rately as  the  result  of  direct  violence.  In  addition  to  the  usual  symp- 
toms of  pain  and  swelling,  mobility  of  the  process  could  probably  be 
recognized  by  direct  manipulation  or  by  abduction  of  the  hand.  Dr. 
Agnew  says  some  deformity  is  likely  to  remain,  and  that  in  the  only 
case  he  has  seen  the  union  was  fibrous.  He  advises  treatment  upon  an 
anterior  splint  with  the  hand  inclined  toward  the  ulnar  side  and  in 
dorsal  flexion,  so  as  to  relax  the  extensor  carpi  ulnaris. 

Fracture  of  both  bones  near  the  wrist  is  occasionally  seen.  The  diag- 
nosis is  made  by  recognition  of  the  abnormal  mobility  of  the  fragments. 
Treatment  as  in  Colles's  fracture. 

In  compound  fractures  every  effort  should  be  made  to  avoid  ampu- 
tation. Good  results  have  been  obtained  even  by  excision  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  ulna  alone  or  of  both  bones. 


CHAPTEE  XXI. 

FEACTURES  OF  THE  CARPUS  AND  HAND. 

1.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  CARPUS.^ 

Simple  fractures  of  the  carpal  bones  appear  to  be  very  rare.  Only 
a  few  cases  have  been  reported  in  which  the  nature  of  the  injury  was 
shown  by  direct  examination,  and  I  have  met  with  only  one  case  iu 
which  the  diagnosis  was  made  during  life.  A  few  compound  fractures 
have  been  reported.  As  the  symptoms  are  very  obscure  it  is  possible 
that  the  injury  may  be  more  common  than  is  supposed,  and  may  fre- 
quently pass  unrecognized.  The  number,  size,  and  relations  of  the  bones 
are  such  that  they  can  be  broken  only  by  direct  violence,  as  a  blow,  the 
passage  of  a  wheel,  or  a  fall  upon  the  hand,  or  by  traction  (avulsion) 
in  forced  dorsal  flexion  or  displacement,  I  presented  to  the  New  York 
Surgical  Society  in  1891  a  case  of  fracture  of  the  scaphoid  by  dorsal 
flexion  associated  with  compound  laceration  of  the  anterior  carpo-radial 
ligament  and  backward  dislocation  of  the  carpus.  It  occasionally  hap- 
pens in  experimental  fracture  of  the  lower  end  of  the  radius  that  the 
scaphoid  or  semilunar  is  broken,  and  the  same  complication  has  been 
observed  clinically.  I  have  seen  two  cases,  several  weeks  after  the 
receipt  of  the  injury — one  is  shown  in  Plate  XIII.,  fig.  1.  In  each 
the  region  of  the  scaphoid  was  thickened,  and  the  motions  of  the  wrist 
diminished.     One  had  been  supposed  to  be  a  Colics' s  fracture. 

The  only  symptom  which  could  make  the  diagnosis  possible  is  crepi- 
tus, and  it  might  be  diflicult  to  determine  whether  this  has  its  origin 
in  the  carpus  or  in  one  of  the  adjoining  bones. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  would  consist  in  immobilization  of  the 
wrist  for  two  or  three  weeks,  and  it  is  probable  that  some  stiffness  of 
the  joint  would  result.  In  compound  cases  it  seems  probable  that 
extirpation  of  the  broken  bone  would  give  a  better  functional  result 
than  its  conservation  would  even  if  suppuration  was  avoided. 

2.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  METACARPAL  BONES, 

While  simple  fracture  of  a  metacarpal  bone  is  not  a  very  common 
accident,  still  it  is  not  so  rare  as  some  authors  have  inferred  from  hos- 
pital statistics,  Malgaigne  found  16  cases  in  a  total  of  2377  fractures 
of  all  kinds  treated  at  the  Hotei-Dieu,  a  percentage  of  0.67;  Polaillon 
64  cases  in  a  total  of  5517  fractures  treated  in  the  Paris  hospitals  during 

1  See  experiments  by  DaUlez,  Journ.  des  Sc.  M6d.  de  Lille,  February  13, 1891,  and  eases  byB6rard, 
Diet,  en  30  Vols.,  art.  Main,  p.  524  ;  Malgaigne  ;  Letenneur,  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  vol.  xiv. 
p.  162  ;  Polaillon,  Diet.  EncyelopiSdique,  art.  Main,  p.  50  ;  Hunt,  Annals  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery, 
March,  1881,  p.  110;  Rutherford,  Glasgow  Medical  Journal,  April,  1891 ;  Fortunet,  Lyon  Medical, 
July  1, 1888. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  CARPUS  AND  HAND.  287 

the  years  1861-2-3,  a  percentage  of  1.16.     Of  Polaillon's  64  cases, 
57  were  men,  only  two  were  old,  and  none  were  infants. 

The  third  and  fourth  are  most  fre(|uently  broken,  the  first  and  fifth 
least.  Simultaneous  fracture  of  two  or  more  is  frequent  when  the 
injury  is  compound. 

A  very  few  cases  of  probable  separation  of  the  distal  epiphysis  have 
been  recorded,  one  by  Malgaigne,  one  by  Hamilton,  and  one  quoted  by 
Polaillon  from  a  thesis  by  Pichon,  the  ages  being  nine,  eight,  and 
twelve  years  respectively.  There  was  failure  of  union  in  ^Nlalgaigne's 
case,  but  without  disturbance  of  function  when  last  seen,  thirteen  years 
after  the  injury.  Bennett'  has  described  a  variety  of  fracture  of  the 
base  of  the  first  metacarpal,  an  oblique  fracture  by  which  the  palmar 
half  of  this  end  is  separated  and  the  remainder  is  displaced  more  or 
less  backward,  so  that  at  first  sight  the  injury  appears  to  be  a  subluxa- 
tion. He  collected  nine  examples.  The  usual  displacement  is  angular, 
the  apex  of  the  angle  being  directed  backward  or  forward,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  fragments  may  override  longitudinally. 

Cause.  The  cause  may  be  direct  or  indirect  violence.  When  direct 
it  is  a  blow  upon  the  back  or  even  the  palm  of  the  hand,  a  fall  or  blow 
upon  its  side,  or  a  crushing  force,  the  hand  being  caught  between  two 
solid  bodies.  The  first,  second,  and  fifth  metacarpals  are  the  ones 
most  frequently  broken  by  direct  violence. 

The  commonest  indirect  cause  is  violence  received  upon  the  distal 
end  of  the  bone  in  the  direction  of  its  long  axis,  by  which  its  normal 
curve  is  exaggerated  and  fracture  produced,  as  in  a  fall  upon  the 
knuckles  or  a  blow  with  the  fist.  Lonsdale  reported  a  case  in  which 
fracture  of  the  third  metacarpal  was  caused  by  a  fall  upon  the  end  of 
the  outstretched  middle  finger.  In  a  case  reported  by  Dupuytren,  the 
third  metacarpal  bone  was  broken  by  being  bent  backward  in  a  trial 
of  strength,  the  contestants  trying  to  force  each  other's  wrist  back  with 
their  fingers  interlocked.  Velpeau  saw  the  same  bone  broken  by  trac- 
tion upon  the  index  and  middle  fingers  with  some  twisting. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  the  deformity  due  to  the  displacement 
of  the  distal  fragment,  abnormal  mobility,  crepitus,  pain,  and  inability 
to  use  the  fingers.  The  deformity  is  usually  slight  and  may  be  wholly 
masked  by  the  swelling;  abnormal  mobility  and  crepitus  may  be  found 
by  flexing  and  extending  the  corresponding  finger  and  at  the  same  time 
making  pressure  upon  the  palm  at  the  supposed  seat  of  fracture,  so  as 
to  make  the  fragments  prominent  behind.  The  peculiarity  of  the  pain 
is  that  it  can  be  suddenly  and  sharply  increased  by  pressing  the  finger 
toward  the  carpus. 

The  course  of  the  fracture  is  usually  simple,  and  ends  in  consolida- 
tion in  the  course  of  three  or  four  weeks.  The  complications  which 
occurred  in  the  eighty-one  cases  collected  by  Polaillon  were  inflamma- 
tion of  the  carpo-metacarpal  joint,  union  with  marked  displacement, 
fusion  of  adjoining  bones  when  both  were  broken,  and  deviation  of  the 
extensor  tendons  by  a  voluminous  callus  in  one  each,  and  failure  of 
union  in  three.      In  neglected  cases  of  fracture  at  or  near  the  knuckle 

1  Bennett :  British  Medical  Journal,  July,  1886,  p.  13. 


288  FRACTURES. 

suppuration  is  not  infrequent  and  may  so  extend  as  to  cause  marked 
disability. 

Treatment.  The  first  indication  is  to  prevent  a  too  severe  inflamma- 
tory reaction  if  it  threatens,  and  with  this  object  the  hand  should  be 
kept  at  rest  in  an  elevated  position. 

If  there  is  no  displacement  or  tendency  thereto,  a  simple  immobil- 
izing dressing  of  cotton,  bound  on  snugly  with  a  roller  bandage,  is 
sufficient,  the  fingers  being  left  free  to  prevent  their  stiffening. 

A  method  that  has  long  found  favor  is  to  fill  the  palm  with  a  mass 
of  tightly  packed  cotton  or  some  similar  substance,  or  a  ball,  over 
which  the  fingers  are  closed  and  fastened  down  with  a  bandage  or 
adhesive  plaster.  The  flexion  of  the  finger  over  the  firm  mass  tends 
to  draw  the  knuckle  downward,  and  thus  prevent  shortening.  The 
support  furnished  by  the  adjoining  bones  is  an  additional  aid  against 
displacement,  and  the  back  of  the  hand  can  be  left  partly  uncovered 
for  inspection. 

In  fracture  of  the  third  and  fourth  metacarpals  the  hand  may  be 
bound  upon  a  dorsal  or  palmar  longitudinal  splint  suitably  padded  and 
fastened  with  a  roller,  but  this  plan  is  unsuited  to  fractures  of  the 
second  or  fifth  because  the  circular  compression  exerted  by  the  bandage 
tends  to  cause  lateral  displacement. 

If  continuous  traction  seems  necessary  to  overcome  a  tendency  to 
displacement  the  finger  may  be  bound  to  the  adjoining  ones  for  a  few 
days,  but  it  is  important  that  immobilization  of  the  fingers,  especially 
in  the  extended  position,  should  be  avoided  or  made  as  brief  as  possible. 


3.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  PHALANGES. 

These  fractures  are  usually  due  to  direct  violence,  and  in  consequence 
are  frequently  compound  or  at  least  accompanied  by  laceration  or  bruis- 
ing of  the  soft  parts.  A  few  cases  have  been  reported  of  fracture  by 
indirect  violence,  as  in  a  fall  or  blow  upon  the  end  of  the  finger,  or  by 
having  the  finger  caught  and  fixed  while  the  hand  continued  to  move. 

The  proximal  phalanx  is  the  one  most  frequently  broken,  the  termi- 
nal phalanx  most  rarely. 

The  symptoms  upon  which  the  diagnosis  is  made  in  simple  fractures 
are  mobility  and  crepitus. 

The  progress  of  the  case  in  simple  fracture  is  toward  prompt  repair; 
in  compound  fractures  the  suppuration  is  apt  to  be  prolonged,  and 
necrosis  of  splinters  and  even  of  one  of  the  principal  fragments  is  not 
uncommon. 

A  well-established  rule  of  treatment  of  injuries  of  the  hand  is  to 
save  everything  that  can  be  saved,  but  it  needs  limitation  in  compound 
fractures  of  the  fingers.  While  it  is  desirable  to  save  the  thumb  or 
any  part  of  it,  even  at  the  price  of  anchylosis  of  both  the  joints,  the 
same  value  does  not  attach  to  the  fingers,  and  a  rigid  deformed  finger 
that  has  been  saved  with  much  difficulty  is  often  a  source  of  so  much 
inconvenience  that  the  patient  subsequently  seeks  relief  in  amputation. 
It  is  better  that  members  so  injured  that  rigidity  will  probably  result 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  CARPUS  AND  HAND.  289 

should  be  removed  at  first,  for  the  attempt  to  save  them  cannot  be 
made  without  incurring  certain  risks,  prolonged  suppuration,  phlegmon 
of  the  forearm,  tetanus,  which,  although  somewhat  remote,  should  not 
be  lost  sight  of. 

In  the  treatment  of  simple  fracture  the  usual  indication  to  prevent 
displacement  is  habitually  met  by  means  of  a  moulded  palmar  splint 
made  of  pasteboard,  felt,  or  gutta-percha  to  Avhich  the  finger,  slightly 
flexed,  is  made  fast.  This  answers  very  well  for  the  terminal  and 
middle  phalanges,  but  it  does  not  support  the  proximal  one  sufficiently. 
Sometimes  a  straight  splint  is  used,  sometimes  a  plaster-of-Paris 
bandage. 

A  common  displacement,  important  to  be  guarded  against,  is  an 
angular  one  with  the  apex  directed  forward  and  caused,  1  think,  by 
the  action  of  the  interosseous  muscles.  The  persistence  of  this  dis- 
placement constitutes  a  serious  inconvenience,  for  it  limits  flexion  of 
the  metacarpo-phalangeal  joint  and  creates  a  prominence  upon  the 
palmar  aspect  of  the  phalanx  the  skin  covering  which  may  become  so 
sensitive  that  a  firm  grasp  cannot  be  taken  of  any  hard  object. 

As  a  palmar  splint  does  not  entirely  prevent  this  displacement  I 
prefer  to  close  the  hand  upon  some  firm  cylindrical  body,  a  roller  ban- 
dage for  example,  and  fasten  the  fingers  down  with  strips  of  adhesive 
plaster  applied  longitudinally  along  the  back  of  the  hand,  the  fingers, 
and  the  front  of  the  forearm,  and  additionally  secured  with  a  few  turns 
of  a  bandage.  The  roll  must  be  large  enough  to  give  ample  support, 
and  by  passing  the  finger  along  the  dorsum  of  the  phalanx  the  occur- 
rence of  displacement  can  be  recognized.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
the  tendon  of  each  extensor  muscle  is  attached  to  the  base  of  the  prox- 
imal phalanx  by  a  short  band  which  limits  the  action  of  the  muscle  to 
that  phalanx,  and  that  the  extension  of  the  middle  and  distal  pha- 
langes is  accomplished  by  the  interossei,  which  also  flex  the  metacarpo- 
phalangeal joint  and  are  relaxed  when  the  fingers  are  closed.  The 
tendency  to  overriding  is  thus  effectively  opposed  by  this  position,  and 
the  displacement  which  then  most  needs  to  be  guarded  against  is  the 
one  also  that  is  most  readily  detected,  angular  displacement  with  the 
angle  directed  backward. 

Support  that  may  be  sufficient  in  some  cases  can  be  readily  obtained 
by  binding  the  broken  finger  to  the  adjoining  ones  and  supporting  both 
or  all  three  upon  a  common  splint. 


19 


CHAPTEK    XXII. 

FRACTURES   OF   THE   PELVIS. 

Following  well-founded  custom  I  group  in  one  section  all  fractures 
which  break  the  continuity  of  the  ring  of  the  pelvis  and  consider  sepa- 
rately fractures  of  the  individual  bones  which  do  not  break  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  ring. 

1.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  RING  OF  THE  PELVIS. 

The  most  frequent  cause  of  this  lesion  is  the  passage  of  the  wheel  of 
a  heavily  laden  wagon  across  the  thigh  and  hypogastrium;  among  the 
others  are  falls  upon  the  feet  or  the  buttocks,  the  caving  in  of  an 
embankment,  and  crushing  between  the  buffers  of  railway  cars  or 
other  heavy  moving  objects.  The  position  and  the  number  of  the  frac- 
tures vary  with  the  degree  of  the  violence  and  the  portion  of  the  ring 
upon  which  it  is  received.  When  it  falls  upon  the  symphysis  and  is 
directed  backward  the  arch  yields  at  its  weakest  point,  and  the  line  of 
fracture  passes  through  the  horizontal  and  descending  branches  of  the 
pubis,  sometimes  on  one  side  alone,  sometimes  on  both  sides.  If  the 
force  then  continues  to  act  it  presses  the  sides  apart,  and  either  breaks 
the  sacrum  vertically  (by  avulsion)  or  ruptures  the  ligaments  of  the 
sacro-iliac  synchondrosis,  or  breaks  the  ilium  into  the  synchondrosis  or 
into  the  sacro-sciatic  notch;  and  it  does  this  sometimes  also  on  one  side 
alone,  and  sometimes  on  both. 

When  the  violence  is  received  upon  the  side  of  the  pelvis,  or  the 
great  trochanter,  or  even  upon  the  foot,  it  may  cause  what  Malgaigne 
described  as  double  vertical  fracture  of  the  pelvis,  or  fracture  of  the 
acetabulum  to  a  variable  extent,  and  in  one  case  a  fall  upon  the  foot 
caused  dislocation  of  the  entire  os  innominatum,  separating  it  cleanly 
at  the  symphysis  pubis  and  sacro-iliac  joint  and  forcing  it  upward.  In 
double  vertical  fracture  the  anterior  fracture  occupies  the  same  position 
as  when  the  force  has  been  received  upon  the  symphysis,  it  crosses  the 
pubis;  the  posterior  one  is  usually  entirely  within  the  ilium  and  behind 
the  acetabulum.  In  fracture  of  the  acetabulum,  which  can  be  caused 
only  by  violence  transmitted  through  the  femur,  the  bone  may  be  simply 
fissured,  or  the  head  of  the  femur  may  be  driven  entirely  through  into 
the  cavity  of  the  pelvis.  In  the  slighter  cases  the  continuity  of  the 
pelvic  ring  is  not  broken,  but  in  the  more  extensive  ones  it  is.  In 
young  people  the  lines  of  fracture  may  follow  those  of  the  develop- 
mental division  of  the  bone  into  three. 

The  displacements  are  seldom  great,  but  complications  are  numerous 
and  serious.  The  most  frequent  is  rupture  of  the  urethra,  usually  in 
its  membranous  portion;  among  the  others  are  rupture  of  the  bladder 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PEL  VIS.  291 

and  laceration  of  the  iliac  veins  or  the  external  iliac  artery.  Rupture 
of  the  bladder  may  be  intra-  or  extra-peritoneal;  in  some  cases  it 
appears  to  have  been  caused  by  the  direct  pressure  upon  the  bladder  of 
the  object  which  caused  the  fracture,  in  others  by  a  splinter  or  the  dis- 
placed fragment.  The  other  two  lesions  mentioned  are  due  to  the 
displacements.  The  separation  of  the  pubes  tears  the  urethra  across 
at  or  near  the  triangular  ligament,  and  tlie  projecting  edge  of  the  pos- 
terior line  of  fracture  lacerates  one  of  the  iliac  veins,  or  the  edge  of 
the  anterior  one  tears  the  external  iliac  vein  or  artery. 

In  a  case  referred  to  briefly  by  Legros  Clari<;'  there  were  several 
fractures,  and  separation  of  the  sacro-iliac  synchondrosis  on  each  side 
and  of  the  pubic  symphysis  to  the  extent  of  four  inches.  The  rectum 
was  ruptured  and  feces  were  extra vasated  into  the  pelvis;  the  bladder 
was  ruptured  and  the  urethra  torn  completely  from  the  prostate  gland. 

The  varieties  and  the  symptoms  which  vary  notably  with  them 
require  separate  mention. 

Separation  of  the  symphysis  pubis  may  be  produced  by  external  vio- 
lence acting  directly  upon  the  pubic  arch  or  through  forced  abduction 
of  the  thighs,  or  by  the  descent  of  the  foetus  through  the  superior 
strait  in  parturition.  Malgaigne  collected  seventeen  cases  of  the  latter, 
most  of  them  occurring  in  primiparse,  and  most  by  the  unaided  action 
of  the  patient's  muscles;  in  a  few  cases  the  forceps  was  used.  Usually 
the  separation  takes  place  with  a  distinct  cracking  sound,  and  the  gap 
can  be  felt  with  the  finger,  and  in  one  or  two  cases  the  fracture  has 
been  made  compound  by  simultaneous  laceration  of  the  soft  parts. 
The  gap  is  the  chief  diagnostic  symptom.  The  scanty  information 
possessed  upon  the  subject  indicates  that,  in  the  traumatic  cases  at 
least,  the  separation  takes  place  not  through  the  cartilage,  but  between 
the  cartilage  and  the  bone. 

The  traumatic  cases  are  no  less  numerous  and  more  varied  in  their 
details,  although  in  a  large  proportion  of  them  the  force  seems  to  have 
been  exerted  through  the  abductor  muscles  of  the  thighs.  In  two  cases 
quoted  by  Malgaigne,  in  a  third  reported  by  Weber,^  and  in  a  fourth 
by  Earle,^  the  patient  was  on  horseback  and  received  the  injury  either 
by  being  thrown  foward  upon  the  withers,  or  first  to  one  side  and  then 
to  the  other,  or  by  the  muscular  effort  made  to  keep  his  seat.  In  one 
of  Malgaigne' s  cases  the  results  were  an  immediate  hernia,  rupture  of 
the  perineum  with  a  separation  at  the  symphysis  that  would  admit  the 
hand,  and  pain  at  each  sacro-iliac  synchondrosis.  This  patient  recov- 
ered in  three  and  a  half  months,  the  treament  consisting  of  a  bandage 
drawn  tightly  about  the  pelvis,  with  the  limbs  resting  upon  a  double 
inclined  plane. 

In  Earle's  case  there  were  collapse,  severe  pain,  flattening  of  the 
pubes,  and  free  bleeding  from  the  anus.  An  incision  in  the  perineum 
gave  exit  to  blood  and  urine.  The  patient  survived  for  only  forty 
hours,  and  the  autopsy  showed  a  separation  of  three  inches  at  the 
symphysis,  the  left  sacro-iliac  synchondrosis  gaping  one  inch,  and  the 

1  Legros  Clark  :  Diagnosif?  of  Visceral  Lesions,  p.  339. 

2  Weber  :  Gaz.  Mfid.  de  Strasbourg,  1872. 

»  Earle:  Med.  Chir.  Trans.,  1835,  vol.  xix.  p.  257. 


292  FRACTURES. 

prostate  torn  completely  away  from  the  bladder  and  hanging  down  in 
a  cavity  filled  with  clot.  The  patient  was  between  sixty  and  seventy 
years  of  age. 

In  another  singular  case  quoted  by  Malgaigne  the  patient,  a  lad 
eighteen  years  old,  was  learning  to  be  a  dancer.  His  teacher  made  him 
lie  upon  his  back  on  the  floor  with  his  thighs  flexed,  and  then  stand- 
ing upon  him  with  one  foot  on  each  knee,  sought  to  force  the  thighs 
outward.  It  caused  the  bones  to  separate  at  the  symphysis  to  the 
extent  of  half  a  finger-breadth. 

Separation  in  Front  and  Behind.  In  one  of  Mr.  Earle's^  cases  there 
was  complete  sej)aration  of  the  left  os  innominatum,  both  in  front  and 
behind;  the  bone  was  forced  up  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  the  com- 
mon iliac  vein  torn  across.  The  patient  was  a  young  man,  and  received 
the  injury  by  jumping  from  a  third  story;  he  landed  upon  the  left  foot, 
causing  also  a  compound  comminuted  fracture  of  the  calcaneum  and 
astragalus. 

Similar  cases  were  collected  by  Malgaigne,  and  two  have  been  pub- 
lished by  Salleron.^  The  injury  has  been  caused  by  a  fall  upon  one 
foot  or  upon  the  side  of  the  pelvis,  or  by  the  pressure  of  a  heavy 
weight  upon  the  front  of  the  pelvis.  The  characteristic  symptom  is 
the  elevation  of  the  corresponding  half  of  the  pelvis  with  absence  of 
the  crepitus  which  is  usually  present  in  double  vertical  fracture.  Sal- 
leron  was  able  to  reduce  the  dislocation  in  his  cases,  and  both  recovered, 
but,  as  a  rule,  the  prognosis  is  extremely  grave. 

Separation  of  the  Sacro-iliac  Synchondrosis.  Simple  separation  of  this 
joint  is  very  rare.  Malgaigne^  quotes  one  case  of  it,  and  four  others 
in  which  there  was  in  addition  fracture  of  the  ilium.  I  have  seen  one 
well-marked  case.  The  lesion  is  said  also  to  have  been  produced  during 
labor. 

The  diagnosis  is  made  by  recognition  of  the  displacement,  which  is 
backward  and  outward. 

Separation  of  all  Three  Joints.  A  few  cases  have  been  reported  as 
such,  but  in  most  there  has  been  also  fracture  at  one  or  more  points, 
and  the  separation  of  one  or  both  of  the  sacro-iliac  synchondroses  has 
been  only  the  gaping  of  the  joint  due  to  the  lateral  separation  of  the 
two  halves  of  the  pelvis  and  not  a  real  displacement.  Malgaigne 
quotes  briefly  five  cases,  in  four  of  which  there  were  associated  frac- 
tures of  the  pelvic  bones.  Dolbeau/  Dubrueil,^  and  Pollock**  have 
since  reported  others.  Dubrueil's  is  the  only  one  in  which  there  seems 
to  have  been  actual  displacement  at  all  three  points,  and  even  in  it 
there  was  also  a  slight  fracture.  The  patient  was  run  over  by  a  wagon. 
There  was  separation  of  two  and  a  half  inches  at  the  symphysis  pubis 
and  gaping  of  both  sacro-iliac  synchondroses.  The  sacrum  was  dis- 
placed forward,  projecting  at  the  level  of  the  superior  strait  two  centi- 
metres in  front  of  the  right  ilium  and  one  and  a  half  in  front  of  the 

1  Earle  :  Log.  cit.,  p.  261,  Case  5. 

2  Salleron  :  Archives  G(5n.  de  Med.  1871,  vol.  ii.  p.  34,  Cases  1  and  2. 

3  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  ii.  p.  777. 

4  Dolbeau  :  Gazette  des  HSpitaux,  1868,  p.  194. 
s  Dubrueil:  Id.,  1871,  p.  413. 

6  Pollock :  The  Lancet,  1872,  vol.  ii.  p.  409. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PELVIS.  293 

left.  There  was  a  fracture  at  the  junction  of  the  right  ischium  and 
pubis,  and  partial  fracture  of  the  body  of  the  right  pubis. 

In  each  case  the  injury  was  caused  by  extreme  violence  acting 
directly  upon  the  pelvis,  the  passage  of  a  heavy  wagon,  the  fall  of  a 
heavy  object.     All  terminated  fatally. 

Fracture  of  the  pubic  portion  of  the  pelvic  ring,  ^vhich  is  the  most  com- 
mon of  all,  passes  usually  through  the  horizontal  ramus  just  in  front 
of  the  ilio-pectineal  eminence  and  through  the  descending  ramus  near 
its  junction  with  the  ischium.  The  fracture  may  be  oblique  or  trans- 
verse, may  be  double  (of  one  or  both  pubic  bones),  or  may  be  associated 
with  separation  of  the  symphysis  or  with  other  fractures  of  the  lateral 
or  posterior  portions  of  the  pelvis.  As  has  been  already  mentioned, 
rupture  of  the  ligaments  of  one  or  both  sacro-iliac  synchondroses  with 
gaping  of  the  joint  is  a  frequent  accompaniment  when  the  action  of 
the  fracturing  force  is  momentarily  prolonged. 

The  displacement  is  sometimes  so  marked  that  it  can  be  easily  recog- 
nized by  the  eye;  in  other  cases  the  diagnosis  can  only  be  made  after 
palpation  of  the  outline  of  the  bone  which  is  quite  accessible  to  the 
touch. 

Interference  with  the  voiding  of  the  urine,  either  by  rupture  of  the 
urethra  or  by  pressure  upon  it,  is  a  frequent  complication.  Injury  to 
the  urethra  takes  place  usually  in  the  membranous  portion.  The 
bladder,  too,  has  been  sometimes  torn  by  a  fragment  or  ruptured  by 
pressure. 

The  following  are  the  more  noteworthy  complications  and  varieties 
that  have  been  recorded.  A  man,  twenty  years  old,  was  run  over  by 
a  railway  train  and  received  a  fracture  of  the  crest  of  the  right  ilium, 
the  ramus  of  the  left  pubis,  and  of  the  ''  right  pubis  close  to  its  junc- 
tion with  the  iliac  portion  of  the  bone,  the  sharp  end  of  this  fracture 
had  entirely  divided  the  external  iliac  artery."^  A  man,  forty-three 
years  old,  was  run  over  by  a  wagon,  was  brought  to  the  hospital  insen- 
sible, and  died  in  three  hours.  There  was  fracture  of  the  "^  ramus  and 
body  of  the  pubis  on  both  sides,  and  separation  of  the  sacrum  from  the 
left  OS  innominatum.  Fracture  of  the  left  ilium,  the  fracture  extend- 
ing across  the  pectineal  line  and  causing  laceration  of  the  left  external 
iliac  vein."^ 

Fracture  of  the  lateral  portion  of  the  ring  occurs  in  two  principal 
forms,  one  in  connection  with  fracture  of  the  pubic  portion,  the  other 
a  fracture  radiating  from  the  cavity  of  the  acetabulum.  The  former 
is  the  one  to  which  attention  was  first  called  by  Malgaigne  under  the 
title  of  double  vertical  fracture  of  the  pelvis  [multiple  fractures^  Duplay), 
and  a  variety  which  has  been  described  at  much  length  by  Voillemier^ 
as  vertical  fracture  of  the  sacrum.  The  posterior  line  of  fracture  lies 
either  in  the  ilium  entirely  behind  the  acetabulum,  or  in  the  sacrum, 
or  partly  in  the  ilium  or  sacrum  and  partly  in  the  sacro-iliac  synchon- 
drosis, and  sometimes  the  sacrum  is  crushed  rather  than  fractured. 
The  cause  apparently  may  be  a  force  acting  in  either  the  antero- 
posterior or  transverse  diameter  of  the  pelvis,  or  upward  against  the 

1  Lancet,  1878,  vol.  i.  p.  347,  Case  2.  "  Lancet :  Idem,  Case  3. 

3  Voillemier :  Cliaique  Chirurgicale,  1862,  p.  77. 


294 


FRACTURES. 


tuberosity  of  the  ischium.     The  most  prominent  symptoms  in  these 
cases  are  in  the  position  of  the  leg  and  in  the  extent  to  which  it  can  be 


Fig.  152. 


Double  vertical  fracture  of  the  pelvis  ;  united. 


moved.     The  femur  is  attached  to  the  portion  of  bone  which  is  inter- 
mediate between  the  two  lines  of  fracture,  and  as  this  piece  is  usually 


Fig.  153. 


Double  vertical  tracture  of  the  pelvis  ;  vertical  of  sacrum,  double  of  pelvis. 

displaced  upward  and  inward    there  is  apparent  shortening  of   the 
Jimb.     At  the   same  time  the   piece  is   commonly  rotated  about  an 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PELVIS. 


295 


antero-posterior  axis  so  that  the  upper  part  of  the  pelvis  is  broadened 
and  the  lower  part  narrowed.  The  inability  to  move  the  limb  is  due 
in  part  to  the  lack  of  a  solid  support  and  the  fear  of  pain,  and  in  part 
perhaps  to  laceration  of  the  muscles  of  the  iliac  fossa.  Pain  in  the 
distribution  of  the  obturator  nerve  is  not  uncommon.  The  prognosis 
is  unfavorable  (35  deaths  in  106  cases,  Dreschler)  because  of  the  prob- 
ability of  associated  injuries.  It  may  result  in  lameness  or  in  a  per- 
manent change  in  the  shape  of  the  pelvis,  which  in  a  woman  may  have 
serious  consequences  if  pregnancy  should  follow. 

Walther'  describes  a  variation  in  wiiich  the  anterior  fracture  occu- 
pied the  body  and  descending  ramus  of  the  pubis,  and  the  second  frac- 
ture ran  below  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium  to  the  sacro- 
sciatic  notch;  in  addition  the  upper  fragment  of  the  ilium  was  split 
vertically,  and  the  fifth  sacral  vertebra  was  broken.  The  fragment 
between  the  two  principal  lines  of  fracture  was  displaced  inward  and 
had  reunited. 

The  second  form  of  lateral  fracture  of  the  pelvis,  radiating  fracture 
of  the  acetabulum,  is  produced  by  violence  acting  through  the  femur, 
and  is  quite  rare,  although  Dupuytren  said  he  had  met  with  it  a  num- 
ber of  times.  The  fracture  may  be  no  more  than  a  simple  fissure,  or 
the  head  of  the  femur  may  be  driven  entirely  through  into  the  pelvis. 
Dr.  Agnew  refers  to  a  preparation  in  the  collection  of  Dr.  Xeill  in 
which  the  lines  of  fracture  follow  those  of  the  embryonal  division  of 
the  bone;  the  union  is  complete,  and  there  is  very  little  callus  on  the 
articular  surface 

The  symptoms  of  the  more  severe  variety,  that  in  which  the  head 
of  the  femur  is  driven  more  or  less  completely  through  into  the  pelvis, 
have  varied  considerably  in  the  different 
cases,  and  the  diagnosis  has  not  always 
been  made  during  life.  Sometimes  there 
are  outward  rotation,  fixation,  and  extreme 
pain  on  motion;  in  other  cases  the  move- 
ments of  the  limb  are  quite  free  and 
painless  within  certain  limits.  Shorten- 
ing is  slight  or  absent,  the  trochanter  is 
sunk,  and  there  is  absence  of  crepitus. 
Interesting  fatal  cases  have  been  reported 
by  Drs.  Neill,^  Sands,^  Lawson,*  and 
Holmes.^ 

A  remarkable  case,  which  will  serve  to 
illustrate  the  possibilities  of  repair,  is  one 
reported  by  Mr.  Moore. ^  A  man  received 
a  severe  injury  of  the  hip,  thought  to  be 

fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur;  he  recovered  and  was  able  to  walk 
with  only  a  slight  limp.     At  the  autopsy  several  years  afterward  the 


Fig.  154. 


Head  of  the  femur  driven  through 
the  acetabulum. 


1  Walther:  Soc.  Anat.,  October,  1891. 

2  Neill :  Transactions  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  Philadelphia,  vol.  ii.  p.  267. 

3  Sands  :  New  York  Medical  Record,  1877,  p.  93. 

4  Lawson  :  Lancet,  1878,  vol.  i.  p.  382. 

5  Holmes  :  British  Medical  Journal,  December  24,  1887. 

6  Moore:  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,  vol.  xxxiv.  p.  107. 


296  FBAGTUBES. 

injury  was  found  to  have  been  a  fracture  of  the  pubis,  ilium,  and  ace- 
tabulum, which  allowed  the  head  of  the  femur  to  pass  through  into 
the  pelvis,  the  trochanter  resting  against  the  acetabulum  (Fig.  154). 

Similar  cases  are  those  reported  by  Lendrick  and  Morel-Lavellee. 

Vertical  fractures  of  the  sacrum  are  not  known  except  in  connection 
with  fractures  of  the  pelvic  ring  at  other  points,  as  already  mentioned. 
A  few  cases  of  very  extensive  injury  have  been  recorded,  extensive 
crushing  and  multiple  fractures.     All  proved  fatal. 

Course  and  Prognosis.  The  course  and  prognosis  in  all  these  cases 
depend  mainly  upon  the  lesions  associated  with  the  fracture.  The  only 
additional  point  which  requires  mention  is  one  referred  to  by  Legros 
Clark,  the  tendency  to  suppuration  in  the  loose  connective  tissue 
between  the  pubes  and  the  bladder,  especially  after  fracture  of  the 
pubis  or  separation  of  the  epiphysis.  The  uncomplicated  and  simpler 
forms  of  fracture  tend  to  easy  repair,  and  even  fractures  that  are  very 
extensive  are  by  no  means  necessarily  fatal,  as  is  proved  by  many 
specimens. 

Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis  is  usually  easy,  but  may  be  very  obscure  if 
the  fracture  is  limited  and  without  much  displacement.  The  outline 
of  the  pubis  should  be  carefully  followed  with  the  finger  to  detect  irreg- 
ularity or  localized  pain,  and  pressure  should  be  made  backward  alter- 
nately with  either  hand  upon  the  anterior  portion  of  each  ilium  in  the 
search  for  abnormal  mobility  and  crepitus.  In  vertical  fracture  of  the 
sacrum  or  in  separation  of  the  sacro-iliac  synchondrosis  displacement 
will  change  the  position  of  the  posterior  spine  of  the  ilium.  In  double 
vertical  fracture  the  intermediate  portion,  which  bears  the  anterior 
superior  spine,  is  usually  displaced  upward,  and  the  displacement  is 
easy  of  recognition  and  can  be  diminished  or  perhaps  reduced  by  trac- 
tion upon  the  leg.  Fissured  fracture  of  the  acetabulum  would  prob- 
ably pass  unrecognized,  or,  at  the  most,  be  only  suspected  from  the 
history  of  a  fall  upon  the  trochanter,  knee,  or  foot  with  pain  in  the 
joint  and  the  absence  of  dislocation  or  of  fracture  of  the  femur.  Frac- 
ture of  the  acetabulum  with  displacement  of  the  head  of  the  femur 
into  the  cavity  of  the  pelvis  will  probably  be  recognizable  by  palpation 
of  the  iliac  fossa  through  the  anterior  abdominal  wall  or  by  digital  or 
manual  exploration  through  the  rectum,  and  by  the  depression  of  the 
trochanter. 

Treatment.  In  cases  without  much  displacement  rest  in  bed  on  the 
back  is  all  that  is  required,  aided  in  the  multiple  forms  or  in  separa- 
tion at  or  near  the  symphysis  pubis  by  a  stout  girdle  drawn  snugly 
about  the  pelvis.  Reduction  of  a  fragment  of  the  pubis  may  some- 
times be  made  by  digital  pressure,  and  that  of  the  intermediate  frag- 
ment in  double  fracture  by  traction  upon  the  limb  aided  by  pressure 
with  the  finger  from  the  vagina  or  rectum.  In  compound  fractures 
loose  fragments  should  be  removed.  Displacement  of  the  head  of  the 
femur  through  the  acetabulum  may  be  corrected  by  traction  upon  the 
limb. 

Treatment  of  the  complications  belongs  more  properly  to  the  subject 
of  general  surgery,  but  the  frequency  of  laceration  of  the  urethra  and 
the  advantages  of  its  early  recognition  and  treatment  are  so  great  that 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PELVIS.  297 

it  deserves  mention.  On  the  first  indication  of  probable  injury  to  the 
urethra  the  catheter  should  be  introduced,  and  if  its  passage  is  pre- 
vented or  even  rendered  difficult  by  injury  to  the  urethra,  an  incision 
should  be  made  through  the  perineum  to  the  injured  part,  cutting  upon 
the  end  of  the  catheter  as  a  guide.  T  have  almost  always  found  the 
membranous  urethra  not  only  torn  across  but  also  so  freely  separated 
by  laceration  of  the  soft  parts  amid  which  it  lies  that  its  recognition 
was  difficult.  It  is  so  thin  and  collapsed  and  its  torn  end  so  shreddy 
that  it  can  hardly  be  distinguished.  For  this  reason  it  is  desirable  to 
make  the  incision  with  the  aid  only  of  local  anaesthesia — cocaine  or 
freezing — in  order  that  the  patient  may  aid  the  recognition  by  passing 
urine.  If  possible  the  two  torn  ends  of  the  urethra  should  be  united 
by  one  or  two  sutures  along  its  roof  so  as  to  aid  the  permanent  resto- 
ration of  the  continuity  of  the  canal;  and  each  torn  end  should  be  split 
for  half  an  inch  along  the  floor  so  as  to  avoid  the  cicatricial  narrowing 
which  follows  circular  division. 

If  the  bladder  has  been  ruptured,  intra-  or  extra-peri toneally,  supra- 
pubic cystotomy  may  be  needed  to  evacuate  the  escaped  urine  and  close 
the  opening  or  for  drainage  of  the  bladder.  Permanent  catheteriza- 
tion through  the  perineal  opening  may  sometimes  take  the  place  of 
suprapubic  drainage;  it  is  not  needed  if  the  bladder  is  uninjured. 

2.  TRANSVERSE  FRACTURE  OF  THE  SACRUM. 

This  rare  injury  is  produced  by  blows  or  falls  upon  the  correspond- 
ing region,  and  appears  in  all  cases  to  have  occupied  the  lower  half  of 
the  bone  and  to  have  been  produced  by  the  forcible  bending  inward  of 
its  apex.  Its  direction  is  practically  transverse.  Malgaigne  has 
reported  one  case  of  oblique  fracture;  in  it  the  violence  was  received 
upon  the  side  of  the  bone,  and  there  were  also  two  incomplete  trans- 
verse fractures. 

The  usual  displacement  is  an  angular  one,  the  coccyx  and  lower  frag- 
ment being  drawn  forward  so  that  the  apex  of  the  angle  is  directed 
backward  at  the  seat  of  fracture.  The  displacement  is  due  in  part  to 
the  fracturing  force  and  in  part  to  the  action  of  the  attached  muscles. 
In  a  case  that  came  under  ray  observation  at  Bellevue  Hospital  there 
was  extensive  sloughing  over  the  sacrum  and  denudation  of  the  bone, 
apparently  due  to  the  direct  violence  that  caused  the  fracture.  The 
same  complication  is  mentioned  in  two  of  the  five  cases  collected  by 
Malgaigne,  both  terminating  fatally. 

The  symptoms  are  pain  at  the  seat  of  fracture,  both  spontaneous  and 
provoked  by  pressure  or  movements  of  the  trunk,  or  by  the  act  of  defe- 
cation, or  perhaps  by  the  act  of  coughing;  the  displacement  if  present; 
and  abnormal  mobility  and  crepitus  recognized  by  grasping  the  lower 
fragment  between  the  thumb  and  a  finger  introduced  into  the  rectum. 

Agnew^  says  "  there  will  probably  be  present  paralysis  of  the  blad- 
der and  rectum,  both  of  these  organs  receiving  nerves  from  the  sacral 
plexus,"  and  Lossen^  says  that  when  there  is  complete  displacement  of 

1  Agnew  :  Surgery,  p  922.  ~  Lessen  :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  65,  p.  7. 


298  •  FRACTURES. 

the  fragment  paralysis  of  the  lower  extremities,  bladder,  and  rectum 
is  never  absent,  but  neither  author  quotes  any  cases  in  support  of  the 
statement.  In  the  one  case  that  has  come  under  my  own  observation^ 
there  was  almost  complete  paraly.sis  of  the  lower  limbs,  bladder,  and 
rectum,  which  nine  months  after  the  accident  had  been  recovered  from 
in  great  part. 

In  Bermond's  case,  quoted  by  Malgaigne,  the  fracture  was  near  the 
coccyx,  and  the  lower  fragment  was  displaced  so  far  forward  that  the 
finger  could  not  be  passed  into  the  rectum  until  after  a  female  catheter 
had  been  introduced  as  a  guide.  The  pain  was  extreme,  was  relieved 
by  the  reduction  of  the  displacement,  and  returned  as  soon  as  the  finger 
was  withdrawn. 

Treatment.  Unless  there  is  marked  displacement,  no  treatment  is 
required  beyond  tlie  use  of  pads  or  rings  to  relieve  the  lower  fragment 
from  pressure.  In  some  cases  the  surgeons  have  sought  to  diminish 
the  pressure  by  flexing  the  thighs  and  supporting  them  upon  pillows 
piled  up  under  the  knees. 

In  two  cases  the  surgeon  has  tried  to  make  direct  pressure  upon  the 
lower  fragment  by  dressings  introduced  into  the  rectum.  Judes,  quoted 
by  Malgaigne,  used  a  cylinder  of  wood  five  inches  long  and  one  inch  in 
diameter  with  graduated  compresses  outside  and  a  T-bandage  to  sup- 
port the  whole.  Bermond  filled  the  rectum  with  a  bag  of  lint,  which 
soothed  the  patient's  pain  but  had  to  be  removed  on  the  following  day 
to  allow  the  bowels  to  be  emptied.  He  then  used  a  shirted  canula 
through  Avhich  the  gas  and  feces  could  be  passed  at  will  while  the  rec- 
tum was  kept  distended  by  the  tampon.  It  was  removed  temporarily 
on  the  seventh  day,  and  finally  on  the  nineteenth,  when  abnormal 
mobility  could  no  longer  be  detected. 

3.  FRACTURE  OF  THE  COCCYX. 

There  is  but  little  definite  knowledge  concerning  this  lesion.  The 
first  mention  of  it  appears  to  be  that  of  Cloquet  in  the  statement  that 
when  in  old  people  union  has  taken  place  between  the  different  por- 
tions of  the  coccyx,  and  between  it  and  the  sacrum,  the  coccyx  might 
be  broken  by  a  fall  upon  the  buttocks  or,  as  in  a  case  which  he  had 
seen,  by  a  kick  upon  the  same  part.  He  refers  also  to  another  case  in 
which  caries  of  the  coccyx  followed  its  fracture,  but,  as  Malgaigne 
says,  it  does  not  appear  that  Cloquet  verified  the  fracture.  Within  a 
few  years  several  cases  have  been  published,  and  it  is  furthermore  pos- 
sible that  some  of  the  cases  described  as  dislocations  of  the  coccyx  or 
coccygodynia  may  have  been  fractures.  None  of  the  cases  of  fracture 
mentioned  have  been  described  with  any  details,  and  there  is,  there- 
fore, nothing  to  be  said  except  that  the  diagnosis  must  be  made  as 
after  fracture  of  the  sacrum,  and  that  probably  no  treatment  would  be 
required  except  to  reduce  displacement.  See  Disolcations  of  the 
Coccyx. 

Jolly^  reported  a  unique  case  of  escape  of  the  lower  segment  of  the 

1  Jolly  :  Medical  Record,  Dec.  17,  1887. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PELVIS.  299 

coccyx  through  the  anus  ten  days  after  delivery,  the  Ijone  apparently 
having  been  broken  at  tliat  time. 

4.  FRACTURE  OF  THE  ILIUM. 

Fractures  of  the  expanded  upper  portion  of  the  ilium  are  compara- 
tively frequent  and  vary  widely  in  their  position  and  extent;  the  more 
extensive  ones  pass  transversely  or  obliquely  from  before  backward  at 
some  distance  below  the  crest  and  are  associated  sometimes  with  ver- 
tical lines  which  divide  the  upper  fragment  into  two  or  more  portions. 
Malgaigne  says  that  when  the  fracture  lies  near  the  crest  it  begins 
commonly  at  a  triangular  prominence  on  the  crest  near  its  middle,  and 
runs  thence  backward  or  forward,  or  in  both  directions,  following  a 
curved  line  the  concavity  of  which  is  directed  upward.  The  fracture 
may  be  limited  to  a  small  portion  of  the  rim  of  the  bone,  as  the  anterior 
superior  spinous  process  or  the  outer  lip  of  the  crest.  In  a  unique  case 
observed  by  Hamilton,  the  posterior  superior  spinous  process  was  broken 
off  by  a  fall  upon  the  back;  and  Riedinger  and  Ijinhart'  have  shown 
experimentally  that  the  anterior  inferior  spinous  process  can  be  torn  off 
by  putting  the  Y-ligament  of  the  hip-joint  upon  the  stretch.  In  a  case 
reported  in  the  Bulletins  de  la  Societe  Analomique,  1867,  p.  283,  the 
anterior  superior  and  inferior  spinous  processes  were  broken  off  while 
still  in  the  condition  of  epiphyses  by  the  passage  of  a  wagon.  The 
patient  was  fifteen  years  old. 

The  displacement  is  usually  slightly  outward,  and  forward  when  the 
line  of  fracture  is  below  the  anterior  superior  spine.  Fragments  of  the 
crest  alone  may  be  markedly  displaced  upward,  and  after  fracture  of 
the  anterior  superior  spine  the  fragment  may  be  displaced  downward. 

Cause.  The  cause  has  heretofore  been  thought  to  be  direct  violence 
exclusively,  but  Hamilton  reported  a  case  of  fracture  by  muscular 
action  separating  a  piece  of  the  crest  three  inches  long  and  including 
the  anterior  superior  spinous  process.  ]Srickerson-  has  reported  another 
of  the  anterior  superior  spine  with  abstracts  of  four  additional  cases, 
and  Whitelocke^  two  others  in  lads  eighteen  and  nineteen  years  old 
while  running,  and  Albertin*  a  similar  one. 

Symptoms.  The  usual  signs  of  pain  and  swelling  are  increased  by 
the  associated  bruising  of  the  overlying  soft  parts;  abnormal  mobility 
and  crepitus  can  be  felt  on  manipulation  at  times,  but  their  manifesta- 
tion depends  upon  the  position  of  the  fragment,  the  posture  of  the 
patient,  and  the  contraction  or  relaxation  of  the  muscles.  In  a  case 
under  my  care  where  a  large  fragment  composed  of  the  anterior  half 
of  the  crest  and  the  adjoining  bone  had  been  broken  off  by  a  fall, 
mobility  and  crepitus  would  at  times  disappear  entirely,  apparently  in 
consequence  of  slight  changes  in  the  position  of  the  fragment.  In 
seeking  for  mobility  and  crepitus  the  abdominal  muscles  should  be 
relaxed  by  bending  the  body  forward  and  to  one  side,  and  the  thighs 
should  be  flexed  on  the  pelvis. 

1  Llnhart :  Langenbeck's  Archiv,  vol.  xx.  p.  451. 

2  Nickerson  :  Deutsche  med.  Wochenschrift,  March  6,  1890. 

3  Whitelocke  :  Lancet,  November  25,  1893. 

^  Albertin  :  La  Province  M6dicale,  1887,  p.  741. 


300  FRACTURES. 

The  patient  is  usually  unable  to  walk,  because  of  pain  or  of  the 
sense  of  a  lack  of  support. 

Course.  The  course  is  usually  a  simple  one,  and  the  patients  are 
sometimes  able  to  leave  their  beds  in  two  or  three  weeks.  In  some 
very  exceptional  cases  where  the  violence  has  been  extreme  fatal  injury 
has  been  done  to  the  viscera,  such  as  perforation  of  the  intestines  by  a 
splinter  or  laceration  of  the  iliac  veins;  and  suppuration  has  sometimes 
taken  place. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  simple,  rest  in  bed  in  the  position 
which  gives  most  ease  and  is  most  favorable  to  the  relaxation  of  the 
muscles  which  would  be  likely  to  cause  displacement.  The  attempts 
that  have  been  made  in  the  few  recorded  cases  of  fracture  of  the 
spinous  processes  to  keep  them  in  place  by  pressure  with  pads  and 
bandages  have  been  entirely  unsuccessful. 


5.  FRACTURE  OF  THE  ISCHIUM. 

This  is  one  of  the  rarest  of  the  fractures  of  the  pelvis.  Malgaigne 
collected  only  six  cases,  and  the  list  has  not  been  since  increased  by  any 
reported  in  detail.  In  some  of  the  cases  almost  the  entire  ischium 
was  broken  off,  in  others  only  the  tuberosity.  Experiment  indicates 
that  the  fracture  may  pass  into  the  cotyloid  cavity.  In  three  of  Mal- 
gaigne's  cases  the  cause  was  a  fall  upon  the  buttocks,  the  fourth  was  a 
gunshot  fracture,  the  fifth  was  caused  by  an  explosion,  and  the  sixth 
was  in  a  woman  who  had  recovered  from  a  double  vertical  fracture  of 
the  pelvic  ring  with  a  displacement  that  narrowed  the  inferior  strait  so 
much  that  two  years  afterward  delivery  could  be  effected  only  with 
the  aid  of  forceps,  and  the  ischium  was  broken  in  the  effort.  In  two 
of  the  cases  the  fracture  was  comminuted,  and  in  one  of  them  also  com- 
pound, in  the  other  the  scrotum  was  lacerated  and  the  urethra  torn, 
presumably  by  violence  received  at  the  same  time  upon  the  perineum 
and  not  by  displacement  of  the  bone.  In  the  simple  cases  there  was 
little  or  no  displacement;  in  the  gunshot  fracture  the  fragment  was 
displaced  downward  more  than  two  inches  by  the  contraction  of  the 
hamstring  muscles.  The  displacement  persisted,  but  does  not  appear 
to  have  interfered  materially  with  the  movements  of  the  limb.  All 
except  the  sixth  recovered. 

Mobility  and  crepitus  can  be  recognized  by  manipulation  of  the 
bone,  preferably  with  the  finger  in  the  rectum  or  vagina.  The  severity 
of  the  pain  depends  upon  the  violence  and  the  associated  injuries  and 
makes  it  difficult  for  the  patient  to  walk. 

No  treatment  is  required  except  rest  in  bed  with  pillows  or  air- 
cushions  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  pressure  upon  the  broken  bone. 
If  the  patient  lies  upon  the  side  the  knees  may  be  kept  flexed  to 
relax  the  muscles  which  are  attached  to  the  ischium. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PELVIS.  301 


6.   FRACTURE  OF  THE  PUBIS. 


In  almost  all  cases  of  its  fracture  the  pubis  is  so  broken  that  the 
continuity  of  the  pelvic  ring  is  destroyed;  the  cases  in  which  only  one 
ramus  has  been  broken  or  in  which  a  lateral  fragment  has  been  broken 
off  are  extremely  rare,  and  consequently  there  is  but  little  to  be  added 
to  what  has  been  already  said  in  the  first  portion  of  this  chapter.  The 
only  cases  of  this  limited  fracture  of  which  I  have  any  knowledge  are 
one  reported  by  Nivet  and  one  by  Cappelletti.  In  Ni vet's'  case,  the 
account  of  which  is  not  quite  clear,  there  appears  to  have  been  a  double 
fracture  of  the  descending  ramus,  the  intermediate  piece  was  displaced 
forward  and  had  torn  the  skin  of  the  groin.  In  Cappelletti' s'  case  a 
man  jumped  from  a  carriage,  alighting  upon  his  feet  with  one  limb 
widely  abducted.  Six  months  afterward  there  was  still  some  swelling 
at  the  anterior  superior  part  of  the  right  thigh,  and  a  fragment  of  bone 
about  two  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  as  large  as  the  finger  could  be 
felt  there.  Cappelletti  was  convinced  that  this  fragment  was  a  portion 
of  the  descending  branch  of  the  pubis  and  the  ascending  branch  of  the 
ischium  detached  by  muscular  action.  The  pelvis  appeared  to  be  defec- 
tive anteriorly  at  the  point  corresponding  to  the  supposed  original  seat 
of  the  fragment,  there  was  acute  pain  on  pressure  at  the  swelling  and 
at  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium,  the  patient  walked  limping  and  with 
pain,  and  the  pain  was  increased  by  abduction  of  the  limb. 


7.  FRACTURE  OF  THE  RIM  OF  THE  ACETABULUM. 

This  is  a  lesion  which  sometimes  accompanies  partial  or  complete 
dislocation  of  the  femur  upon  the  pelvis. 

The  upper  and  posterior  portion  of  the  rim  is  the  part  most  fre- 
quently broken,  and  the  accompanying  dislocation  is  commonly  back- 
ward. In  one  of  M'Tyer's  cases^  there  were  two  fragments,  and  in 
Maisonneuve's  case  three,  but  in  this  latter  the  fracture  was  much 
more  extensive.  In  another  case  (M'Tyer)  the  fracture  had  united 
with  but  slight  displacement,  and  the  Hgamentura  teres  was  untorn. 

The  symptoms,  when  the  case  first  comes  under  observation,  are  those 
of  simple  dislocation  backward,  and  the  complication  of  fracture  is 
recognizable  only  by  slight  crepitus  felt  on  manipulation  or  during 
reduction  and  by  the  easy  recurrence  of  the  dislocation  after  reduction. 
Sometimes  the  head  of  the  bone  slips  out  of  its  socket  again  as  soon  as 
the  traction  ceases,  in  other  cases  only  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  hours  or 
on  movement  of  the  limb  or  body. 

Malgaigne  calls  attention  to  the  necessity  of  making  sure  of  the 
existence  of  a  dislocation,  and  of  not  depending  for  the  diagnosis  solely 
upon  crepitus  and  easy  recurrence  of  the  displacement,  signs  which 
may  accompany  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur.  The  prominent 
distinction  between  dislocation  backward  and  fracture  of  the  neck  of 

1  Nivet :  Bull,  de  la  Soci6t6  Anatomique,  1837,  p.  194. 
"  Cappelletti :  Ranking's  Abstract,  1848,  vol.  viii.  p.  91. 
3  M'Tyer  :  Glasgow  Medical  Journal,  1830. 


302  FRACTURES. 

the  femur  is  in  the  position  of  the  limb,  which  is  flexed  upon  the 
pelvis  and  rotated  inward  in  the  former,  and  usually  straight  and 
rotated  outward  in  the  latter,  but  this  alone  should  not  be  depended 
uj)on,  the  position  of  the  head  of  the  bone  should  be  made  out. 

The  treatment  should  be  directed  to  the  prevention  of  a  recurrence 
of  the  dislocation  after  its  reduction.  Continuous  traction  gave  me  a 
good  result  in  one  case,  but  theoretically  abduction  and  extension  of  the 
limb  should  be  maintained,  as  the  attitude  most  opposed  to  recurrence. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE   FEMUR. 

The  table  in  Chapter  I.  shows  154  fractures  of  the  femur  in  a  total 
of  4539  cases,  nearly  4  per  cent.  Those  of  the  London  Hospital  for 
twenty-six  years  show  3243  in  a  total  of  51,938,  about  6  per  cent. 
The  Berlin  and  Halle  records,  quoted  by  Gurlt,  show  in  totals  of  232 
and  97  fractures  of  the  thigh,  76  aud  21  of  the  neck  of  the  boue  respec- 
tively. The  records  of  Bellevue  Hospital  for  nine  years,  collated  by 
Dr.  F.  E.  Hyde,^  contained  302  cases  of  fracture  of  the  thigh,  in  which 
the  position  of  the  fracture  was  stated,  divided  as  follows  :  neck  61, 
upper  third  (exclusive  of  neck)  34,  middle  third  169,  lower  third  31, 
of  which  7  were  of  the  condyles.  Of  236  fractures  of  the  thigh  recorded 
by  Hamilton,  84  were  of  the  neck,  30  of  the  upper  third,  86  of  the 
middle  third,  and  36  of  the  lower  third. 

Malgaigne's  analysis  of  311  fractures  (104  of  the  neck,  207  of  the 
shaft)  according  to  age  and  sex  is  as  follows  : 

Fractdres  of  the  Shaft, 

Age.  Male.  Female. 

2  to  20  years 35  12 

20  "  40   " 47  6 

40  "  60   " 43  15 

60  "  80   " 20  29 

145       62  =  207 

Fractures  of  the  Neck. 

Age.                                                                           Male.  Female. 

4    to    50  years 9  5 

50     "     60       " 9  10 

Above    60       " 30  41 

48  56  =  104 

1.  FRACTURES  AT  THE  UPPER  END  OF  THE  FEMUR. 

In  this  class  are  included  fractures  of  the  head,  of  the  neck  of  the 
femur,  separation  of  the  epiphysis,  fractures  of  the  great  trochanter 
«,nd  separation  of  its  epiphysis,  fractures  through  the  trochanter,  and 
fracture  of  the  trochanter  minor. 

A.  Fractures  of  the  Head  of  the  Femur. 

The  only  reported  instances  of  this  very  rare  injury  have  been 
obtained  in  cases  in  which  there  was  also  dislocation  backward  of  the 

1  Hyde  :  New  York  Medical  Record,  1875. 


304  FRACTURES. 

head  of  the  bone.  Riedel  (quoted  by  Hoffa)  reported  one,  a  boy  fifteen 
years  old  who  had  been  run  over  by  a  heavy  Magon.  The  dislocated 
head  was  split  by  a  line  of  fracture  which  also  traversed  the  neck  lon- 
gitudinally, and  the  posterior  portion  of  the  rim  of  the  acetabulum  was 
crushed.  The  upper  outer  fragment  and  the  trochanter  were  removed; 
the  rest  of  the  bead  was  returned  to  the  socket.  Healing  with  anchy- 
losis. 

Braun^  reported  a  similar  case,  the  line  of  fracture  running  from  the 
insertion  of  the  ligamentiim  teres  to  the  attachment  of  the  capsule. 

I  showed  to  the  New  York  Surgical  Society^  a  specimen  showing  a 
crush  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  head  one  inch  long,  half  an  inch 
wide,  and  one-eighth  inch  deep,  caused  evidently  by  impact  against  an 
exostosis  situated  close  behind  the  rim  of  the  acetabulum;  the  injury 
closely  resembled  that  occasionally  produced  in  the  head  of  the  humerus 
in  an  anterior  dislocation  by  impact  against  the  edge  of  the  glenoid 
fossa. 

B.  Fracture  of  the  Neck  of  the  Femur. 

This  is  essentially  a  lesion  of  advanced  middle  life  and  old  age,  and, 
as  the  table  given  above  shows,  is  more  common  in  old  women  than  in 
old  men.  Whitman^  has  recently  shown  that  it  is  more  frequent  in 
childhood  than  has  heretorfore  been  supposed,  though  still  relatively 
rare.  It  is  often  produced,  too,  by  slight  causes,  such  as  a  misstep,  a 
stumble,  a  fall  upon  the  knee  or  hip,  and  these  two  facts  taken  together 
indicate  senile  change  in  the  bone  as  a  markedly  predisposing  cause. 
Examination  of  the  thigh  bones  of  old  people,  those  that  have  been 
broken  and  those  that  have  not,  bears  out  this  indication,  for  it  shows 
all  the  parts  of  the  bone  much  rarefied,  with  thinning  of  the  cortical 
shell  and  enlargement  of  the  meshes  of  the  spongy  tissue. 

Another  reason  for  the  greater  frequency  of  these  fractures  in  the 
old  has  been  sought  in  a  change  alleged  to  take  place  in  the  angle  at 
which  the  neck  joins  the  shaft.  It  has  been  asserted  that  as  the  indi- 
vidual grows  older  this  angle  approaches  a  right  angle,  a  position  that 
would  favor  fracture,  but  examination  has  proved  this  not  to  be  the 
rule.  Rodet^  found  the  average  angle  in  the  child  and  adult  131 
degrees,  and  in  the  old  128  degrees,  a  difference  too  small  to  deserve 
attention,  especially  since  the  limits  between  which  the  angle  ranges 
normally  are  wide,  121  degrees  and  144  degrees  according  to  the  same 
author.  Similar  findings  have  been  published  by  others;  on  the  other 
hand,  Lauenstein  found  the  angle  changed. 

'  Other  points  in  the  connection  between  the  neck  and  the  shaft  require 
mention  because  of  their  influence  in  the  production  of  the  fracture  and 
in  the  character  of  the  displacement.  The  antero-posterior  diameter 
of  the  neck  is  much  smaller  than  that  of  the  shaft,  and  the  two  are  so 
joined  that  a  large  part  of  the  great  trochanter  lies  behind  the  posterior 
wall  of  the  neck,  and,  as  shown  by  Prof.  Bigelow,^  it  is  traversed  in 
part  by  a  prolongation  of  the  posterior  wall  of  the  neck  (Fig.  155). 

1  Braun  :  Arch,  filr  klin.  Chir.,  July  15,  1892. 

2  Stimson  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  August,  1889,  p.  163. 

3  Whitman  :  Annals  of  Surgery,  June,  1897. 

*  Rodet :  These  de  Paris,  1844,  quoted  by  Tillaux  and  others. 
6  Bigelow  :  The  Hip,  p.  121. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


305 


Fig.  155. 


'','<ti>  '.X',  * 


This  prolongation  which  Bigelow  calls  the  true  neck  constitutes  a  ver- 
tical septum,  *'  a  thin  dense  plate  of  bone  continuous  with  the  back  of 
the  neck,  and  reinforcing  it,  plunging  beneath  the  intertrochanteric 
ridge  in  an  endeavor  to  reach  the  opposite  and  outer  side  of  the  shaft. 
At  its  lower  extremity  it  curves  a  little 
forward  so  as  to  take  its  origin,  when  on 
a  level  with  the  lesser  trochanter,  from 
the  centre  instead  of  the  back  of  the 
cylindrical  cavity."  The  posterior  part 
of  the  trochanter  is  therefore  only  an 
apophysis  attached  to  the  shaft  for  the 
insertion  of  the  rotator  muscles,  and  the 
mechanical  function  of  the  shaft  and 
neck  with  reference  to  the  resistance  to 
strain  is  practically  independent  of  it. 
The  rarefying  senile  change  affects  this 
septum  and  may  remove  it  so  completely 
that  it  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the 
surrounding  cancellous  tissue. 

The  capsule  is  usually  attached  to  the 
femur  in  front  along  the  spiral  line,  above 
to  the  neck  a  little  short  of  its  junction 
with  the  trochanter,  behind  to  the  neck 
itself  about  half  an  inch  from  the  inter- 
trochanteric line,  and  below  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  lesser  trochanter.  In  front 
and  below,  therefore,  the  neck  lies  en- 
tirely within  the  capsule,  while  above 
and  behind  its  outer  third  or  fourth  part 
is  external  to  it.  These  limits  vary  some- 
what in  different  individuals.  The 
synovial  membrane  does  not  follow  the 
capsule  closely  to  its  insertion,  but  is 
reflected  early  from  it  to  the  neck,  leav- 
ing a  strip  of    the    latter    between    the 

points  where  it  joins  the  capsule  and  the  synovial  membrane  which 
although  intracapsular  is  yet  extra-articular.  The  periosteum  is  thick, 
and  contains,  especially  in  its  upper  portion,  numerous  bloodvessels 
which  enter  the  head  and  neck  by  the  large  foramina  found  there.  Of 
these  vessels,  one  in  particular,  a  branch  of  the  internal  circumflex 
artery,  is  of  considerable  size,  runs  along  the  upper  portion  of  the  neck 
and  enters  the  head.  Wilkinson  King^  long  ago  called  attention  to 
the  fact  that  this  portion  of  the  periosteum  is  frequently  left  untorn  in 
fracture  of  the  narrow  part  of  the  neck,  and  suggested  that  this  arte- 
rial branch  might  preserve  the  vitality  of  the  head  of  the  bone  under 
such  circumstances.  Later  observations  indicate  that  the  vitality  is 
preserved,  and  presumably  by  this  agency,  much  more  frequently  than 
has  long  been  supposed. 


Neck  of  femur.    (Bigelow.) 


1  King :  Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  1844,  p.  347. 
20 


306  FRACTURES. 

The  division  into  intracapsular  and  extracapsular  fractures,  so  long 
current  and  still  so  widely  used,  had  its  origin  in  important  pathological 
differences,  but  it  has  proved  unsatisfactory  and  misleading,  partly 
because  the  two  terms  do  not  properly  express  these  differences  and, 
consequently,  leave  a  large  group — the  ''  mixed"  fractures,  those  in 
which  the  line  of  fracture  lies  partly  within  and  partly  without  the 
capsule — to  be  classed  sometimes  with  one  and  sometimes  with  the 
other,  and  partly  because  the  associated  theory  that  repair  was  impos- 
sible after  intracapsular  fracture,  although  subsequently  abandoned  by 
its  author.  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  and  many  times  disproved,  has  clung  to 
it  in  many  minds  until  the  present  time.  The  breaking  away  from 
this  classification  which  has  appeared  in  so  many  of  the  systematic 
writiugs  of  the  last  thirty  years  is  largely  due  to  the  late  Professor 
Bigelo  w,  who  suggested  the  terms  fracture  at  the  narrow  part  of  the  neck 
and  fracture  at  the  base  of  the  neck.  These  have  the  disadvantage  of 
being  rather  cumbrous  and  of  unduly  limiting  the  seat  of  fracture  in 
the  former,  for  which,  therefore,  it  seems  to  me  advisable  to  substitute 
the  term  fracture  through  the  neck.  An  alternative  measure  recom- 
mended by  some  (most  recently  Sir  William  Stokes*),  oi  fracture  of  the 
neck  for  the  former  and  at  the  base  of  the  neck  for  the  latter,  is  open  to 
the  objection  that  the  first  is  also  habitually  used  for  the  injury  as  a 
whole  and  is,  therefore,  liable  to  be  misunderstood  when  used  as  mean- 
ing either  more  or  less  than  was  intended.  Kocher's^  recently  proposed 
fractura  subcapitalis  for  the  first,  and  fractura  intertrochanterica  and 
fractura  pertrochanterica  for  the  latter,  does  not  seem  likely  to  be 
acceptable. 

The  importance  of  the  distinction  in  prognosis  and  treatment  is  cer- 
tainly not  so  great  as  has  been  alleged,  nor  is  the  presence  or  absence 
of  so-called  impaction.  The  capital  point  in  prognosis — the  degree  of 
vitality  of  the  upper  fragment — depends  not  upon  impaction  nor  upon 
the  situation  of  the  fracture,  but  upon  the  preservation  of  the  vascular 
supply  furnished  by  the  vessels  which  approach  the  bone  near  the  inser- 
tion of  the  capsule  and  run  toward  and  to  the  head  in  the  thick  peri- 
osteum of  the  neck.  In  fractures  at  the  base  of  the  neck  these  vessels 
are  not  much  injured,  and  in  fractures  at  the  narrow  part  of  the  neck 
the  continuity  of  the  periosteum  and  the  included  vessels  appears  to  be 
sufficiently  preserved  in  many,  perhaps  most,  cases  to  maintain  the 
vitality  of  the  fragment.  The  number  of  specimens  of  bony  union 
after  undoubted  fracture  at  the  narrow  part  of  the  neck  is  not  only 
large  enough  amply  to  demonstrate  the  possibility  of  such  repair,  but 
also,  in  comparison  with  those  of  failure  of  union  and  in  connection 
with  clinical  results,  to  indicate  that  such  union  is  probably  common 
under  appropriate  treatment  and  in  the  absence  of  injudicious  move- 
ments at  first  which  may  destroy  the  connection  left  by  the  fracture. 
Moreover,  it  is  clinically  impossible  positively  to  distinguish  between 
many  of  these  fractures  at  the  narrow  part  of  the  neck  and  those  at 
the  base  in  which  there  is  little  or  no  injury  to  the  adjoining  part  of 
the  shaft  and  its  periosteum. 

1  stokes :  British  Medical  Journal,  October  12, 1895. 
'■^  Kocher  :  Praktisch  wichtiger  Frakturformen,  1896. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR.  307 

It  therefore  seems  to  me  unwise  to  make  a  sharp  distinction  between 
the  two  forms  and  to  urge  as  some  do,  most  recently  Kocher,  that  frac- 
tures of  the  narrow  part  of  the  neck,  or  intracapsular,  should  be 
deemed  from  the  first  incapable  of  union  and  treated  accordingly.  I 
think,  on  the  contrary,  that  union  should  be  sought  in  all  cases  and 
almost  always  by  the  same  methods,  and  that  the  diagnostic  differ- 
entiation at  the  outset  therefore  is  rarely  of  practical  importance. 
Although  the  distinction  must  be  preserved  in  the  description  of  the 
forms  of  fracture  (I  shall  use  the  names  fracture  through  the  neck  and 
fractures  at  the  base  of  the  neck),  the  sections  on  symptoms  and  treat- 
ment will  treat  of  them  jointly. 

Causes.  An  important  predisposing  cause  has  been  mentioned,  the 
senile  rarefaction  which  begins  usually  after  the  fiftieth  year  and  is 
more  marked  in  females  than  in  males. 

The  common  cause  in  the  old  is  a  fall  to  the  ground  while  walking; 
occasionally  a  stumble  or  a  misstep  with  an  effort  to  avoid  a  fall,  or  the 
jar  occasioned  by  stepping  down  to  a  slightly  lower  level  than  was 
anticipated;  thus,  I  have  known  the  fracture  to  be  caused  by  stepping 
out  of  a  carriage  into  a  shallow  hole  in  the  sidewalk.  In  the  young 
and  young  adults  the  cause  is  usually  much  greater  violence,  as  in  a 
fall  from  a  height. 

It  is  probable  that  the  strain  exerted  through  the  ligaments  in  ex- 
treme positions  of  the  limb  is  a  more  frequent  cause  of  fracture  than 
is  generally  supposed,  and  that  the  fall  is  sometimes  the  consequence 
rather  than  the  cause.  A  number  of  cases  are  on  record  in  which  the 
bone  has  been  broken  in  this  manner,  and  by  efforts  so  slight  in  some 
of  them  that  they  might  easily  have  been  overlooked  if  a  fall  had  been 
associated  with  them,  and  experiment  upon  the  cadaver  confirms  the 
opinion.  The  efforts  which  have  been  made  to  explain  different  varie- 
ties of  fracture  by  differences  in  the  direction  of  the  blow  or  in  the 
point  at  which  it  has  been  received  have  not  been  satisfactory  either  as 
a  demonstration  or  as  an  aid  in  diagnosis.  Few  patients  are  able  to 
tell  exactly  how  they  have  fallen,  and  even  if  they  could  do  so  there 
would  still  be  enough  uncertainty  concerning  the  extent  to  which  the 
position  of  the  limb  had  intervened  to  vitiate  the  conclusions  that 
might  otherwise  be  drawn  from  the  circumstances  of  the  fall.  At  the 
same  time  it  should  be  said  that  attempts  to  produce  the  fracture  in 
cadavers  by  blows  upon  the  knees  have  always  failed,  although  blows 
directly  downward  upon  the  head  sometimes  do  it,  while  blows  upon 
the  trochanter  usually  succeed,  the  fracture  being  then  invariably  at 
the  junction  of  the  neck  and  shaft  if  the  body  is  that  of  an  old  person.^ 
It  is,  however,  comparatively  easy  to  break  the  bone  in  the  old, 
either  at  the  base  or  at  the  narrow  part  of  the  neck,  by  abduction, 
adduction,  or  rotation. 

Sir  Astley  Cooper^  tells  of  a  woman  who  turned  suddenly  while 
standing;  an  irregularity  in  the  floor  kept  the  foot  from  following  the 
movement  of  the  body,  and  this  was  sufficient  to  break  the  neck  of  the 
femur.     He  tells  also  of   a  woman,  eighty -three  and  one-half  years 

1  Hennequin  :  Des  Fractures  du  P^mur,  p.  627. 

2  Cooper :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  155. 


308  FRACTURES. 

old,  who,  while  walking  across  the  room,  accidentally  placed  her  cane 
in  a  hole  in  the  floor  and  lost  her  balance;  she  tottered,  but  was  saved 
from  falling  by  those  standing  near  her,  and  found  she  had  broken  her 
thigh.  At  her  death,  fifteen  months  afterward,  the  fracture  was  found 
to  have  taken  place  at  the  junction  of  the  neck  and  shaft,  with  deep 
penetration  of  the  former  into  the  latter.^ 

Earle^  mentions  a  case  in  which  ''  the  neck  gave  way  within  the  cap- 
sule from  a  mere  muscular  effort  in  emptying  a  pail  of  water,  and  twist- 
ing the  body  and  pelvis  at  the  same  moment,  while  the  lower  extremi- 
ties remained  fixed." 

Malgaigne^  produced  a  fracture  by  forced  abduction  of  the  thigh  in 
an  attempt  to  dislocate  the  head  of  the  bone  forward  and  downward. 
The  cadaver  was  that  of  an  individual  eighty-one  years  old.  He  also 
saw  a  fracture  caused  in  an  old  man  in  an  effort  to  save  himself  from 
falling  by  leaning  to  the  opposite  side. 

Linhart*  was  able  to  break  the  neck  of  the  femur  by  adducting  the 
thigh  and  then  forcing  the  body  backward  so  as  to  put  the  ilio-femoral, 
or  Y-ligament,  upon  the  stretch;  and  Riedinger^  and  Stetter^  have  pub- 
lished cases  in  which  the  injury  occurred  in  like  manner,  the  patients 
having  bent  suddenly  backward  to  save  themselves  from  falling.  One 
was  sixty,  the  other  fourteen  years  old. 

Muscular  action  may  be  a  cause  by  producing  a  forced  position  of  the 
limb  in  which  the  capsule,  and  especially  the  Y-ligaraent,  is  put  upon 
the  stretch,  the  mechanism  then  being  the  same  as  v/hen  the  corre- 
sponding position  is  given  by  an  external  force. 

Pathology. 

The  line  of  fracture  may  lie  at  any  point  between  the  junction 
of  the  head  and  neck  and  the  base  of  the  neck,  and  in  the  latter 
case  it  may  be  associated  with  more  or  less  splitting  of  the  trochanter 
and  adjoining  shaft,  or  it  may  pass  (rarely)  from  the  lower  part  of 
the  junction  of  the  neck  and  shaft  transversely  to  the  outer  side. 
Practure  at  a  somewhat  lower  level,  below  the  trochanter  minor,  will 
be  considered  among  fractures  of  the  shaft.  There  are,  therefore,  to  be 
considered  here  fractures  through  the  neck,  fractures  at  the  base  of  the 
neck  with  or  without  splitting  of  the  trochanter,  separation  of  the 
■epiphysis,  and  fracture  through  the  trochanter. 

(a)  Fractures  Through  the  Neck.  (Syn.  Intracapsular  Fracture.)  The 
injury  is  rarely  seen  in  the  young,  and  its  frequency  has  been  thought 
to  increase  with  advancing  age  after  sixty  years,  but  the  facts  upon 
which  the  opinion  rests  are  mainly  clinical  and,  therefore,  not  entirely 
trustworthy. 

The  line  of  fracture  may  be  transverse,  oblique,  or  irregular;  it  may 
lie  close  to  the  head  or  at  some  distance  from  it,  or  may  (rarely)  pass 
slightly  into  the  head  itself.     In  a  few  old  specimens  the  appearance 

1  Cooper:  Loc.  eit.,  p.  177,  Case  90. 

-  Earle  :  Practical  Observations  on  Surgery,  1822,  p.  20. 

3  Malgaigne:  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  i.  p.  666. 

4  LinhHrt:  Deutsche  Gesellschaft  fur  Chirurgie,  1875. 

5  Riedinger :  Centralblatt  fur  Chirurgie,  1875,  p.  817. 

6  Stetter :  Idem,  1877,  p.  561. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


309 


suggests  that  the  line  of  fracture  was  incomplete  on  one  side,  but  as 
the  head  in  such  cases  shows  a  well-marked  angular  displacement  it  is 
probable  that  the  fracture  was  complete  with  bending  but  no  other 
displacement  at  the  apparently  continuous  portion  and  crushing  else- 
where. The  surface  of  fracture  is  frequently  irregular,  but  sometimes 
uniform  and  sometimes  smooth  or  irregular  on  the  side  of  the  head 
while  the  neck  on  the  other  side  is  crushed  or  comminuted  (Fig.  156). 
Angular  deviation  at  the  fracture  is  the  rule,  the  apex  of  the  angle 
being  usually  directed  forward  and  upward,  and  is  habitually  effected 
by  crushing  of  the  bone  or  by  penetration  of  one  fragment  into  the 
other.  This  penetration  or  impaction  is  rarely  more  than  a  simple 
interlocking  of   the  irregularities  of  the   surface,  although   Bigelow 


Fig.  156. 


Fig.  157. 


Fracture  through  the  neck  of  the  femur.    {F.  sub- 
capitalis.)    (Kocher.) 


So-called.  "  incomplete  "  fracture  of  the 
neck  of  the  femur.    (Konig.) 


reported  one  in  which  considerable  force  was  required  to  separate  the 
fragments;  possibly  the  fixation  was  due  to  incompleteness  of  the  pri- 
mary separation  at  some  point  on  the  periphery,  as  in  the  so-called 
^'incomplete"  fractures  (Fig.  157). 

The  periosteum  of  the  neck  appears  usually  to  remain  untorn  over 
a  portion  of  the  periphery,  and  may  even  be  complete,  as  in  cases- 
reported  by  Mayor^  and  Stanley."  In  one  of  my  specimens  the  untorn 
portion  is  nearly  an  inch  wide  and  is  situated  at  the  lower  and  posterior 
portion  of  the  neck;  in  other  reported  cases  it  has  been  behind,  behind 
and  above,  and  above  and  in  front.  If  the  primary  displacement  is 
great,  or  if  it  is  increased  by  an  attempt  to  bear  the  weight  upon  the 
limb, the  rupture  may  be  or  may  become  complete  and  the  fragments  may 


1  Bigelow:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  131.  2  Mayor:  Gazette  Medicale,  1834,  p.  612. 

3  Stanley :  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,  1825,  vol.  xiii.  p.  511. 


310 


FRACTURES. 


be  widely  separated,  both  of  which  circumstances  would  seriously  affect 
the  prognosis;  under  similar  circumstances  the  capsule  may  be  torn. 

(6)  Separation  of  the  epiphysis  has  been  demonstrated  by  specimen  in 
a  few  cases  and  suspected  in  a  number  in  which  fracture  of  the  neck 
has  occurred  in  the  young,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  much 
rarer  even  than  fracture  at  the  corresponding  age.  The  conjugal  car- 
tilage immediately  adjoins  the  head,  and  bony  union  takes  place  between 
the  seventeenth  and  twenty-first  years.  The  first  case  verified  by  direct 
examination  was  reported  by  Bousseau.^  The  patient  was  fifteen  years 
old,  and  was  run  over  by  a  wagon.  The  symptoms  were  shortening, 
eversion,  and  inability  to  move  the  limb.  The  patient  died  in  a  few 
hours.  The  separation  was  complete  along  the  epiphyseal  line,  and  the 
head  was  attached  to  the  neck  only  by  a  strip  of  periosteum  two  milli- 
metres wide.  The  periosteum  was  stripped  up  on  the  inner  and  lower 
part  of  the  neck,  and  the  capsule  was  torn  at  its  inner  portion. 

Kocher^  reports  two.  The  first  is  that  of  a  girl  sixteen  years  old, 
who  fell  while  walking  and  struck  upon  her  right  trochanter.  On  the 
theory  that  if  the  injury,  as  supposed,  was  a  fracture  through  the  neck 
(or  separation  of  the  epiphysis)  repair  was  impossible,  an  operation  was 
done  three  weeks  later  for  the  removal  of  the  upper  fragment.  A 
fracture,  hidden  by  the  untorn  periosteum,  was  found  along  the  epiph- 
yseal line,  with  penetration  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  neck  into  the 
head;  the  latter  was  removed;  recovery  with  anchylosis. 

The  second  case  was  that  of  a  girl,  who,  when  ten  years  old,  fell  from 
a  height;  she  rose  and  walked  a  short  distance,  was  then  unable  to  use 
the  limb  because  of  pain,  and  was  taken  to  a  hospital.    After  apparent 

recovery  she  walked  with  a 
limp  which  increased  as  time 
passed.  Four  years  after  the 
accident  Kocher  found  short- 
ening of  three  centimetres, 
outward  rotation,  and  marked 
diminution,  active  and  passive, 
of  motion  in  the  hip-joint.  The 
condition  found  at  the  opera- 
tion is  shown  in  Fig.  158;  the 
head  was  so  tightly  fixed  in  the 
acetabulum  that  it  was  removed 
with  difficulty;  the  neck  was 
bent  sharply  downward  with 
an  irregular,  knobbed  end  cov- 
ered with  fibro-cartilage  ;  the 
end  was  placed  in  the  acetabulum  and  the  limb  fixed  in  abduction 
and  inward  rotation.  The  history  ends  with  the  recovery  from  the 
operation. 

(c)  Fractures  at  the  Base  of  the  Neck.  (Extracapsular  and  ''  mixed" 
fractures.)  The  line  of  fracture  follows  ordinarily  the  junction  of  the 
neck  and  shaft  quite  closely — that  is,  it  coincides  with  the  spiral  line  in 


Separation  of  the  epiphysis  ;  old.    (Kocher  ) 


1  Bousseau  :  Bulletins  de  la  Soci6t6  Anatomique,  1867,  p.  283. 

2  Kocher :  Praktisch  wichtiger  Frakturformen,  1896,  pp.  238  and  243. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


311 


Fig.  159. 


front  and  the  intertrochanteric  line  behind  as  they  pass  between  the 
great  and  lesser  trochanters.  It  may  extend  downward  and  detach  the 
lesser  trochanter  from  the  shaft,  leaving  it  attached  to  the  neck,  or  go 
even  lower  and  separate  a  part  of  the  shaft.  At  its  npper  part  it  may 
deflect  to  either  side,  crossing  the  outer  part  of  the  neck  or  traversing 
the  great  trochanter,  in  the  latter  case  passing  quite  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  neck. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  other  lines  of  fracture  traverse  one  or  both 
trochanters,  splitting  off  one  or  two  pieces,  usually  from  the  posterior 
surface  of  the  great  trochanter,  or  comminuting  it  completely,  Mal- 
gaigne  thought  that  simple  fracture,  division  into  only  two  fragments, 
was  exceedingly  rare;  the  only  case  of  which  he  knew,  excluding  two 
in  which  the  fracture  crossed  the  trochanter  horizontally,  was  one 
described  by  R.  W.  Smith, ^  and,  as  even  in  this  two  fragments  are 
broken  off  the  trochanter  behind,  it  is  evident  that  he  believed  consid- 
erable comminution  to  be  the  rule.  Hamilton  refers  to  two  similar 
specimens,  one  in  Dr.  Mut- 
ter's, the  other  in  Dr. 
Neill's  collection  ;  in  one 
of  my  own  specimens  there 
was  no  splintering,  and  in 
another  the  fracture  was 
almost  identical  with  the 
one  quoted  by  Malgaigne 
from  Smith. 

The  common  fracture  is 
that  in  which  the  neck  is 
bent  backward  with  crush- 
ing of  the  posterior  part 
or  penetration  of  the  neck 
into  the  trochanter.  Prof. 
Bigelow^  directed  especial 
attention  to  this  bending 
backward  and  impaction 
(Fig.  159)  as  the  impor- 
tant features  of  the  most 
common  form  of  fracture 
in  this  region,  the  symp- 
toms of  which  are  pain 
and  tenderness,  disability, 
shortening  and  eversion, 
however  slight,  absence  of 
crepitus,  and  rotation  of 
the  trochanter  about  the 
head  of  the  bone  as  a 
centre,  and    he    described 

the  displacement  as  a  rotation  of  the  head  and  neck  backward  and 
downward  upon  the  portion  of  the  anterior  wall  corresponding  to  the 


Impacted  fracture  at  the  base  of  the  cervix  femoris,  with 
bending  of  the  head  backward.    (Bigelow.) 


1  R.  W.  Smith  :  Loc.  cit.,  Case  34. 

2  Bigelow  :  The  Hip,  p.  118,  and  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  1875,  vol.  xcii.  pp.  1,  29. 


312 


FRACTURES. 


spiral  line  uniting  the  trochanters  as  upon  a  hinge.      This  displace- 
ment accounts  for  the  eversion  and  slight  shortening. 


Fig.  160. 


Fig.  161. 


Impacted  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur 
without  splintering.    Vertical  section. 


Repair  after  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur. 

(LOSSEN.) 


Fig.  162. 


Fig.  163. 


Comminuted  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur. 
Anterior  aspect. 


Fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  with  splitting 
of  the  great  trochanter. 


A  certain  amount  of  misapprehension  has  resulted  from  the  use  of 
the  word  impaction.  Impaction,  in  the  sense  of  penetration  and  fixa- 
tion, is,  I  think,  uncommon;  while  crushing,  with  or  without  penetra- 
tion or  much  splitting  of  the  trochanter,  is  the  rule.     The  penetration 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


313 


Fig.  161. 


or  crushing  may  be  limited  to  the  posterior  part  (this,  as  has  been  said, 
is  the  most  common  condition),  or  the  neck  may  turn  upon  its  upper 
portion,  making  that  the  hinge,  and  sink  its  anterior,  posterior,  and 
lower  walls  into  the  substance  of  the  trochanter,  or  the  neck  may  be 
driven  bodily  into  the  trochanter  without  much  change  of  direction, 
and  may  even  penetrate  to  the  opposite  wall.  In  exceptional  cases  the 
lower  fragment  may  penetrate  the  upper  one. 

The  splitting  of  the  trochanter  may  be  limited  to  one  or  two  pieces 
broken  off  its  posterior  border  (Fig,  163),  or  it  may  be  very  general 
(Fig.  164).  The  extent  of  the  splitting  seems  to  be  independent  of 
the  force  that  caused  the  fracture,  extensive 
comminution  being  sometimes  produced  by 
a  simple  fall  while  walking,  as  in  Fig. 
162,  which  is  drawn  from  one  of  my  own 
specimens. 

In  a  few  cases  the  angular  displacement 
of  the  neck  has  been  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, so  that  the  limb  has  been  rotated  in- 
ward instead  of  outward.  R.  W.  Smith^ 
describes  one  such  specimen,  and  Bigelow^ 
another.  In  a  number  of  cases  inversion 
has  existed  when  the  fragments  were  not 
interlocked. 

The  angular  displacement  of  the  neck 
and  the  form  of  the  fracture  appear  to  be 
connected  with  the  mode  of  production  of 
the  fracture  and  the  attitude  of  the  limb 
at  the  moment  of  fracture;  thus,  if  the 
limb  is  extended  and  rotated  outward  or 
abducted  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule 
is  tense  and  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
neck  is  driven  into  the  trochanter  (Fig. 
165);  if  the  limb  is  strongly  adducted  the  deep  penetration  is  found 
especially  at  the  inferior  portion  of  the  neck  (Fig.  166). 

The  capsule  is  sometimes  torn  so  that  the  cavity  of  the  joint  is 
opened;  the  laceration  of  the  periosteum  and  adjoining  soft  parts 
varies  with  the  extent  of  the  comminution  and  crushing. 


Comminuted  fracture  of  the  neck  ot 
the  femur.    (Gurlt.) 


Repair. 

The  question  of  the  extent  to  which  repair  is  possible  or  probable 
after  fracture  through  the  neck  is  important  because  of  its  bearing 
upon  treatment.  If  reunion  is  possible  an  effort  to  obtain  it  should 
be  made,  in  the  absence  of  controlling  contraindications;  if  it  is  im- 
possible or  even  improbable  treatment  must  be  directed  to  obtaining 
the  best  functional  result  compatible  with  such  failure. 

That  repair  is  possible  is  abundantly  proved  by  specimens,  even 
if  we  disregard  those  in  which  any  question  can  be  raised  as  to  the 


1  R.  W.  Smith  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  128. 


2  Bigelow  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  128. 


314 


FRACTURES. 


character  of  the  injury  or  the  exact  situation  of  the  fracture.  Such 
ilhistrative  specimens  are  those  of  Stanley/  Swan/  Gurlt^  (Figs.  167 
and  168),    Brulatour/  Gushing/  Humphry/  Raven/  and    Kocher^ 


Fig.  165. 


Fig.  166. 


Fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  in 
abduction.    (Kochee.) 


Fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  in  adduction. 

(KOCHER.) 


Fig.  168. 


Pure  intracapsular  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the 
femur.    Bony  union.    (Guklt.) 


Oblique  section  of  the  specimen  shown 
in  Fig.  167.    (Gurlt.) 


1  Stanley  :  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,  1833,  vol.  xviii.  p.  256. 

-  Swan  :  Quoted  by  R.  W.  Smith,  Fractures  in  the  Vicinity  of  Joints,  p.  59. 

3  Gurlt:  Knochenbriichen,  vol.  i.  p.  308. 

*  Brulatour:  Medico-<;hirurgical  Transactions,  1825,  vol.  xiii.  p.  513. 

5  rushing :  Quoted  by  Bigelow,  The  Hip,  p.  133.  ^  Humphry  :  Lancet,  August  2, 1890. 

^  Raven  :  Ibid.,  1887.  s  Kocher :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  206. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


315 


Fig.  ]C9. 


(Fig.  169)/    They  include  patients  of  ages  varying  from  eighteen  to 
eighty-one  years. 

Other  specimens  show  close  fibrous  union  (Figs.  170  and  171);  and 
others  in  which  no  form  of  union  had  taken  place  show  eburnation  of 
the  head  and  other  changes  which 
demonstrate  the  preservation  of  its 
vitality.  After  fibrous  union  or 
failure  of  union  the  capsule  usually 
thickens  and  sometimes  becomes 
closely  adherent  to  the  periosteum 
lining  the  neck,  thus  obliterating 
all  the  outer  portion  of  the  original 
cavity  of  the  joint.  This  was  the 
condition  in  two  cases  reported  by 
Colles,^  and  there  was  actually  a 
false  joint  between  the  fragments, 
the  surface  of  the  lower  one  being 
hollowed  out  to  receive  the  upper. 
Sometimes  the  capsule  ossifies  in 
part.  The  two  following  cases  are 
quoted  to  show  the  ability  of  the 
up|)er  fragment  to  produce  gran- 
ulations and  to  illustrate  close 
fibrous  union  without  absorption 
of  the  neck.  They  are  both  taken 
from  R.  W.  Smith,  Cases  58  and 
59.  See  also  his  Cases  11  and  16 
for  examples  of  eburnation. 

A  man,  fifty-two  years  old,  was 
admitted  to  the  city  of  Dublin 
Hospital  with  an  intracapsular 
fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  and  died  of  bronchitis  on  the  six- 
teenth day.  Very  little  synovia  was  found  in  the  hip-joint;  a  layer 
of  lymph  covered  the  entire  inner  surface  of  the  capsule,  was  closely 
adherent  to  it,  and  vascular;  at  several  points  it  adhered  to  the  head 
and  neck  of  the  femur. 

The  fracture  was  entirely  within  the  capsule.  .  .  .  The  cer- 
vical ligament  [periosteum]  torn  in  front  was  perfect  behind  and 
below;  the  surface  of  each  fragment  was  highly  vascular,  and  several 
shreds  of  lymph  connected  them;  in  fact,  a  thin  layer  of  lymph  was 
effused  between  the  opposed  surfaces  of  the  fracture,  on  separating 
which  it  was  drawn  out  into  the  thin  and  delicate  bands  above  men- 
tioned. 

The  fracture  in  this  case  was  caused  by  a  fall  directly  on  the 
most  prominent  external  part  of  the  trochanter  major,  and  the  patient 
walked  a  few  yards  after  the  receipt  of  the  injury.  The  foot  was 
everted  and  the  limb  shortened  exactly  half  an  inch. 


Bony  union  after  fracture  through  the  neck. 
{F.  subcapitalis.)    (Kocher.) 


1  For  other  cases  and  details  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  first  edition  and  the  bibliography  on  it, 
page  499. 

2  Colles :  Dublin  Hospital  Reports,  vol.  ii.  p.  334. 


316 


FRACTURES. 


Fig.  170. 


Fig.  171. 


Fracture  within  tlie  capsule  ;  fibrous  union. 

(Smith.) 


Fracture  within  the  capsule.    Close  fibrous  union. 


A  woman,  eighty  years  old,  fell  upon 
across  her  room  and  was  unable  to  rise. 


Fig.  172. 


her  left  hip  while  walking 
She  died  eight  weeks  after- 
ward, having  regained  some 
control  over  the  limb,  which 
remained  inverted. 

The  fracture  was  close  to 
the  head  of  the  bone  above, 
passed  thence  downward  and 
inward,  leaving  a  portion 
about  half  an  inch  in  length 
of  the  under  part  of  the  neck 
attached  to  the  head.  The 
head  was  displaced  down- 
ward, overlapping  the  neck 
below  and  behind,  and  being 
overlapped  by  it  above  and 
in  front  (see  Fig.  170). 
There  was  thus  a  mutual 
impaction  of  the  two  frag- 
ments, and  they  were  further 
maintained  in  contact  by  a 
dense,  fibrous  tissue,  which 
adhered  closely  to  the  broken 
surfaces. 

Some  specimens  of  failure 
of  union  show  entire  disap- 
pearance of  the  neck,  the 
head  remaining  in  the  acetabulum  and  presenting  a  smooth  uniform 
surface;  there  is  a  similar  smooth  surface  on  the  mesial  aspect  of  the 
shaft  at  the  place  corresponding  to  the  base  of  the  neck  (Fig.  172). 
The  situation  of  the  fracture  in  such  cases  cannot  be  positively 
known;  the  neck  has  disappeared  by  crushing  and  rarefaction,  and  this 


Fracture  with  absorption  of  the  neck. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


317 


Fig.  173. 


presumably  can  happen  after  either  form  of  fracture;  considering  the 
greater  interference  with  the  vascular  supply  of  the  head  I  am  disposed 
to  think  it  more  likely  to  happen  on  that  side  of  a  fracture  than  on  the 
other. 

Some  specimens  with  union  show  an  almost  equal  absence  of  the 
neck;  in  some,  as  shown  in  Fig.  161,  the  neck  still  exists  but  has  been 
driven  into  the  trochanter;  in  others  it  has  disappeared  in  great  part, 
presumably  by  crushing  and  rarefactive  osteitis,  and  it  is  ditiicult  or 
impossible  exactly  to  determine  the  primary  position  of  the  fracture. 
These  latter  specimens  are  of  special  interest  because  they  have  been 
used  to  support  the  theory  that  interstitial  absorption  of  the  neck  may 
be  caused  by  a  contusion,  without  fracture,  and  that  thus  may  be  grad- 
ually produced  a  deformity  clinically  identical  with  that  following  frac- 
ture. I  have  given  elsewhere^  reasons  for  deeming  this  theory  incorrect 
and  for  believing  all  such  alleged  cases  to  be  cases  of  unrecognized 
fracture. 

Other  specimens,  and  they  are  numerous,  show  an  abundant  produc- 
tion all  about  the  trochanter  and  upper  end  of  the  shaft.  In  part  this 
enlargement  is  due  to  splitting  and  displacement  of  the  fragments,  but 
the  greater  part  of  it  is 
new  bone  produced  sub- 
periosteally  or,  more  prob- 
ably, by  ossification  of  the 
attached  fibrous  and  ten- 
dinous tissues.  This  is 
especially  common  at  the 
back,  along  the  intertro- 
chanteric line.  Sometimes 
these  masses  so  embrace  the 
end  of  the  ununited  upper 
fragment  (neck)  that  the 
patient  can  walk  well  with- 
out the  aid  of  cane  or  crutch 
(Fig.  173). 

It  is  alleged  by  Whit- 
man that  after  repair  in  the 
child,  especially  in  the  first 
few  months,  the  angle  be- 
tween the  neck  and  shaft 
may  diminish  (adduction) 
and  the  shortening  be  there- 
by notably  increased. 

The  cavity  of  the  joint  is 
sometimes    diminished    by 

an  adhesive  synovitis  which,  aided  by  peri-articular  thickening  and 
retraction  and  by  the  above-mentioned  osteophytic  gro^vths,  greatly 
restricts  its  mobility. 

Occasionally  the  limb,  after  either  form  of  fracture,  remains  useless, 


Fracture  at  the  base  of  the  neck.  Exuberant  callus 
and  interlocking  of  the  fragments  that  permitted  good 
iise  of  the  limb,  notwithstanding  failure  of  union. 


1  Stimson :  Doubtful  Fractures  of  the  Neck  of  the  Femur  and  their  Identity  with  an  Alleged 
Form  of  Arthritis  Deformans.    New  York  Medical  Jourual,  April  14, 1888. 


318  FRACTURES. 

and  much  pain  is  felt,  especially  if  union  has  failed;  and  there  are  a 
few  recorded  cases  in  which  suppuration  has  occurred  within  or  without 
the  joint. 

The  degree  of  probability  of  bony  union  after  fracture  through  the 
neck  could  be  determined  only  by  the  statistics  of  a  series  of  continuous 
cases.  The  collation  of  reported  cases  is  not  sufficient  because  it  is 
certain  that  the  proportion  of  failures  of  union  therein  would  be  dis- 
proportionately large;  the  examination  post-mortem  of  the  part  is  more 
likely  to  be  made  if  the  patient  remains  disabled  until  death  than  if 
he  has  regained  use  of  the  limb.  Most  of  the  specimens  we  possess 
of  bony  union  have  been  obtained  from  patients  who  died  from  some 
intercurrent  cause  within  a  comparatively  short  time  after  the  accident, 
while  its  memory  was  still  fresh. 

Clinical  statistics  are  untrustworthy  because  of  uncertainty  as  to  the 
exact  situation  of  the  fracture  and  as  to  the  extent  and  character  of  the 
repair.  In  respect  of  the  latter  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  some 
patients  have  been  able  to  make  fair  use  of  the  limb  even  when  union 
had  entirely  failed,  and  that  others  (after  fracture  at  the  base  of  the 
neck)  have  been  able  to  make  even  less  use  although  bony  union  had 
taken  place. 

The  facts  in  our  possession  are  :  (1)  that  bony  or  close  fibrous  union 
is  possible;  (2)  that  the  preservation  of  enough  of  the  periosteum  of 
the  neck  to  make  a  vigorous  vitality  of  the  head  probable  is  probably 
common;  and  (3)  that  the  primary  displacement  usually  does  not  sepa- 
rate the  fractured  surfaces,  so  that  if  it  is  not  increased  by  early 
attempts  to  use  the  limb  or,  more  rarely,  by  the  action  of  the  muscles 
in  the  absence  of  proper  retention,  the  conditions  for  reunion  are  favor- 
able. We  also  know  that  fair  usefulness  of  the  limb,  even  after  union 
has  failed,  is  possible;  and  it  has  not  been  proved  that  this  usefulness 
is  greater  or  more  probable  if  the  attempt  to  secure  union  has  not  been 
made. 

Symptoms  and  Diagnosis, 

The  symptoms  of  the  fracture  and  the  signs  upon  which  the  diag- 
nosis must  be  made  include  not  only  the  usual  objective  and  subjective 
symptoms  of  fracture  but  also  the  history  of  the  case,  the  nature  and 
especially  the  slight  degree  of  the  violence  which  so  often  characterizes 
this  injury. 

Interference  with  Function.  As  a  rule  the  patient  is  unable  to  use  the 
limb,  and  he  is  not  merely  unable  to  bear  his  weight  upon  it  but  he 
cannot  even  move  it  in  bed.  Exceptions  to  this  have  been  already 
mentioned,  and  it  is  not  particularly  uncommon  to  see  patients  who, 
while  lying  on  the  back,  can  slowly  flex  the  thigh  upon  the  pelvis 
either  by  its  muscles  alone  or  with  the  aid  of  the  hands,  but  they  can- 
not raise  the  foot  from  the  bed,  the  knee  bends  at  the  same  time  and 
the  foot  is  drawn  up  toward  the  body.  Most  authors  have  mentioned 
cases  in  which  the  patients  have  walked  for  longer  or  shorter  distances 
immediately  after  the  injury,  and  in  which  the  existence  of  a  fracture 
has  subsequently  become  very  clear.  This  is  very  exceptional,  and  it  is 
sufficient  to  bear  the  possibility  in  mind  to  avoid  the  error  of  inferring 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR.  319 

that  a  fracture  cannot  be  present  because  the  patient  is  or  has  been  able 
to  use  the  limb. 

The  opposite  error,  that  of  supposing  a  fracture  to  exist  because  the 
limb  has  been  disabled  Vjy  a  fall,  can  be  easily  made,  because  a  simple 
contusion  may  cause  eversion  of  the  limb  as  well  as  ecchymosis  and 
swelling,  and  in  some  cases  fracture  causes  no  other  symptoms  than 
these.  Observation  of  the  case  for  a  few  days  will  make  the  diagnosis 
clear. 

Pain  is  always  present.  It  is  usually  slight,  or  even  absent,  when 
the  patient  is  at  rest,  but  is  readily  excited  by  even  slight  (omrauni- 
cated  or  voluntary  movements.  It  is  referred  sometimes  to  the  region 
of  the  trochanter,  sometimes  to  the  groin  or  inner  and  upper  portion 
of  the  thigh.  Sometimes  pressure  with  the  end  of  the  finger  detects 
a  particularly  sensitive  point  in  the  line  of  the  neck  in  front  just  out- 
side the  great  vessels,  or  at  the  corresponding  point  behind.  Forcible 
pressure  upward  against  the  foot  or  inward  against  the  trochanter  fre- 
quently fails  to  cause  pain. 

The  posture  and  appearance  of  the  limb  are  so  characteristic  that  it 
is  sometimes  almost  safe  to  make  the  diagnosis  by  simple  inspection. 
As  the  patient  lies  upon  his  back  the  affected  limb  appears  shorter  than 
the  other,  everted,  and  slightly  flexed  and  abducted,  and  conveys  an 
impression  of  helplessness  that  is  often  very  striking.  The  upper  por- 
tion of  the  thigh  is  swollen  in  front  and  on  the  outer  side,  and  ecchy- 
mosis sometimes  appears  after  a  day  or  two.  The  greater  the  shortening 
the  more  marked  is  this  swelling. 

Eversion  may  be  so  marked  that  the  foot  rests  entirely  upon  its 
outer  border  as  the  patient  lies  upon  the  back.  In  other  cases  it  is  so 
slight  that,  as  Prof.  Bigelow  has  pointed  out,  it  is  best  recognized  by 
comparing  the  extent  to  which  the  two  feet  can  be  inverted. 

In  exceptional  cases  the  limb  is  inverted ;  it  is  either  found  so  on 
the  first  examination  or  it  becomes  so  after  a  day  or  two.  In  60  cases 
tabulated  by  Smith  eversion  is  noted  33  times,  and  inversion  7  times, 
in  1  it  is  said  tiiere  was  no  rotation  to  either  side,  and  in  the  remaining 
19  the  symptom  is  not  mentioned. 

The  cause  of  the  eversion  is  probably  almost  always  mechanical;  it 
is  largely  the  effect  of  gravity  acting  upon  the  limb  under  changed 
conditions  of  support.  It  is  favored  by  angular  displacement  at  the 
fracture.  On  the  other  hand,  eversion  has  been  observed  in  cases  of 
simple  contusion,  and  in  others  of  fracture  in  which  there  was  no  dis- 
placement of  the  fragments,  no  rupture  of  the  periosteum  even,  and 
consequently  no  loss  of  support.  When  one  lies  upon  his  back  a  dis- 
tinct, although  slight,  effort  is  required  to  keep  the  toes  upright;  the 
natural  tendency  of  the  limb  is  toward  eversion,  particularly  if  the 
knee  is  slightly  flexed,  aud  this  tendency  which  is  increased  by  any- 
thing that  diminishes  the  activity  of  the  muscles  must  be  taken  into 
account  in  those  obscure  cases  where  the  diagnosis  lies  between  a  con- 
tusion and  a  fracture. 

The  cause  of  inversion  is  not  so  clear.  Smith  attributes  it  to  the 
position  of  the  fragments  relative  to  each  other,  and  says  that  in  all 
the  cases  of  inversion  which  he  was  able  to  examine  post  mortem  he 


320  FRACTURES. 

found  the  lower  fragment  in  front  of  the  upper  one.  This,  however, 
does  not  always  explain  the  symptom  when  the  fracture  is  of  the  nar- 
row part  of  the  neck,  intracapsular,  although  it  may  do  so  in  some, 
as  in  the  case  observed  by  Goyrand^  where  the  neck  had  slipped  behind 
the  head  and  was  fixed  between  it  and  the  capsule. 

The  diagnostic  value  of  the  posture  of  the  limb,  as  regards  eversion 
or  inversion,  is  not  very  great,  for  inversion  is  a  symptom  that  needs, 
as  it  were,  to  be  explained  away,  and  eversion  may  be  due  to  a  simple 
contusion.  In  order  to  estimate  the  degree  and  persistence  of  the  ever- 
sion the  patient  should  be  placed  flat  upon  his  back  with  the  thigh  and 
leg  extended.  A  comparison  with  the  other  foot  will  then  show  the 
degree  of  the  eversion,  and  gentle  efforts  to  rotate  the  limb  will  show 
to  what  extent  and  in  what  manner  the  movements  are  restricted. 

Shortening  of  the  limb  is  produced  either  by  alteration  of  the  angle 
between  the  shaft  and  the  neck  or  by  overriding,  and  may  vary  in 
extent  from  a  small  fraction  of  an  inch  to  two  or  three  inches.  It 
may  be  present  at  its  maximum  immediately  after  the  accident,  or  it 
may  be  absent  at  first  and  appear  gradually  or  suddenly  after  the  lapse 
of  a  few  hours  or  days,  or  may  increase  gradually,  or  suddenly.  It  is 
usually  held  that  when  the  fracture  is  of  the  narrow  part  of  the  neck 
(intracapsular)  the  shortening  is  absent  or  slight  at  first,  increases 
more  or  less  gradually,  and  never  exceeds  one  and  a  quarter  inches; 
and  gradual  increase  in  the  amount  of  shortening  is  claimed  by  some 
to  be  pathognomonic  of  this  variety  of  fracture.  These  statements  are 
true  only  as  an  expression  of  the  average  condition;  in  exceptional 
intracapsular  cases  the  shortening  may  exceed  this  amount,  and  in 
fractures  at  the  base  of  the  neck  it  may  increase  gradually  in  the  same 
manner. 

In  measuring  the  limbs  care  must  be  taken  to  have  them  form  the 
same  angle  with  the  pelvis,  that  each  is  in  the  same  position  of  exten- 
sion and  abduction.  If  the  injured  limb  cannot  be  brought  parallel 
to  the  median  line  of  the  body  the  other  must  be  abducted  to  the  same 
degree.  To  insure  this  symmetry  it  is  well  to  stretch  a  cord  downward 
at  right  angles  to  and  from  the  centre  of  another  cord  stretched  between 
the  two  anterior  superior  iliac  spines,  and  then  to  place  the  ankles  at 
equal  distances  from  it  and  as  near  to  it  as  is  convenient.  The  meas- 
urements are  usually  made  between  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the 
ilium  aud  the  external  malleolus. 

Another  method  of  recognizing  shortening  and  of  measuring  its 
extent  is  one  recommended  by  Mr.  Bryant,  measuring  to  the  trans- 
verse vertical  plane  passing  through  the  anterior  superior  spinous  pro- 
cesses. Thus,  in  Fig,  174  a  c  represents  the  vertical  plane  passing 
through  these  processes,  aud  6  is  the  top  of  the  great  trochanter.  In 
fracture  of  the  neck  with  shortening  h  is  brought  nearer  to  c.  The 
same  care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  limbs  in  symmetrical  positions, 
and  I  have  found  it  convenient  to  mark  the  vertical  plane  by  placing 
a  small  stick  or  pencil  upright  beside  the  pelvis  and  in  line  with  the 
processes,  and  then  to  measure  the  distance  between  it  and  the  tro- 

1  Goyrand  :  Diet.  Encyclop6dlque,  art.  Cuisse,  p.  239. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


321 


chanter.  The  same  measurement  can  be  made,  roughly  but  usually 
with  sufficient  accuracy,  by  placing  the  thumbs  on  the  superior  iliac 
spinous  processes  and  the  tips  of  the  fingers  on  the  trochanters,  and 
thus  estimating  the  comparative  levels. 


Bryant's  ilio-femoral  triangle,  for  diagnosis  of  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur. 

Another  but  less  accurate  method  of  recognizing  the  elevation  of 
the  trochanter  is  to  find  its  position  with  reference  to  ''  JSTelatou's  line," 
the  line  taken  by  a  cord  stretched  between  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium 
and  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium.  Under  normal  conditions 
this  line  crosses  the  top  of  the  trochanter  when  the  thigh  is  slightly 
flexed  on  the  pelvis. 

Attention  has  been  called  by  Dr.  Allis  to  an  effect  of  this  shortening 
which  can  be  easily  recognized ;  the  relaxation  of  the  fascia  lata  between 
the  ilium  and  the  trochanter  and  just  above  the  knee  on  the  outer 
side. 

The  shortening  can  sometimes  be  overcome,  entirely  or  in  great  part, 
by  gentle  traction  upon  the  limb  combined  with  enough  rotation  inward 
to  correct  such  eversion  as  may  exist.  I  think  the  dread  of  separating 
impacted  fragments  by  traction  has  been  exaggerated.  The  penetra- 
tion is  transverse,  and  longitudinal  traction  that  is  not  violent  enough 
to  cause  much  pain  cannot  do  more  than  change  the  angle  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  neck  and  shaft,  it  does  not  separate  the  fragments  from  each 
other.  Rotatory  movements  communicated  to  the  limb  are  more  likely 
to  do  harm,  as  is  also  such  lack  of  support  as  will  allow  the  eversion 
and  shortening  to  be  increased. 

Crepitus  is  occasionally  perceived  during  the  manipulation  of  the 
limb  while  making  either  traction  or  rotation,  in  the  latter  especially 
if  the  limb  is  at  the  same  time  flexed;  but  it  is  far  from  being  a  con- 
stant sign,  either  because  of  impaction  or  of  splintering  that  leaves  the 
pieces  too  closely  connected  to  produce  it.  The  sign  is  one  that  should 
not  be  repeatedly  sought  for;  in  the  cases  that  are  really  obscure  it  is 
highly  improbable  that  it  can  be  obtained,  and  in  the  others  it  is  not 
needed. 

Among  other  signs  which  may  be  present  are  enlargement  of  the 
great  trochanter  when  it  has  been  split  or  comminuted,  change  in  its 
distance  from  the  median  line  of  the  body,  change  in  the  centre  of 
rotation  of  the  limb,  and  change  in  the  depressibility  of  the  outer 
portion  of  Scarpa's  space. 

The  enlargement  of  the  trochanter  in  consequence  of  its  having  been 

21 


322  FRACTURES. 

split  by  the  outer  end  of  the  neck  is  sometimes  very  marked  and  easily 
recognized  when  the  soft  parts  are  not  swollen  by  grasping  it  between 
the  thumb  and  fingers. 

The  distance  between  the  outer  face  of  the  trochanter  and  the  median 
line  of  the  body  may  be  increased  or  diminished,  but  the  change  is 
seldom  very  marked  and  is  difficult  of  accurate  determination.  It  is 
easier  to  prove  that  it  ought  to  exist  on  theoretical  grounds  than  to 
recognize  it  if  actually  present.  If  the  neck  is  driven  into  the  tro- 
chanter the  distance  of  the  trochanter  from  the  cotyloid  cavity  is  dimin- 
ished by  the  amount  of  the  penetration;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is 
no  penetration  or  crushing  and  the  displacement  is  an  angular  one  in 
the  frontal  plane,  the  bone  being  pushed  up  until  the  angle  at  the 
junction  of  the  neck  and  shaft  becomes  a  right  angle,  the  distance  is 
increased  because  the  neck  then  stands  directly  out  from  the  body 
instead  of  being  inclined  downward;  and  thirdly,  in  combinations  of 
penetration  and  this  angular  displacement  the  two  changes  may  neu- 
tralize each  other  in  whole  or  in  part. 

Rotation  of  the  trochanter  upon  a  shorter  radius  than  usual  is 
another  symptom  found  in  the  text-books  but  not  at  the  bedside. 
Theoretically,  if  the  lever  upon  which  rotation  is  made  is  broken  a 
new  centre  is  formed  at  the  seat  of  fracture  or  the  radius  is  shortened 
by  impaction.  Nothing  could  be  simpler  or  more  accurate  in  theory, 
but  in  practice  it  is  beset  with  difBculties  that  make  it  worthless  as  a 
sign,  for  it  is  recognizable  only  in  cases  where  the  diagnosis  cannot  be 
in  doubt. 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  tell  by  pressing  the  finger  against  the 
outer  face  of  the  trochanter  whether  it  rotates  upon  a  long  or  a  short 
axis,  for  the  range  of  permissible  motion  is  too  limited  to  make  it  pos- 
sible to  recognize  the  sharpness  of  its  curve.  In  cases  of  fracture  with 
crushing  of  the  neck  and  when  the  shaft  lies  unconnected  with  the 
remainder  of  the  neck  and  the  head,  rotation  of  the  limb  may  take 
place  about  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  femur,  and  the  centre  of  motion 
lie  within  the  shaft,  not  outside  of  it  in  the  cotyloid  cavity,  and  this 
can  sometimes  be  recognized  by  pressing  the  finger  against  the  posterior 
face  of  the  trochanter  and  rotating  the  limb  gently.  Instead  of  rising 
from  the  finger  the  bone  may  be  felt  to  slide  over  it.  Or  pressure 
against  the  back  of  the  trochanter  may  simply  raise  it,  instead  of 
inverting  the  foot. 

The  change  in  the  depressibility  of  Scarpa's  space  signalized  by 
Hennequin'  is  a  valuable  diagnostic  symptom.  Under  normal  condi- 
tions the  fingers  can  be  pressed  deeply  into  the  limb  in  the  outer  por- 
tion of  Scarpa's  space,  but  when  the  neck  of  the  femur  is  broken  this 
depressibility  is  reduced  in  varying  degrees,  apparently  by  the  angular 
displacement  (with  the  apex  directed  forward)  which  takes  place  so 
commonly  at  the  junction  of  the  neck  and  shaft.  The  same  condition 
was  described  by  Laugier^  as  a  sort  of  bony  tumor  to  be  felt  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  great  vessels  an  inch  or  two  below  Poupart' s  ligament, 
slight  pressure  upon  which  was  painful. 

1  Hennequin  :  Des  Fractures  du  Ffimur,  p.  700. 

2  Laugier :  Diet.  EncyclopiSdique,  art.  Cuisse,  p.  507. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR.  323 


Diagnosis. 

In  most  cases  the  existence  of  a  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur 
can  be  readily  determined  and  sometimes  its  variety  can  also  be  easily 
recognized,  but  in  others  tiie  main  character  of  the  injury  is  very 
obscure,  and  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases  it  is  simply  impossible 
to  say  whether  the  fracture  is  intracapsular  or  extracapsular,  of  the 
narrow  part  of  the  neck  or  of  the  base  of  the  neck.  This  difficulty 
is  recognized  by  all  practical  surgeons  and  finds  expression  in  many 
surgical  works,  although  others  still  preserve  the  distinction  between 
the  two  forms  and  lay  down  rules  for  their  recognition.  Gosselin'  says 
''  a  rigorous  diagnosis  between  extracapsular  and  intracapsular  fractures 
is  both  impossible  and  useless.^'  Mr.  Bryant^  says  ''  the  old  division 
of  intracapsular  and  extracapsular  fractures  is  as  unscientific  as  it  is 
impracticable;"  and  Agnew,'^  ''  to  recognize  clearly  a  fracture  through 
the  neck  of  the  femur  or  to  assert  with  positiveness  that  such  a  fracture 
is  present  is  often  a  matter  of  no  small  difficulty,  and  occasionally  one 
of  impossibility;"  and  Hamilton,*  ''  the  diagnosis  between  these  two 
varieties  of  fracture  is  often  impossible  during  the  life  of  the  patient;" 
and  Bigelow,^  ^'  the  importance  of  distinguishing  between  the  different 
fractures  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  is  not  so  great  as  to  justify  any 
protracted  or  considerable  examination." 

When  the  symptoms  described  above  are  clearly  marked,  when  there 
is  the  history  of  a  fall  followed  by  complete  loss  of  power  in  the  limb, 
with  shortening,  eversion,  crepitus,  pain  at  the  hip,  and  elevation  of 
the  trochanter,  there  can,  of  course,  be  no  doubt — the  neck  of  the 
femur  is  broken.  But  when  the  limb  is  not  entirely  powerless,  when 
the  shortening  and  eversion  are  slight,  perhaps  even  doubtful,  when 
crepitus  is  not  felt,  Avhen,  in  short,  there  is  no  single  positive  sign,  the 
temptation  to  conclude  that  there  is  no  fracture  is  great,  and  although 
the  warning  uttered  by  Hodgson  nearly  a  century  ago,  that  inability 
in  an  elderly  patient  to  use  the  limb  after  a  fall  upon  the  hip  should 
be  deemed  evidence  of  probable  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  has 
been  repeated  many  times  since,  it  is  still  very  often  disregarded  to  the 
great  damage  of  the  patient  and  sometimes  also  of  the  surgeon.  The 
rule  should  be  firmly  established  in  practice  that  every  doubtful  case, 
especially  in  the  elderly,  should  be  treated  at  first  as  a  fracture,  and  all 
the  more  so  if  the  violence  has  been  comparatively  slight,  such  as  a 
stumble  or  a  fall  while  walking.  It  has  been  said  that  the  pain  of  a 
contusion  or  sprain  is  most  marked  on  moving  the  limb,  that  of  a  frac- 
ture on  trying  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  body  on  it;  but  even  if  the 
statement  is  accurate,  which  1  doubt,  it  would  be  very  injudicious  to 
make  the  test,  for  if  fracture  is  present  the  effort  to  bear  the  weight 
upon  the  limb  would  be  likely  to  separate  the  fractured  surfaces  and 
increase  the  displacement  and  the  chances  of  failure  of  union.  If  the 
injury  is  not  a  fracture  the  rest  and  even  the  confinement  to  bed  can 
do  no  harm  and  are  but  a  small  price  to  pay  for  the  avoidance  of  the 

1  Gosselin  :  Clinique  de  la  Charit6,  vol.  i.  p.  346. 

"  Bryant :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  841.  3  Agnew  :  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  i.  p.  941. 

*  Hamilton  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  425.  s  Bigelovv  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  127. 


324  FRACTURES. 

grave  risks  involved  in  the  neglect  of  the  precaution  so  long  as  it  is 
possible  that  the  injury  is  a  fracture. 

The  examination  should  be  directed  first  to  the  history  of  the  case, 
then  to  the  functions  of  the  limb  and  the  pain,  then  to  its  attitude  and 
length,  the  condition  and  height  of  the  trochanter,  and  the  depressi- 
bility  of  Scarpa's  space.  If  any  doubt  then  remains  the  limb  may  be 
gently  rotated,  in  order  to  judge  of  the  degree  of  eversion  and  of  its 
mobility,  to  elicit  crepitus,  and,  if  desired,  to  estimate  the  radius  of 
rotation. 

A  possible  source  of  error  in  the  existence  of  a  former  fracture,  or 
of  a  deforming  or  dry  arthritis,  to  which  a  fresh  contusion  has  just 
been  superadded,  must  be  borne  in  mind  when  the  history  of  the  case 
is  inquired  into. 

Dislocation  is  eliminated  in  case  of  eversion  by  noting  the  absence 
of  the  head  of  the  femur  from  the  pubic  region.  The  exclusion  of 
dislocation  backward  upon  the  ilium  in  case  of  fracture  with  inversion 
of  the  limb  may  be  more  difficult.  In  dislocation  the  limb  is  more  fixed, 
it  is  adducted  and  flexed,  the  head  of  the  femur  can  be  felt  posteriorly, 
and  its  absence  from  the  cotyloid  cavity  may  be  recognized  by  palpa- 
tion. In  fracture  the  inversion  may  give  place  to  eversion  after  trac- 
tion upon  the  limb. 

Fracture  at  a  lower  level  is  recognized  by  the  seat  of  pain  on  direct 
pressure  and  usually  by  the  failure  of  the  trochanter  to  share  in  rota- 
tory movements  communicated  to  the  lower  portion  of  the  limb. 

Fracture  of  the  acetabulum  with  penetration  of  the  head  of  the 
femur  into  the  pelvis  has  usually  been  mistaken  for  fracture  of  the 
neck  of  the  femur.  The  means  of  diagnosis  has  been  mentioned  in 
the  preceding  chapter. 

In  regard  to  the  differential  diagnosis  between  fractures  through  the 
neck  (intracapsular)  and  those  at  the  base  (extracapsular)  it  can  only 
be  said  that  some  of  the  latter  can  be  positively  recognized,  as  when 
the  trochanter  is  split  or  the  immediate  shortening  is  great,  and  some  of 
the  former  almost  as  positively  by  exclusion  aided  by  the  age  of  the 
patient,  the  slight  violence,  the  great  disability,  and  the  absence  or  the 
slight  amount  of  the  shortening,  but  in  many  cases  the  distinction  can- 
not be  made.  Later  in  the  course  thickening  about  the  trochanter  may 
appear  and  prove  that  the  fracture  was  at  the  base.  Anaesthesia  makes 
the  recognition  of  some  of  the  signs  easier,  but  is  likely  to  lead  to 
unnecessary  handling  and  to  increase  the  displacement. 


Prognosis. 

In  this  must  be  considered  the  immediate  danger  to  the  life  of  the 
patient  created  by  the  accident,  and  the  remoter  influence  upon  the 
functions  of  the  limb.  Of  the  60  cases  collected  by  K.  W.  Smith 
26  terminated  fatally  within  the  first  month  and  4  within  the  second 
month.  It  must  not  be  thought  that  these  figures  represent  the 
average  mortality  of  the  injury,  for  his  collection  is  only  of  cases  that 
had  furnished  specimens,  but  they  will  serve  to  call  attention  to  the 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


325 


Fig.  175. 


actual  danger  that  does  exist,  and  to  the  probability  tliat  death  will  be 
caused  promptly  if  at  all. 

The  promptly  fatal  cases  present  three  principal  forms:  in  one  the 
primary  inflammatory  reaction  is  sharp,  a  high  fever  sets  in,  the  patient 
becomes  delirious  and  dies  within  a  few  days,  or  pneumonia  is  devel- 
oped soon  after  the  accident  and  proves  fatal.  In  another  the  patient, 
old  and  feeble,  seems  overwiielmed  by  the  mental  and  pliysical  shock 
and  dies  within  two  or  three  days.  In  the  third  form  the  patient's 
strength  fails  rapidly  without  much  inflammatory  reaction  from  the 
injury,  and  he  dies  cachectic,  usually  with  an  intercurrent  pneumonia. 
It  is  possible  that  fat  embolism,  especially  of  the  lungs,  may  be  an 
important  factor  in  producing  this  result.  In  other  cases  death  is  the 
apparent  result  of  marasmus  due  to  prolonged  confinement  to  the  bed 
and  constant  pain.  I  have  come  to  regard  the  third  week  as  the  time 
when  the  condition  is  most  likely  to  change  for  the  worse;  that  passed, 
cases  usually  do  well.  The  influence  of  age  upon  the  prognosis  is  very 
well  marked,  the  older  the 
patient  the  greater  the 
probability  of  a  fatal  ter- 
mination within  a  few 
weeks. 

The  influence  of  the  seat 
of  the  fracture  upon  the 
prognosis  in  respect  of  re- 
pair has  been  discussed 
above.  Speaking  gener- 
ally, union  may  be  confi- 
dently expected  in  frac- 
tures at  the  base  of  the 
neck,  and  I  believe  that  it 
is  much  more  common 
after  fractures  through  the 
neck  than  has  been  sup- 
posed, and  that  this  fre- 
quency can  be  increased 
by  appropriate  treatment. 
But,  on  the  other  hand, 
union  takes  place  almost 
inevitably  with  some  de- 
formity and  with  some 
limitation  of  motion  at  the 
hip;  the  limb  is  shortened 
and  everted,  and  abduc- 
tion is  diminished  by  the 
chano-e  in  the  an^le  of  the 
neck  with  the  shaft.  This  shortening  may  be  slight,  but  it  causes 
more  of  a  limp  than  an  equal  amount  in  the  line  of  the  shaft  does, 
because  a  compensatory  abduction  of  the  limb  is  not  so  easily  made. 
The  limitation  of  motion  is  seldom  enough  to  cause  much  inconven- 
ience, but  the  joint  may  be  sensitive  to  fatigue  and  weather  and  may 


Ununited  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  temur,  showing  the 
hypertrophied  outer  fasciculus  of  the  Y-ligament  support- 
ing the  weight  of  the  body  in  walking.    (Bigelow.) 


326 


FBAOTUBES. 


Fig.  176. 


even  be  persistently  painful.  Very  satisfactory  usefulness  is  possible 
even  in  advanced  age. 

Failure  of  union — bony  or  fibrous — does  not  necessarily  cause  com- 
plete disability.  There  are  a  number  of  specimens  of  complete  failure 
of  union  obtained  from  patients  who  have  made  considerable  use  of  the 

limb  for  several  years  after 
the  fracture;  they  show 
usually  complete  disap- 
pearance of  the  neck  and 
smooth  opposing  surfaces 
on  the  head  and  side  of 
the  shaft.  One  of  Bige- 
low^s  specimens  shows  a 
similar  condition  with 
marked  displacement  up- 
ward of  the  shaft,  the 
weight  of  the  body  hav- 
ing apparently  been  borne 
upon  it  by  suspension 
through  the  Y-ligament 
and  the  obturator  and  in- 
ferior gemellus.  Among 
later  specimens  reported 
with  interesting  details  are 
two  by  RebouP  and  one  by 
Bryce.^  In  such  cases  that 
have  come  under  my  ob- 
servation the  usefulness  of 
the  limb  has  been  slight, 
although  there  were  good 
motion  and  little  or  no 
pain  ;  the  patient  walks 
^^^'  with  a  marked  limp,  only 

with  the  aid  of  a  cane  or  crutch,  and  bearing  the  weight  only 
momentarily  upon  the  limb.  In  the  case  represented  in  Fig.  173 
the  patient  walked  without  a  cane.  In  other  cases  the  pain  has  been 
so  great  and  constant  that  excision  of  the  upper  fragment  has  been 
done  for  its  relief. 

Occasionally,  especially  in  the  old  and  rheumatic,  the  joint  remains 
stiff  and  painful  even  after  union  has  taken  place,  and  sometimes  the 
new  formation  of  bone  upon  and  about  the  trochanter  is  so  great  that 
it  notably  restricts  motion  in  the  joint. 

Mr.  Bryant's^  statement  that  all  his  hospital  cases  for  many  years 
(forty-two  cases,  average  age  seventy)  "  went  out  with  good  and  useful 
limbs"  indicates  results  much  better  than  any  others  I  have  knowledge 
of,  even  if  his  standard  of  "  good  and  useful"  is  only  that  the  patient 
can  stand  and  walk  a  little  with  the  aid  of  a  cane. 


The  same,  seen  from  behind,  showing  the  tense  obturator 
tendon  and  the  hypertrophied  inferior  gemellus.    (Bige- 


1  Reboul :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anat.,  May  25, 1888. 

2  Bryce  :  Glasgow  Medical  Journal,  July,  1892. 

3  Bryant :  Lancet,  1880,  vol.  i.  p.  160,  and  British  Medical  Journal,  Oct.  12, 1895,  p. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR.  327 


Treatment. 


The  attainment  of  the  ideal  object  of  treatment — restoration  of 
form  and  function — is  rarely  to  be  expected  or  even  sought ;  the 
lack  of  control  of  the  upper  fragment  and  the  destruction  of  tissue 
by  crushing  prevent  the  restoration  of  form,  while  the  proximity  or 
involvement  of  the  joint,  combined  as  it  usually  is  with  advanced  age, 
insures  limitation  of  function.  In  addition,  the  danger  to  life  in  weak 
and  aged  patients  from  measures  M'hich  cause  pain  and  insure  rigid 
confinement  is  such  as  to  forbid  in  such  cases  the  use  of  means  by 
which  alone  the  displacements  could  be  corrected  and  sometimes  even 
of  those  by  which  union  is  to  be  sought.  The  first  indication  is  to 
save  life,  the  second  to  get  union,  the  third  to  correct  or  diminish  dis- 
placements. 

The  vital  indication  often  forbids  the  use  of  an  anaesthetic  to  complete 
the  diagnosis  or  to  correct  the  displacement,  even  if  either  should  be 
deemed  very  desirable,  and  sometimes,  as  when  pulmonary  or  heart 
disease  is  present,  even  prevents  the  recumbent  position  and  conse- 
quently the  use  of  means  of  retention  which  otherwise  would  be  chosen. 

Reduction  of  the  displacement,  which  is  not  only  desirable  and  proper 
but  also  essential  to  repair  in  many  fractures  of  the  neck,  may  be  dis- 
advantageous in  others,  and  especially  in  fractures  at  the  base  with 
crushing,  because  it  would  increase  the  difficulty  of  repair  by  creating 
a  gap  between  the  fragments.  Thus,  if  the  angle  of  the  neck  with  the 
shaft  has  been  diminished  by  crushing  at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck 
(Fig.  166),  or  if  the  posterior  portion  has  been  similarly  crushed  (Fig. 
159),  the  correction  of  the  displacement  (shortening  in  the  first,  eversion 
in  the  second)  would  separate  the  fractured  surfaces  so  far  as  to  endan- 
ger union.  And  the  forcible  breaking  up  of  a  tight  impaction  may  also 
endanger  repair  by  creating  a  mobility  between  the  fragments  which 
it  may  be  difficult  to  control  by  apparatus.  As  the  presence  or  absence 
of  tight  impaction  or  of  crushing  cannot  often  be  recognized  with  cer- 
tainty, and  as  the  consequences  of  an  uncorrected  displacement  are  not 
serious,  it  has  long  been  the  rule  of  practice  to  make  no  attempt  to 
correct  eversion  or  slight  shortening  and  to  seek  only  to  prevent  their 
increase.  In  marked  shortening  and  in  most  fractures  through  the 
neck  the  limb  can  usually  be  drawn  down  easily  to  or  nearly  to  its  full 
length,  and  this  much  at  least  is  certainly  permissible.  Forcible  cor- 
rection under  ether,  recommended  by  Senn  and  recently  again  by 
Southam,  should  be  limited,  in  my  opinion,  to  the  relatively  young 
and  robust  patients. 

Retention  has  for  its  object  to  maintain  the  position  of  the  limb 
against  the  displacing  action  of  the  muscles  and  gravity,  to  keep  the 
fractured  surfaces  in  contact,  and  at  the  same  time  to  permit  a  certain 
general  freedom  of  motion  to  the  patient  which  will  facilitate  the  atten- 
tions necessary  to  meet  his  wants,  preserve  cleanliness,  avoid  bed-sores, 
and  diminish  the  general  ill  effects  of  restraint.  The  means  employed, 
in  their  order  of  frequency,  are  continuous  traction,  immobilization  by 
splints  with  or  without  direct  pressure  upon  the  trochanter,  and  fixation 
of  the  fragments  by  nails  or  sutures. 


328 


FRACTURES. 


It  has  long  been  noted  that  satisfactory  functional  results  can  some- 
times be  obtained  by  simple  rest  in  bed  for  a  few  weeks  with  only  such 
support  for  the  limb  as  can  be  given  by  cushions  or  a  long  side-splint 
without  traction  or  a  double  inclined  plane,  but  it  is  always  advisable 
and  sometimes  absolutely  necessary  to  use  means  which  will  more  surely 
give  the  necessary  immobilization  in  the  proper  position. 

Continuous  traction  can  be  made  by  weight  and  pulley  (Buck's 
extension),  or  by  Hodgen's  suspended  splint,  or  in  combination  with  a 
long  side-splint  or  hip-splint.  The  details  of  their  application  are 
given  in  Chapter  VII.  If  Buck's  extension  is  used  the  foot  and  leg 
should  lie  upon  a  Volkmann's  sliding-rest  (Fig.  41)  to  promote  com- 
fort and  oppose  eversion  of  the  limb.  Direct  pressure  upon  the  outer 
aspect  of  the  trochanter  to  press  the  fragments  together  can  be  made 
by  a  padded  band  about  the  pelvis.  The  weight  varies  from  five  or 
ten  pounds  in  the  old  to  fifteen  or  twenty  in  the  young  adult.  If 
Hodgen's  splint  (Fig.  177)  is  used,  the  traction  can  be  made  greater 
or  less  by  changing  the  angle  of  the  supporting  cord;  thus,  in  the  old 
its  upper  attachment  should  be  eight  or  ten  inches  beyond  the  vertical 


Fig.  177. 


Hodgen's  suspended  splint. 


(at  a  height  of  about  five  feet),  and  when  more  traction  is  desired, 
fifteen  or  twenty  inches.  The  limb  should  swing  just  free  of  the  bed, 
and  somewhat  abducted.  The  Hodgen  splint  greatly  promotes  the 
patient's  comfort  and  is  generally  to  be  preferred,  I  think,  to  the  other 
methods  of  traction. 

The  combination  of  continuous  traction  and  immobilization  by  a 
splint  is  effected  in  various  ways.  The  older  method  was  the  long 
single  or  double  side-splint  with  elastic  traction,  as  shown  in  Fig.  43. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


329 


Its  objectionable  feature  is  the  general  restraint  and  immobility  which 
it  imposes  and  which  the  aged  do  not  bear  well.  Lighter  and  shorter 
splints  with  a  perineal  band  for  counter-extension,  and  with  traction 
by  screws  and  springs,  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  44,  are  freer  from 
this  objection. 


Fig.  178. 


Fig.  179. 


Sayre's  traction  hip-splint. 


Phelps's  hip-splint. 


The  various  metal  splints  designed  for  use  in  hip-joint  disease  have 
of  late  come  into  some  use  in  the  treatment  of  these  fractures,  and  this 
use  might,  I  think,  be  advantageously  extended,  certainly  in  the 
younger  cases.  Such  an  apparatus  can  be  used  simply  for  immobili- 
zation, as  in  the  Thomas  splint,  or  combined  with  traction  in  the  usual 
manner.  With  its  aid,  especially  if  supplemented  by  a  pelvic  band 
or  a  pad  to  press  upon  the  trochanter,  the  patient,  if  not  too  old  and 
feeble,  can  leave  the  bed  by  the  fourth  or  fifth  week,  sometimes  even 
earlier,  and  go  about  on  crutches.  Shaffer^  has  reported  two  very  inter- 
esting and  suggestive  cases  in  which  by  the  aid  of  such  a  splint  with 
traction  and  trochanteric  pressure  he  obtained  good  union,  although 
treatment  was  begun  in  one  three  months,  in  the  other  nine  months, 
after  the  receipt  of  the  injury.  In  his  first  case  the  trochanteric  press- 
ure was  made  by  a  pelvic  band,  in  the  second  by  a  tourniquet;  it  could 
be  increased  and  diminished  at  will  and  was  borne  without  discomfort. 
In  both  cases  the  fracture  was  thought  to  be  through  the  neck  (intra- 
capsular), and  the  patients  were  young  men.    They  mark  an  important 


1  Shaffer  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  October  23, 1897,  p.  557. 


330 


FRACTURES. 


Pig.  180. 


advance  in  the  treatment  of  failure  of  union  and  suggest  the  more  gen- 
eral use  of  trochanteric  pressure,  especially  in  fractures  through  the 
neck. 

Eucaseraent  of  the  limb  and  pelvis  in  plaster-of-Paris  is  occasionally 
used,  but  the  discomfort  and  inconvenience  of  the  method  are  great  and 
add  to  the  danger  to  life  in  the  aged.  Senn  applied  the  plaster  to  both 
limbs  and  the  pelvis  and  made  pressure  by  a  steel  pin  passed  through 
the  soft  parts  to  the  outer  aspect  of  the  trochanter,  but  the  plan  has  not 
met  with  favor  and  appears  to  be  distinctly  inferior  to  the  long  traction- 
splint  and  pressure  by  a  girdle. 

The  apparent  advantage  of  a  dressing  that  permits  the  patient 
promptly  to  leave  the  bed  is  illusory  in  most  cases,  for  the  patients 
are  too  old  and  feeble  to  profit  by  it;  those  that  may  seem  to  need  the 
change  most  are  the  least  able  to  make  it,  in  the  others  the  gain  does 

not  seem  to  me  to  compensate 
for  the  risk.  In  fractures 
through  the  neck,  and  in 
others  in  which  the  transfor- 
mation of  the  bond  of  union 
into  bone  is  delayed  such  a 
dressing  has  great  advan- 
tages, for  it  permits  the  pa- 
tient to  leave  the  bed,  say  in 
the  second  or  third  month, 
without  interruption  of  the 
immobilization. 

Exceptionally,  Henne- 
quin's  modification  of  the 
wire  cuirass,  shown  in  Fig. 
180,  may  be  of  advantage. 
The  thigh  rests  in  the 
grooved  splint,  the  leg  and 
foot  are  wrapped  in  cotton 
and  rest  on  a  chair  beside  the 
bed,  the  knee  being  partly 
flexed,  and  traction  is  made 
by  a  weight'  attached  to  a 
bandage  about  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  leg. 

Direct  fixation  of  the  frag- 
ments by  metal  or  bone  pins 
was  first  employed  (unsuc- 
cessfully) by  Langenbeck, 
and  then  successfully  by 
Konig  in  1875.  Lately  sev- 
eral cases  have  been  re- 
and  Kocher.*     Kocher^  says 


Hennequin's  splint  for  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur. 

ported :    Cheyne,^   Dollinger,^   Meyer,' 


direct  fixation  cannot  become  a  general  method,  because  it  is  unneces- 


1  Cheyne:  British  MedicalJournal,  March  7, 1892. 

2  Dollinger  ;  Cetralblatt  fur  Chir.,  June  6,  1892. 
*  Kocher :  Loc.  cit. 


3  Meyer  :  Annals  of  Surgery,  July,  1893. 
6  Kocher  :  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  304  and  305. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


331 


sary  in  most  fractures  at  the  base  and  because  the  bone  is  so  soft  that 
the  pin  has  no  secure  hold. 


Fig.  181. 


Pertrochanteric  fracture.    (Kocher.) 

Loretta^  in  a  case  of  ununited  intracapsular 
fracture  in  a  man  thirty-six  years  old,  which 
had  remained  ununited  nineteen  months,  ex- 
posed it  by  a  posterior  incision,  freshened  the 
ends,  which  were  still  in  contact  with  each 
other,  and  placed  between  them  a  bundle  of 
wires  which  was  withdrawn  five  days  later. 
Two  months  later  the  pain  had  ceased  and  the 
patient  was  able  to  walk  a  little. 

Excision  of  the  upper  fragment  for  the  re- 
lief of  pain  or  disability  after  failure  of  union 
has  been  done  by  Howe,^  Konig,  and  Lejars.^ 
In  Howe's  case  the  limb  remained  useless; 
Lejars  reported  a  good  functional  result,  and 
Konig  says  his  patient  was  "  extraordinarily 
content"  with  the  result. 


Pertrochauteric  fracture. 
(Kocher.) 


C.  Fractures  Through  the  Great  Trochanter  and  Neck. 
(Fractura  Pertrochanterica,  Kocher.) 

This  class  may  be  defined  as  composed  of  those  cases  in  which  the 
line  of  fracture  begins  at  or  near  the  lower  part  of  the  junction  of  the 


1  Loretta  ;  British  Medical  Journal,  August  25, 1888. 

2  Howe:  Medical  Record,  vol.  xiv.  p.  394. 

3  Lejars:  Semaine  M6d.,  October  17,  1894. 


332  FBAGTUBES. 

neck  and  shaft  and  passes  through  or  close  below  the  great  trochanter, 
dividing  the  bone  into  two  parts,  of  which  the  upper  is  formed  by  the 
head,  neck,  and  upper  part  of  the  trochanter.  The  line  of  fracture 
may  be  oblique  from  within  outward  and  upward,  or  from  behind 
upward  and  forward.  The  line  of  division  between  these  and  the 
subtrochanteric  fractures,  the  highest  of  the  fractures  of  the  shaft,  is 
marked  by  the  trochanter  minor,  which  also  establishes  an  important 
clinical  difference  depending  upon  the  action  of  the  psoas-iliacus  which 
is  attached  thereto.  Its  action  in  fractures  below  that  point  is  to  flex 
the  upper  fragment. 

The  injury  is  not  a  common  one,  and  the  recorded  specimens  are 
few.  To  those  described  in  the  first  edition  may  be  added  three  from 
the  museum  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  shown  by  Bennett^  to  the 
British  Medical  Association,  and  five  described  and  figured  by  Kocher. 
The  illustrations  of  Bennett's  are  so  indistinctly  printed  that  the  details 
are  not  recognizable;  in  two  of  them  the  fracture  appears  to  have  ex- 
tended down  the  outer  part  of  the  shaft.  Kocher' s^  specimens  show 
marked  angular  deformity,  apex  forward,  and  some  diminution  of  the 
angle  of  the  neck,  adduction  of  the  shaft  (Figs.  181  and  182). 

The  mechanism  appears  to  be  forcible  extension  (possibly  abduction) 
of  the  limb,  in  which  movement  the  neck  and  trochanter  are  arrested 
by  the  Y-ligament  and  the  fracture  takes  place  below  or  through  its 
lower  attachment. 

The  characteristic  symptom  appears  to  be  the  prominence  of  the 
angle  in  front,  with  pain  on  pressure  at  this  point  and  possibly  with 
immobility  of  the  trochanter  and  crepitus  when  the  limb  is  gently 
rotated.  Shortening  and  eversion  are  present,  the  latter  due  to  mus- 
cular relaxation  and  loss  of  control  of  the  lower  fragment. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  immobilization  with  traction,  but  pref- 
erably with  more  flexion  of  the  hip  than  is  usual  in  fracture  of  the 
neck. 

D.  Fracture  of  the  G-reat  Trochanter.     Separation  of  the  Apophysis. 

Only  a  few  specimens,  not  more  than  a  dozen,  of  this  injury,  inde- 
pendent of  associated  fracture  of  the  neck,  have  been  reported.  The 
cause  appears  commonly  to  be  a  blow  upon  the  outer  posterior  portion 
of  the  trochanter;  occasionally  muscular  action. 

The  fragment  usually  remains  attached  to  the  femur  by  tendinous 
and  periosteal  fibres,  and  is  sometimes  broken  into  two  or  more  pieces; 
it  is  freely  movable  upon  the  shaft,  but  rarely  is  completely  separated 
from  it  and  displaced  upward  or  backward  by  the  attached  muscles. 
Potherat^  reported  a  specimen,  found  in  the  dissecting-room,  with  dis- 
placement upward  of  four  centimetres. 

The  specimens  of  the  separation  of  the  apophysis  are  one  in  Guy's 
Hospital  museum,  Key's  case  (Fig.  183),  and  one  in  Steevens's  Hos- 
pital,^ Dublin. 

1  Bennett :  British  Medical  Journal,  October  12,  1895,  p  893. 

2  Kocher  :  Loc.  cit.,  Figs.  140  and  151  to  157. 

3  Potherat:  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Auat.,  February,  1888. 

*  Transactions  Pathological  Society  of  Dublin,  vol.  vii.,  n.  s.,  quoted  by  Bennett. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR.  333 

It  is  worthy  of  note   that  at  least  three  of   the  specimens  (Key, 
Waechter,  Clarke)  were  obtained  from  patients  who  died  shortly  after 
the  accident,   one  of  delirium  tremens,   one 
of  pneumonia,  and  one,  a  young  girl,  after  a  ^"'-  ^*3- 

high  fever  lasting  nine  days.  McCarthy's 
case  seems  to  me  to  be  osteomyelitis  rather 
than  fracture. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  local  pain 
on  pressure,  and  mobility  of  the  fragment 
recognizable  if  the  swelling  is  not  too  great. 
Most  of  the  patients  have  been  able  to  walk, 
though  with   pain;  and   rotation  of  the  hip 

was  paiuiul.  ^      ^  ^  ^  Fracture  or  diastasis  of  the  great 

Treatment.    The  treatment  is  immobiliza-  trochanter.   (Bryant.) 

tion,  preferably  with  the  limb  abducted  and 

rotated  outward  to  diminish  the  displacing  action  of  the  attached 
muscles.  Local  pressure  by  a  bandage  about  the  hips  has  been  used 
but  is  probably  unimportant. 

E.  Fracture  of  the  Trochanter  Minor. 

Bennett^  reports  a  specimen  of  this  fracture  in  the  museum  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  associated  with  a  united  intracapsular  fracture  of  the 
neck.  The  accompanying  illustration  shows  the  trochanter  detached 
with  a  small  portion  of  the  shaft.  He  adds  that  he  has  recognized  the 
fracture  in  the  living,  but  gives  no  details. 

The  only  other  specimen  or  case  that  I  know  of  is  one  referred  to 
by  J.  Hutchinson,  Jr.,^  as  reported  by  Dr.  Fenwick,  of  Montreal :  a 
boy,  seventeen  years  old,  leaped  upon  a  fence  and  fell  backward,  break- 
ing off  the  lesser  trochanter,  apparently  by  the  pull  of  the  psoas-iliacus. 
This  was  verified  by  incision.  He  died  of  septicaemia  on  the  seven- 
teenth day.     The  specimen  is  in  the  museum  of  McGill  College. 


2.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  SHAFT  OF  THE  FEMUR. 

The  highest  of  the  fractures  considered  in  this  section  are  the  sub- 
trochanteric, the  lowest  the  supracondyloid;  intercondyloid  or  T-frac- 
tures  will  be  described  in  the  following  section.  Exceptional  and 
irregular  forms  are  occasionally  seen,  spiral  and  oblique  fractures  in 
which  the  main  line  or  a  fissure  passes  from  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft 
to  the  neck  and  the  trochanter,  and  even  in  which  the  upper  fragment 
has  been  split  longitudinally  through  the  trochanter. 

Causes.  The  causes  of  fracture  are  direct  and  indirect  violence  and 
muscular  action;  see  Chapter  III. 

Pathology.  All  the  varieties  of  fracture  that  may  occur  in  long  bones 
are  met  with  in  the  femur,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  frac- 
ture is  oblique  and  often  extremely  so,  the  obliquity  usually  correspond- 

1  Bennett :  British  Medical  Journal,  October  12,  1895,  p.  893. 

"  Hutchinson  :  British  Medical  Journal,  December  30,  1893,  p.  671. 


334 


FRACTURES. 


iDg  to  the  normal  curves  of  the  bone;  that  is,  in  the  middle  part  of  the 
bone  it  rims  from  behind  forward  and  downward,  and  in  the  upper 
third  forward  and  outward.  Transverse  fracture  is  rare  in  adults,  but 
more  common  in  children. 

The  displacement  is  marked,  and  is  the  effect  of  the  fracturing  cause, 
of  the  contraction  of  tlie  powerful  muscles  of  the  thigh,  and  of  the 
swelling  of  the  limb  beneath  the  fascia  by  which  it  is  broadened  and 
shortened.  The  lower  fragment  usually  passes  behind  and  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  upper  one  and  is  sometimes  rotated  outwardly;  in  addition 
there  is  angular  displacement,  the  angle  usually  being  directed  forward 
or  forward  and  outward,  but  sometimes  backward  or  inward. 

Inclination  forward  and  outward  of  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  frag- 
ment after  fracture  in  the  upper  third  is  the  rule  and  is  mainly  due 


Fig.  184. 


Fig.  185. 


Fracture  of  the  upper  third  of  the  femur ;  union 
with  great  displacement.    (A.  Coopee.) 


Transverse  fracture  of  the  femur.    (Guklt.) 


to  muscular  action,  the  contraction  of  the  gluteal  muscles  and  the 
psoas  upon  the  upper  fragment  and  of  the  adductors  and  the  flexors  of 
the  leg  upon  the  lower  one.  The  tendency  of  the  former  is  to  tilt  the 
upper  fragment  forward,  outward,  or  in  both  directions;  that  of  the 
latter  is  to  draw  the  lower  fragment  up  against  tlie  upper  one,  and  this 
will  produce  an  angular  displacement  in  any  direction  that  is  favored 
by  the  line  of  fracture.  The  fact  that  the  displacement  is  sometimes 
backward  or  inward  does  not  disprove  the  influence  of  the  muscles 
attached  to  the  upper  fragment,  as  has  been  argued;  the  principal 
agency  is  the  drawing  upward  of  the  lower  fragment,  and  if  the  frag- 
ments are  so  related  at  the  seat  of  fracture  that  the  upper  one  is  pushed 
in  a  different  direction  from  that  in  which  its  muscles  would  draw  it  the 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR.  335 

latter  must  yield.  Id  the  extreme  case  figured  by  Sir  Astley  Cooper 
(Fig.  184)  it  can  be  seen  how  great  the  angular  displacement  and  at 
the  same  time  the  overriding  can  be  under  these  circumstances.  The 
angular  displacement  necessarily  produces  shortening,  and  this  short- 
ening varies  according  to  the  angle  and,  the  angle  being  the  same, 
according  to  the  distance  of  the  fracture  below  the  neck  of  the  bone. 
In  the  same  specimen  outward  rotation  of  the  lower  fragment  is  also 
very  marked.  In  transverse  and  toothed  fractures  the  displacement 
may  be  lateral  or  angular  or  both,  and  if  the  lateral  disi)lacement  is 
sufficient  to  free  the  fragments  they  may  override,  as  in  Fig.  185. 

Extreme  obliquity  of  the  fracture,  which  is  not  uncommon,  leads 
occasionally  to  a  complication  which  may  be  very  troublesome  and  may 
transform  a  simple  fracture  into  a  compound  one,  the  penetration  of 
the  muscle  and  sometimes  of  the  skin  by  the  sharp  end  of  the  upper 
fragment.  This  is  specially  likely  to  occur  in  fractures  of  the  lower 
third,  the  sharp  lower  end  of  the  upper  fragment  perforating  the  quad- 
riceps or  even  the  skin.  The  perforation  of  the  muscle  is  directed 
downward  as  well  as  forward,  probably  because  the  knee  is  flexed  at 
the  moment  when  it  occurs,  and  then  when  the  joint  is  straightened 
the  muscle  retracts  upward  along  the  spike  of  bone;  this  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  flex  the  knee  again  in  order  to  free  the  bone,  thus  drawing  the 
muscle  down  past  its  end.  In  these  fractures  of  the  lower  third  the 
lower  fragment  is  sometimes  tilted  (presumably  by  the  action  of  the 
gastrocnemius)  so  that  its  upper  end  is  directed  obliquely  backward, 
and  it  is  sometimes  split  by  a  line  of  fracture  running  between  the 
condyles.     See  Intercondyloid  Fractures. 

Other  complications  are  rare,  the  vessels  and  nerves  not  lying  in 
sufficiently  close  relations  with  the  bone  to  be  often  injured.  Miiller^ 
reported  a  case  of  rupture  of.  the  inner  and  middle  coats  of  the  femoral 
artery  in  a  fracture  at  the  junction  of  the  middle  and  lower  thirds; 
gangrene  threatening,  amputation  was  done;  death.  And  Selenkow^ 
reported  one  of  laceration  of  the  feoioral  vein;  death  followed,  appar- 
ently the  result  of  officious  treatment.  The  danger  is  greater  in  the 
lower  third  than  elsewhere,  and  pressure  upon  the  vessels  when  they 
are  not  torn  may  cause  gangrene  of  the  leg  either  by  its  continuance 
or  by  the  formation  of  a  thrombus  in  consequence  of  the  bruising. 

Fissures  extending  upward  and  downward  from  the  seat  of  fracture 
are  probably  not  infrequent,  especially  in  gunshot  fractures. 

Double  fractures  have  been  observed,  and,  according  to  Malgaigne, 
there  is  a  specimen  of  triple  fracture  in  the  Mus6e  Dupuytren.  Double 
fracture  should  always  be  looked  for  when  the  causative  violence  has  been 
great.  Comminuted  or  splintered  fractures  are  not  uncommon,  espe- 
cially among  fractures  by  direct  violence,  and  the  splinters  may  be  large. 

The  effusion  into  the  knee-joint  which  is  observed  so  frequently  in 
the  course  of  fractures  of  the  thigh  has  received  particular  attention 
since  1870,  when  Rouge,  of  Lausanne,  first  wrote  concerning  it. 
Among  those  who  have  studied  it  most  carefully  are  Gosselin,^  Berger,* 

1  MUller  :  Deutsche  med.  Wochenschrift,  October  11, 1888. 

2  Selenkow :  St.  Petersbur?  med.  Woch.,  October  8,  1888. 

«  Gosselin :  Cliniqne  de  I'liopital  de  la  Charite.  *  Berger  :  These  de  Paris,  1873. 


336 


FRACTURES. 


Fig.  186. 


Marjoliu,  Alison/  and  Hennequin/  the  two  former  attributing  it  to 
the  passage  of  extravasated  blood  into  the  joint,  the  third  and  fourth 
to  interference  with  the  return  venous  circulation,  and  the  last,  in  com- 
mon with  Verneuil  and  others,  to  an  associated  sprain.  Others  again 
have  sought  the  cause  of  the  effusions  noted  in  the  later  periods  of  the 
case  in  the  prolonged  immobility  and  the  extended  position.  An  appre- 
ciable effusion  makes  its  appearance  in  a  majority  of  the  cases  within 
the  first  three  days  following  the  injury;  it  is 
most  prompt  in  children  and  when  the  frac- 
ture is  in  the  lower  third,  and  is  more  common 
after  fracture  by  indirect  than  after  fracture 
by  direct  violence.  It  disappears  promptly  in 
children,  more  slowly  in  adults,  and  may  per- 
sist for  years. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  pain,  loss  of 
function,  abnormal  mobility,  deformity,  and 
crepitus.  As  the  bone  is  deeply  placed  under 
thick  muscles,  irregularity  in  its  outline  can- 
not be  recognized  by  the  touch;  angular  dis- 
placement can  often  be  readily  recognized  in 
thin  patients  by  the  eye,  but  the  method  of 
examination  which  renders  the  best  service  in 
this  respect  is  the  comparative  measurement 
of  the  two  limbs.  The  fixed  points  commonly 
used  for  this  purpose  are  the  anterior  superior 
spinous  process  of  the  ilium  and  the  tip  of  the 
external  malleolus;  the  rules  for  making  these 
measurements  and  the  precautions  to  be  taken 
to  guard  against  error  have  been  given  in 
Chapter  IV.  and  in  the  preceding  section  of 
this  chapter,  page  3iiO;  the  capital  point  is  to 
make  sure  that  the  two  limbs  form  the  same 
angle  with  the  pelvis,  and  the  best  method  of 
doing  this  is  to  stretch  a  tape  across  the  abdo- 
men from  one  anterior  superior  iliac  spine  to 
the  other,  and  a  second  one  at  right  angles 
to  the  first  from  its  centre  downward,  and 
then  to  place  the  ankles  at  equal  distances  from 
the  second  line.  The  shortening  may  vary 
from  a  small  fraction  of  an  inch  to  two,  four, 
or  even  six  inches. 

Abnormal  mobility  may  be  recognized  by 
placing  the  hand  under  the  thigh  at  the  sus- 
pected seat  of  fracture  and  gently  lifting  it, 
or  by  holding  the  upper  portion  of  the  thigh  down  with  one  hand  and 
gently  lifting  the  leg  or  moving  it  from  side  to  side  with  the  other,  or 
by  observing  whether  the  great  trochanter  moves  with  the  leg  when 


Fracture  of  the  neck  of  the 
femur  and  of  the  shaft.  A  sphn- 
ter,  5  inches  long  and  nearly 
1  inch  wide,  composed  of  the 
cortical  layer,  has  been  turned 
completely  about  its  long  axis 
and  become  united,  with  its 
original  periosteal  surface  in 
contact  with  the  other  frag- 
ments. (Figured  by  Gurlt 
from  the  Museum  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons,  England, 
No.  454.) 


1  Alison :  These  de  Paris. 

"  Hennequin  :  Loo.  cit.,  p.  78.    (See  also  the  discussions  in  the  Bulletins  de  la  Soci6t6  de  Chirur- 
gie,  1878,  pp.  6  and  336.) 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR.  337 

the  latter  is  gently  rotated.  The  examination  for  abnormal  mobility 
and  crepitus  should  be  made  very  gently,  and  should  not  be  prolonged 
if  the  latter  is  not  promptly  obtained. 

Prognosis.  Any  fracture  of  the  femur  is  a  serious  injury  to  this 
extent,  that  its  proper  treatment  makes  confinement  to  the  bed  for 
several  weeks  desirable,  that  it  will  make  it  difficult  for  a  long  time 
for  the  patient  to  get  about  even  with  crutches,  and  that  it  may  lead 
to  shortening  of  the  limb,  even  if  not  to  a  persistent  limp.  It  also 
exposes  to  the  possibility  of  a  fatal  result,  especially  in  the  aged  and 
alcoholic,  and  to  that  of  gangrene  of  the  limb  by  rupture  or  bruising 
of  the  main  vessels  or  by  pressure  upon  them. 

A  simple  fracture  without  displacement,  or  suitably  reduced,  will 
usually  consolidate  in  six  or  seven  weeks  sufficiently  to  allow  the 
patient  to  get  about  on  crutches,  and  he  will  be  able  to  bear  his  weight 
safely  upon  the  limb,  and  to  discard  the  crutclies  in  three  or  four  weeks 
more.  In  exceptional  cases  the  consolidation  may  be  delayed,  and  it 
happens  occasionally  that  a  secondary  fracture  occurs  soon  after  the 
patient  first  leaves  his  bed,  usually  in  consequence  of  a  fall. 

Most  authorities  assert  that  an  oblique  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  the 
femur  cannot  be  cured  without  some  permanent  shortening.  Since  the 
time  of  Desault  the  possibility  of  a  better  result  has  been  claimed  by 
different  surgeons,  and  for  different  dressings,  but  no  method  has  yet 
won  a  general  acceptance  of  its  claim.  While  there  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  the  possibility  of  a  union  without  shortening,  and  while  I  believe 
such  union  has  been  obtained  in  some  cases,  I  do  not  believe  there  is 
any  method  of  treatment  which  can  be  depended  upon  to  secure  it  in 
any  given  case,  for  it  can  never  be  known  in  advance  whether  or  not 
the  patient  will  be  able  to  support  the  traction  and  pressure  necessary 
to  success.  Some  surgeons  have  claimed  an  actual  elongation  of  the 
limb  by  the  use  of  continuous  traction.  Although  a  certain  doubt 
is  thrown  over  such  assertions  by  the  acknowledged  difficulty  of  making 
accurate  measurements,  and  by  the  possibility  of  a  previously  existing 
inequality  in  the  length  of  the  limbs,  the  occurrence  is  not  impossible, 
however  improbable  it  may  be. 

The  persistence  of  some  shortening,  even  an  inch,  does  not  necessarily 
cause  the  patientto  limp,since  it  maybe  compensated  forby  an  inclination 
of  the  pelvis.  The  rigidity  in  the  knee  is  likely  to  persist  for  a  length 
of  time  that  is  greater  if  the  patient  is  older  and  of  a  rheumatic  habit. 

The  prognosis  in  compound  fractures  is  particularly  grave  when  the 
injury  has  been  produced  by  direct  violence;  and  in  a  fracture  of  both 
thighs,  particularly  if  either  is  compound,  the  shock  is  usually  so  great 
as  to  put  the  patient's  life  in  serious  danger. 

Treatment.  The  dressings  now  in  use  for  the  treatment  of  fracture 
of  the  shaft  of  the  femur  are  Buck's  extension,  Hodgen's  suspended 
splint,  the  long  side-splint  or  the  hip-splint,  usually  with  traction, 
encasement  in  plaster  of  Paris,  and  the  double  inclined  plane.  All 
have  been  described  in  detail  in  Chapter  VII.  It  remains  only  to 
note  their  special  advantages  and  indications. 

The  long  side-spltnt  without  traction  should  be  used  only  as 
a  temporary  dressing  during  transport  or  for  a  few  days  at  first  when 

22 


338  FBACTUBES. 

the  condition  of  the  patient — delirium,  shock,  associated  injuries — con- 
traindicates  one  which  would  not  be  sufficiently  restraining,  or  the 
application  of  which  would  be  too  exhausting. 

The  long  side-splint  with  teaction  may  be  used  temporarily 
later  in  the  case  if  the  patient  is  to  be  transported  to  a  distance;  it  is 
cheaper  than  a  hip-splint,  can  be  readily  improvised,  and  as  it  extends 
almost  to  the  axilla  it  insures  greater  immobilization.  Indeed,  the 
immobilization  of  the  trunk,  and  the  consequent  restraint,  is  the  objec- 
tion to  its  general  use.  In  a  somewhat  shorter  form  (Fig.  43),  extend- 
ing only  to  the  waist,  it  is  widely  used  in  England  throughout  the 
course  of  the  case.  Weed's  splint  (Fig.  44)  represents  a  highly 
developed  form,  adjustable  to  limbs  of  different  lengths  and  making 
traction  by  a  spring. 

"  Buck's  extension"  (Fig.  41)  is  the  method  in  general  use  in 
the  United  States  and  very  largely  in  Europe.  It  is  suitable  for  the 
great  majority  of  cases,  except  the  subtrochanteric,  is  easily  borne,  and, 
as  it  permits  a  certain  freedom  of  motion,  promotes  the  comfort  and 
well-being  of  the  patient.  It  also  permits  constant  supervision  of  the 
fracture  and  easy  recognition  of  shortening  or  angular  displacement. 
An  objection  to  it  is  that  the  patient  tends  to  turn  on  the  injured  side 
and  thus  rotate  the  upper  fragment  outward  while  the  lower  one  and 
the  foot  are  kept  upright.  This  can  be  measurably  met  by  a  small 
firm  cushion  behind  the  trochanter,  as  can  also  the  occasional  outward 
rotation  of  the  upper  fragment  by  gravity.  In  the  higher  fractures, 
too,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  maintain  as  much  abduction  of  the  limb 
as  may  be  desirable.  Sagging  of  the  fragments,  with  production  of  a 
backward  or  outward  angular  displacement,  can  be  prevented  by  cush- 
ions or  a  long  posterior  plaster  gutter. 

Hodgen's  suspended  splint  (Fig.  177)  gives  even  greater  comfort 
and  freedom,  permits  greater  variety  in  the  attitude  given  to  the  limb 
— abduction  and  flexion  for  the  higher  fractures — and  allows  the  knee 
to  be  kept  partly  flexed,  an  easier  position.  It  is  specially  advan- 
tageous in  the  older  and  feebler  patients.  I  do  not  think  it  immobilizes 
the  fractures  quite  so  well  as  Buck' s  extension  does,  but  I  have  found 
no  serious  inconvenience  from  this  and  I  use  the  splint  more  and 
more  in  preference  even  to  Buck's,  and  always  in  high  fractures  and 
in  those  of  the  lower  third;  in  the  latter  because  of  the  flexion  of 
the  knee. 

Encasement  in  plaster  of  Paris,  including  the  pelvis,  after 
having  been  widely  used  as  the  preferred  treatment  for  some  years 
after  1870,  has  now  largely  given  place  to  continuous  traction  during 
the  first  month  or  six  weeks,  but  is  still  much  used  in  the  later  stages 
when  displacements  are  no  longer  to  be  much  feared  and  the  patient 
needs  only  to  be  protected  against  accident  while  he  goes  about  on 
crutches  and  awaits  complete  consolidation.  In  cases  of  delayed  union 
it  may  even  permit  the  patient  to  bear  part  of  his  weight  upon  the 
limb  and  thus  hasten  ossification  of  the  bond.  It  is  still  sometimes 
used  from  the  beginning,  and  the  patient  allowed  to  go  about  on 
crutches,  but  marked  displacement  can  occur  under  such  circumstances 
a,nd  the  chance,  in  my  opinion,  should  not  be  taken.     The  absence  of 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


339 


a  fixed  upper  point  of  support  makes  it  easy  for  overriding  and  angular 
displacement  to  occur. 

The  hip-splint,  in  any  of  its  various  forms  (Figs.  187  and  188), 
meets  the  same  indications  more  conveniently,  though  more  expen- 
sively, and  as  it  can  be  combined  with  traction  (as  in  hip-joint  disease) 
it  can  be  safely  used  at  an  earlier  period  in  the  case.  It  is  especially 
convenient  in  cases  of  delayed  union,  for  it  relieves  the  patient  from 
confinement  to  bed. 


Fig.  187. 


Fig.  188. 


Sayre's  traction  hip-splint. 


Phelps's  hip-splint. 


The  double  inclined  plane  (Fig.  45)  is  occasionally  useful  as  a 
temporary  dressing  in  very  severe  injuries  when  the  swelling  is  great 
or  the  circulation  embarrassed;  also  in  compound  fractures  with  so 
much  loss  of  bone  that  traction  is  not  required  to  prevent  overriding; 
I  have  recently  brought  a  very  severe  case  of  the  latter  kind  to  a 
successful  result  by  its  aid  at  the  New  York  Hospital 

The  same  indications  can  be  met  by  a  long  anterior  splint  flexed  at 
the  knee  and  suspended  from  a  horizontal  bar  placed  a  short  distance 
above  it  (Fig.  189).  Such  a  splint  can  be  conveniently  made  of  a 
stout  iron  rod,  like  Smith's  splint  (Fig.  34),  but  it  is  better  to  have 
the  leg  horizontal;  it  permits  an  easy  change  of  the  dressings  of  the 
wound  without  disturbing  the  fragments  but,  like  the  inclined  plane, 
it  cannot  be  trusted  when  traction  is  needed  to  keep  the  fragments  in 
position. 

In  fractures  of   the  upper  third  the  thigh   should  be   flexed  and 


340 


FRACTURES. 


abducted  in  order  that  the  lower  fragment  shall  be  in  line  with  the 
upper  one  which  usually  assumes  this  attitude,  and  for  this  the  Hodgen 
splint  is  the  most  convenient. 


Fig.  189. 


Anterior  suspended  splint,  without  traction,  in  compound  fracture. 


After  jive  or  six  weeks,  in  most  cases,  abnormal  mobility  will  have 
disappeared  or  so  far  diminished  that  traction  is  no  longer  needed; 
angular  displacement  is  then  the  only  one  that  is  likely  to  take  place, 
and  this  can  be  prevented  by  plaster-of-Paris  encasement.  If  the 
abnormal  mobility  has  wholly  disappeared  I  usually  remove  the  appa- 
ratus and  keep  the  patient  in  bed  for  a  few  days  without  any  dressing; 
then  I  apply  a  plaster  dressing,  including  the  pelvis  if  the  fracture  is 
above  the  lower  third,  and  allow  him  to  go  about  on  crutches.  After 
another  fortnight  the  plaster  is  removed. 

In  young  children  vertical  suspension  is  by  far  the  most  convenient 
and  satisfactory  method  of  treatment.  Strips  of  adhesive  plaster  are 
applied,  as  in  Buck's  extension,  to  both  legs  and  attached  by  cords  to 
a  support  immediately  above  the  child  so  that  the  pelvis  rests  lightly 
upon  the  bed  (Fig.  190).  I  have  sometimes  made  this  attachment 
elastic  by  introducing  a  rubber  cord  or  by  using  a  support  with  a  flex- 
ible arm,  but  have  found  no  great  advantage  in  it  and  some  disadvan- 
tage because  of  the  gradual  yielding.  The  fixed  support  is  also  better 
than  the  weight  and  pulley  which  are  sometimes  used.  The  position  is 
well  borne  and  makes  it  easy  to  keep  the  child  dry  and  clean.  The 
contact  with  the  bed  should  be  so  light  that  the  hand  can  be  passed 
easily  under  the  pelvis. 

In  older  children — over  ten  years — I  have  found  Buck's  extension 
the  best,  and  decidedly  preferable  to  the  double  side-splint  recom- 
mended by  Hamilton,  with  which  it  is  difficult  to  prevent  shortening 
and  angular  displacement.  Fairly  firm  union  may  be  expected  in 
three  weeks. 

In  fractures  of  the  lower  third  the  engagement  of  the  lower  end  of 
the  upper  fragment  in  the  quadriceps,  or  even  in  the  overlying  skin, 
adds  greatly  to  the  difficulty  of  reduction.     This  can  sometimes  be 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


341 


Fig.  190. 


made  by  flexing  the  hip  and  the  knee  to  a  right  angle,  thus  drawing 
the  muscles  downward  along  the  penetrating  fragment,  and  then  com- 
pleting the  disengagement  by  strong  traction  in  the  axis  of  the  shaft, 
the  flexion  being  maintained.  If  this  fails  the  skin  and  fascia  mu.st 
be  freely  incised  over  the  end  of  the  fragment,  and  the  bone  disengaged 
by  direct  manipulation.  If  the  point  of  the  bone 
has  perforated  the  skin  the  opening  should  be  en- 
larged, both  to  facilitate  the  disengagement  and 
to  evacuate  the  extravasated  blood.  The  Hodgen 
splint  should  be  preferred  in  the  treatment  of  these 
fractures,  for  it  permits  moderate  flexion  of  the 
knee  and  thus  tends  to  avoid  the  tilting  of  the  lower 
fragment  which  is  so  common  when  the  knee  is  kept 
extended. 

If  the  artery  is  torn  it  may  be  tied  in  the  wound; 
if  the  vein  alone  is  torn  it  may  be  tied,  or,  if  not 
torn  entirely  across,  the  deep  soft  parts  may  be 
sutured  over  it  so  as  to  oppose  escape  of  the  blood, 
and  the  attempt  made  to  save  the  limb,  but  if  gan- 
grene appears  amputation  must  be  done  at  once. 
Division  of  both  artery  and  vein  justifies  immediate 
amputation. 

Delayed  union,  if  the  fragments  are  in  a  fairly 
good  position  and  their  mobility  is  not  great,  is 
best  treated  ordinarily  by  plaster-of-Paris  encase- 
ment, including  the  pelvis,  and  by  bearing  some 
weight  upon  the  limb  with  the  support  of  crutches. 
I  have  seen  union  become  solid  as  late  as  the  sixth 
month. 

In  failure  of  union,  when  the  position  of  the 
fragments  is  bad  and  the  mobility  marked  after 
three  or  four  months,  resection  of  the  ends  and  re- 
adjustment are  required.  I  have  always  made  the 
incision  on  the  outer  side,  cut  the  ends  square,  and  kept  them  in  con- 
tact by  a  suspended  splint  or  by  resting  the  limb  upon  an  inclined 
support  so  that  the  leg  and  lower  fragment  would  constantly  press 
downward  toward  the  upper  one.  Occasionally  I  have  used  plaster 
of  Paris  over  the  primary  dressing  of  the  wound.  For  other  details 
see  Chapter  VIII. 


Vertical  suspension  in 
children. 


3.  FRACTURES  AT  THE  LOWER  END  OF  THE  FEMUR. 

In  this  group  are  here  included  intercondyloid  fractures,  separation 
of  the  lower  epiphysis,  and  fracture  of  either  condyle. 


A.  Intercondyloid  Fractures. 

In  these  fractures  both  condyles  are  separated  from  the  shaft  and 
from  each  other,  the  line  being  T-shaped  or  Y-shaped.     The  fracture 


342 


FRACTURES. 


is  sometimes  classed  as  a  supracondyloid  fracture  with  splitting  of  the 
lower  fragment,  since  that  is  thought  to  be  the  mode  of  production  in 
most  cases;  the  shaft  is  first  broken  and  then  the  upper  fragment  pene- 
trates and  splits  the  lower  (Fig.  192).  The  claim  that  the  fracture  is 
caused  by  a  violence  transmitted  through  the  patella  which  acts  as  a 
wedge  and  splits  off  the  condyles  does  not  bear  the  test  of  experiment 
or  harmonize  with  the  fact  that  in  a  fall  the  blow  is  rarely  received 
upon  the  patella.  Trelat/  in  an  elaborate  article  in  which  it  was  first 
sought  to  give  a  detailed  and  full  account  of  fracture  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  femur,  points  out  that  in  six  cases  of  supracondyloid  fracture 


Fig.  191. 


Fig.  192. 


Intercoudyloid  fracture  of  the  femur. 
(Bryant.) 


Comminuted  fracture  of  the  femur,  with 
splitting  of  the  condyles.    (Gurlt.) 


the  average  age  was  twenty-seven  and  a  half  years,  while  in  thirteen 
cases  of  intercoudyloid  fracture  it  was  forty-eight  and  a  half  years. 
The  number  of  cases  seems  to  me  too  small  to  warrant  the  inference 
that  this  difference  is  an  essential  and  constant  one. 

The  main  line  of  fracture  across  the  shaft  may  be  very  oblique,  as 
in  the  common  fracture  of  the  lower  third,  but  is  usually  more  nearly 
transverse  in  its  general  direction  with  splinterhig  which  makes  the 
surface  irregular,  and  lies  close  to  the  base  of  the  condyles. 

The  line  between  the  condyles  follows  the  intercoudyloid  notch,  and 
is  vertical  and  antero-posterior.  In  a  case  observed  by  N^laton  and 
reported  by  Trelat,^  the  mechanism  of  the  separation  of  the  condyles 
is  shown  plainly,  the  upper  fragment  being  impacted  into  the  lower 
one,  but  mainly  on  the  inner  side,  and  the  separation  of  the  condyles 
merely  a  fissure  (Fig.  193).  Usually,  however,  the  condyles  are  com- 
pletely detached  from  each  other  and  sometimes  separated  far  enough 


1  TriSlat :  Archives  G6n6rales  de  M6d.,  1854,  vol.  ii.  p.  59. 
"  Trelat:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  73. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR.  343 

to  allow  the  patella  to  sink  in  between  them,  and  either  may  be  further 

displaced  backward  than  the  other,  with  a  corresponding  rotation  of  the 

leg  since  the  tibia  retains  its  connection  with  them. 

The  crucial  ligaments  may  be  torn  longitudinally  fxg.  193. 

or  transversely,   and   then  the  attachment  of   the 

tibia  is  less  close. 

The  injury  is  frequently  compound,  from  within 
outward  by  the  end  of  the  upper  fragment,  espe- 
cially when  the  fracture  is  oblique;  dangerous  press- 
ure by  one  or  the  other  fragment  upon  the  popliteal 
vessels  is  not  uncommon,  and  the  vein  and  artery 
have  been  torn,  the  vein  the  more  frequently.  In 
one  of  my  cases — fracture  of  both  femurs  by  a  fall 
of  forty  feet,  the  patient  dying  in  thirty-six  hours — 
one  fracture  was  compound  by  perforation  of  the 
muscle  and  skin  in  front  by  the  upper  fragment,  i^tercondyioid  fracture 
the  other  was  simple,  but  the  popliteal  vein  was  of  femur. 

torn,  and  there  was  a  large  extravasation  of  the 
blood  in  the  thigh.  In  each  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  fragment  was 
very  irregular  but  not  broken  obliquely,  and  there  was  much  commi- 
nution between  it  and  the  condyles;  the  compact  layer  on  the  poste- 
rior face  of  the  bone  was  pressed  in  toward  the  centre  as  if  the  lower 
fragment  had  been  bent  violently  backward  upon  the  other. 

The  recognition  of  the  main  line  of  fracture  is  easy  by  attention  to 
the  usual  signs;  that  of  the  line  between  the  condyles  is  made  by 
noting  the  independent  mobility  of  the  two  condyles  on  each  other 
when  they  are  grasped  and  moved  backward  and  forward,  and  pain 
when  they  are  pressed  together  laterally. 

Shortening  of  the  limb  is  common,  but  the  sign  is  one  that  is  seldom 
needed  for  the  diagnosis;  in  an  impacted  fracture  it  might  be  useful  in 
distinguishing  the  lesion  from  fracture  of  one  condyle  alone. 

Enlargement  of  the  knee  by  separation  of  the  condyles  is  rare,  or 
at  least  is  difficult  of  recognition;  on  the  other  hand,  enlargement  by 
effusion  or  hemorrhage  into  the  joint  is  constant. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  is  serious  as  regards  both  the  life  of  the 
patient  and  the  integrity  of  the  joint.  Of  26  cases  collected  by  Hen- 
nequin  7  died,  3  were  amputated,  and  16  recovered.  The  gravity  of 
the  injury  depends  mainly  upon  the  implication  of  the  joint  and  the 
traumatic  arthritis  excited  thereby,  which  may  easily  end  in  suppura- 
tion and  which  in  any  case  is  very  likely  to  result  in  more  or  less  stiff- 
ness. 

Treatment.  As  the  tendency  to  overriding  and  angular  displacement 
(except  when  the  main  fracture  is  oblique)  is  not  so  marked  as  in  the 
higher  fractures,  continuous  traction  need  not  be  so  vigorous  or  so  pro- 
longed. I  prefer  the  position  of  slight  flexion  of  the  knee  and  there- 
fore habitually  use  the  Hodgen  splint.  Or  the  limb  may  be  simply 
kept  on  a  double  inclined  plane,  or  suspended  by  an  anterior  splint  or 
a  wire  gutter,  or  encased  in  plaster  or  in  plaster  splints  (Fig.  194), 

Because  of  the  length  of  the  limb  above  the  fracture  and  the  more 
secure  hold  thereby  given  to  a  splint,  the  limb  may  be  put  in  plaster  or 


344 


FRACTURES. 


in  splints  and  the  patient  allowed  to  leave  the  bed  earlier  than  in  other 
fractures  of  the  shaft. 

Injury  to  the  popliteal  vessels  may  necessitate  amputation.     The 
indication  is  given  by  the  appearance  of  gangrene  of  the  leg  or  by 


Fig.  194. 


Plaster  splints.    A  is  a  wire  bent  into  loops  for  the  purpose  of  suspension. 

direct  recognition  of  the  injury  to  the  vessels.  It  may  be  proper  at 
the  beginning  in  a  compound  case  to  try  to  save  the  limb  by  ligature 
of  the  torn  artery  or  by  suturing  the  deep  soft  parts  over  the  vein  if 
that  is  only  partly  torn  across;  if  both  are  torn  immediate  amputation 
is  justifiable. 

B.  Separation  of  the  Epiphysis. 

Traumatic  separation  of  the  lower  epiphysis  of  the  femur  is  far  more 
frequent  than  that  of  any  other,  and  nearly  a  hundred  cases  have  been 
reported  and  collected  by  various  surgeons.  The  first  paper  dealing 
specifically  with  separation  of  this  epiphysis  was  a  very  complete  one 
by  Delens.^  Later  ones  are  by  J.  H.  Packard/  J.  Hutchinson,  Jr./ 
E.  H.  Harte/  A.  H.  Meisenbach/  and  Charles  McBurney.'^ 

Although  the  epiphysis  may  not  unite  with  the  shaft  before  the 
twenty-fifth  year,  the  reported  cases  have  all  been  in  patients  under 
twenty  years  of  age. 

Cause.  The  cause  in  almost  all  cases  has  been  great  violence,  extend- 
ing or  abducting  the  knee,  and  in  a  singularly  large  proportion  of  cases 
it  has  been  the  engagement  of  the  leg  between  the  spokes  of  a  revolving 
wheel.  In  one  or  two  cases  the  injury  has  been  inflicted  upon  the 
infant  during  delivery  by  the  feet  and  has  then  been  attributed,  but 

1  Delens  :  Archives  GcSnerales  de  M6decine,  1884,  vol.  xiii.  p.  272. 

2  Packard  :  Annals  of  Gynecology  and  Psediatry,  November,  1890. 

3  Hutchinson  :  British  Medical  Journal,  December,  1894,  p.  671. 
*  Harte :  Transactions  American  Surgical  Association,  1895. 

5  Meisenbach:  Medical  Record,  Octobers,  1895. 
s  McBurney  :  Annals  of  Surgery,  March,  1896. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  FEMUR.  345 

probably  incorrectly,  to  direct  traction.  In  a  few  cases  the  injury  has 
been  caused  in  attempts  to  straighten  a  stiff  knee  or  in  osteoclasis  for 
deformity. 

Pathology.  The  separation,  as  is  the  rule  also  at  other  points,  takes 
place  between  the  conjugal  cartilage  and  the  diaphysis,  is  usually  com- 
plete and  clean,  but  sometimes  leaves  attached  to  the  epiphysis  one  or 
more  scales  broken  from  the  diaphysis  or  diverges  to  pass  through  a 
portion  of  the  diaphysis.  The  periosteum  is  always  freely  stripped  from 
the  shaft,  often  for  several  inches,  remaining  attached  to  the  epiphysis 
as  an  irregular  sleeve.  In  a  few  cases  the  epiphysis  has  in  addition 
been  split  longitudinally  between  the  condyles. 

The  common  displacement  is  of  the  epiphysis  forward  and  to  one 
side,  usually  the  inner,  corresponding  apparently  to  production  by 
hyper-extension  of  the  knee;  in  other  cases  it  has  been  to  the  inner  or 
the  outer  side,  doubtless  when  produced  by  abduction  or  adduction. 
When  displaced  forward  it  has  also  passed  upward  u])on  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  shaft.  In  a  few  cases  it  has  been  rotated  about  the  ver- 
tical axis  so  that  one  condyle  presented  in  the  popliteal  space,  in  others 
about  a  transverse  axis  so  that  the  surface  of  separation  was  directed 
backward. 

The  knee-joint  is  not  often  involved,  but  sometimes  the  capsule  is 
torn  and  the  joint  filled  with  blood  and  exudate. 

In  a  large  proportion  of  cases  the  injury  has  been  compound,  the 
lower  end  of  the  shaft  projecting  through  the  skin  on  the  side  or  in 
the  popliteal  space.  The  popliteal  vessels  have  been  torn  or,  more 
frequently,  so  pressed  upon  that  circulation  was  interrupted  or  seri- 
ously diminished.  In  one  case  a  popliteal  aneurism  appeared  several 
years  later  and  was  attributed  to  the  accident. 

In  some,  even  of  the  cases  which  were  not  compound,  suppuration 
has  ensued;  in  others  the  pressure  of  the  end  of  the  fragment  has 
caused  the  skin  to  slough,  and  in  others  gangrene  of  the  leg  followed. 

In  a  few  cases  of  recovery  without  displacement  arrest  or  diminution 
of  growth  has  been  observed.  Puzey*  noted  in  a  lad  sixteen  years  old 
at  the  time  of  the  accident  shortening  of  one  inch  three  years  later. 
In  other  cases  examined  with  reference  to  this  point  growth  has  not 
been  interfered  with. 

Symptoms.  Examination  under  anaesthesia  should  make  it  possible, 
unless  the  swelling  is  too  great,  to  establish  the  identity  of  the  two 
fragments  and  their  relations  to  each  other,  to  recognize  that  one  is  the 
lower  end  of  the  shaft  and  the  other  the  epiphysis  in  normal  relations 
with  the  tibia.  This  excludes  dislocati(m;  and  then  the  distinction, 
not  a  practically  important  one,  between  low  fracture  through  the  shaft 
and  separation  of  the  epiphysis  is  made  by  the  character  of  the  crepitus 
— bony  in  one  case,  cartilaginous  in  the  other — the  age  of  the  patient, 
and  the  relations  of  the  line  of  fracture  to  the  adductor  tubercle  which 
immediately  adjoins  the  conjugal  cartilage. 

When  the  injury  is  compound  the  denudation  of  the  shaft  and  the 
regular,  slightly  curved  surface  of  its  end  demonstrate  its  character. 

1   Puzey  :  Liverpool  Medico-Chirurgical  Journal,  January,  1885,  p.  41. 


346  FRACTURES. 

Rupture  of,  or  pressure  upon,  the  artery  is  shown  by  the  absence  of 
pulsation  in  the  vessels  below;  rupture  of  the  vein  might  be  suspected 
if  the  bleeding  was  profuse  and  venous,  but  could  be  demonstrated  only 
by  direct  inspection. 

Treatment.  The  recorded  cases  show  a  very  large  proportion  of  am- 
putations, primary  or  secondary,  and  of  deaths  from  shock,  infection, 
and  operation,  but  it  seems  reasonable  to  believe,  especially  in  view  of 
some  of  the  later  cases,  that  the  future  will  show  much  better  results. 
Patients  have  suffered  in  the  past  both  from  infection,  which  can  now 
be  more  generally  avoided,  and  from  a  consequent  reluctance  to  take 
the  chances  of  conservative  treatment  in  compound  injuries  or  to  make 
an  incision  in  the  simple  ones  in  order  to  effect  reduction.  Some  of 
the  amputations  have  clearly  been  justified,  and  will  still  be  justified 
in  similar  cases,  by  the  extent  of  the  injury  to  the  soft  parts,  but  I 
feel  sure  that  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  compound  injuries  will 
be  successfully  treated  with  preservation  of  the  limb,  and  of  the  simple 
ones  with  restoration  of  form  and  function.  Dr.  McBurney's  two 
cases  are  particularly  encouraging. 

If,  in  a  simple  case  uncomplicated  by  injury  to  the  vessels,  complete 
reduction  of  the  displacement  cannot  be  made  by  traction  and  manip- 
ulation, it  would  be  not  only  proper,  but,  I  think,  imperative,  to  expose 
the  fracture  by  a  longitudinal  incision,  preferably  on  the  outer  side  in 
front  of  the  tendon  of  the  biceps,  in  order  to  overcome  the  obstacle, 
which  would  doubtless  be  the  interposed  periosteum  and  perhaps  some 
muscular  bundles. 

In  a  compound  case  free  enlargement  of  the  wound  in  the  skin  and 
fascia  would  probably  make  reduction  possible  without  the  aid  of  resec- 
tion of  the  end  of  the  shaft.  If  the  injury  to  the  vessels  is  such  that 
the  vitality  of  the  limb  cannot  be  preserved,  amputation  must  be  done, 
and  it  should  be  as  low  as  the  condition  of  the  soft  parts  will  permit, 
that  is,  through  or  a  short  distance  above  the  fracture.  It  seems  even 
possible  that  in  some  cases  the  amputation  might  be  done  a  short  dis- 
tance below  the  knee  so  as  to  preserve  that  joint  to  the  patient. 

C.  Fracture  of  Either  Condyle. 

Fracture  of  a  single  condyle  may  be  caused  by  direct  violence,  as  in 
a  fall  upon  the  bent  knee,  or  by  avulsion,  the  force  being  exerted 
through  one  of  the  lateral  ligaments  to  tear  off  one  condyle  by 
bending  the  leg  toward  the  opposite  side,  or  by  the  direct  pressure  of 
the  head  of  the  tibia  against  tlie  condyle  on  the  side  toward  which  the 
leg  is  bent.  In  a  case  reported  by  A.  H.  Crosby^  the  fracture  was 
caused  by  a  twist  of  the  leg  while  the  patient,  a  youth  of  twenty-one 
years,  was  resting  his  entire  weight  upon  it. 

The  specimens  of  fracture  of  a  single  condyle  are  not  numerous,  but 
they  show  that  the  line  may  run  for  a  considerable  distance  upward 
from  the  intercondyloid  notch  so  that  the  fragment  terminates  above  in 
a  long  point,  or  it  may  turn  abruptly  above  the  edge  of  the  articular 

1  Crosby :  New  Hampshire  Journal  of  Medicine,  1857. 


FBAGTUBES  OF  THE  FEMUR. 


347 


Fig.  195. 


Fracture  of  the  internal 
condyle  of  the  femur. 


cartilage  toward  the  side  of  the  bone,  as  in  Fig.  195,  wliich  represents 
a  specimen  given  to  the  Dupuytren  Museum  by  A^erneuil;  in  this  case 
the  periosteum  on  the  inner  side  and  the  crucial  ligaments  were  untorn 
and  the  fragment  was  not  displaced/ 

The  fragment  may  be  displaced  upward,  or  to  one  side,  or  it  may  be 
swung  around  so  as  to  lie  partly  behind  or  partly  in  front  of  the  femur, 
usually  the  former.  As  it  remains  attached  to 
the  tibia  the  first  and  third  displacements  are 
indicated  by  the  posture  of  the  leg,  the  second, 
which  is  very  rare,  by  the  greater  breadth  of  the 
knee. 

As  the  displacement  is  usually  slight,  and  the 
connections  untorn,  the  injury  may  easily  be  over- 
looked, or,  if  suspected,  not  recognized  with  cer- 
tainty. In  a  case  under  the  care  of  Gosselin 
(quoted  by  Tr61at)  the  patient  was  treated  for 
more  than  a  month  for  a  supposed  arthritis  of  the 
knee;  he  grew  weaker  daily  and  died  of  exhaus- 
tion. At  the  autopsy  the  joint  was  found  full  of 
pus  and  one  of  the  condyles  broken.  The  frag- 
ments were  in  exact  apposition,  but  there  was  no 
sign  of  repair.  The  diagnosis  must  be  made  upon 
the  localized  pain,  ecchymosis,  loss  of  function, 
and  abnormal  mobility  and  crepitus,  recognized 
by  direct  manipulation  of  the  condyle  or  by 
moving  the  leg  laterally  or  in  the  direction  of  flexion  and  extension. 

The  reported  cases  show  a  remarkable  variety  in  their  course  and 
terminations.  Some  patients  have  recovered  without  greater  reaction 
than  would  be  expected  after  a  simple  non-articular  fracture;  in  others 
the  joint  has  suppurated,  and  the  case  has  terminated  fatally;  in  Dr. 
Crosby's  case  the  fragment  was  removed  six  months  afterward,  by 
operation,  and  the  patient  made  a  complete  recovery;  and  in  a  case 
first  seen  by  Hamilton  three  months  after  the  injury,  the  fragment 
remained  ununited  and  could  be  moved  upward  half  an  inch  with  dis- 
tinct crepitus  and  pain  by  flexing  the  knee.  During  the  next  two  years 
the  usefulness  of  the  limb  increased  steadily. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  consists  in  reduction  of  such  displacement 
as  may  exist  by  acting  upon  the  fragment  through  the  lateral  ligament 
and  the  leg,  and  prevention  of  its  recurrence  by  keeping  the  leg  fixed 
in  the  position  to  which  it  has  been  brought  in  making  the  reduction. 
As  the  lateral  ligaments  are  tense  when  the  knee  is  extended,  and  relaxed 
when  it  is  flexed,  the  extended  position  is  the  one  which  gives  most 
security.  The  objection  urged  by  Malgaigne,  that  it  favors  anchylosis, 
is,  I  think,  unfounded;  we  know  that  the  common  cause  of  anchylosis 
lies  in  the  severity  or  the  prolongation  of  an  arthritis,  not  in  the  posi- 
tion in  which  the  joint  is  kept.  In  the  flexed  position  of  the  knee  a 
slight  displacement  upward  of  the  fragment  could  occur  easily,  and  it 
would  certainly  pass  unrecognized  so  long  as  the  position  was  kept. 


1  Tr61at:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  69. 


348  FRACTURES. 

and  would  show  itself  in  abduction  or  adduction  of  the  leg  as  soon  as 
it  was  extended.  I  prefer,  therefore,  to  treat  a  case  in  the  extended 
position  upon  a  posterior  splint  or  in  a  plaster  bandage.  After  three 
or  four  weeks  the  knee  may  be  partly  flexed  if  the  fragment  has  lost 
its  mobility. 

Massage  is  useful  to  shorten  the  period  of  convalescence  and  hasten 
the  restoration  of  function.  Incision  of  the  joint  for  the  removal  of 
a  large  amount  of  blood  from  it  could  probably  be  safely  done  and 
would  diminish  the  chance  of  limitation  of  motion. 


CHAPTEE  XXIV. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE  PATELLA. 

According  to  published  records  fractures  of  the  patella  represent 
from  one  to  two  per  cent,  of  all  fractures.  They  are  much  more  fre- 
quent in  men  than  in  women,  and  in  middle  life  than  in  childhood  or 
old  age.  The  youngest  of  Malgaigne's  patients  was  eleven  years  old, 
and  he  knew  of  no  other  younger  than  seventeen  years.  The  youngest 
patient  in  the  127  cases  collected  by  Hamilton  was  five  years  old,  and 
the  fracture  was  very  different  from  the  usual  one  since  only  a  small 
piece  was  broken  from  the  margin  of  the  hone  by  a  direct  blow;  his 
next  youngest  case  was  sixteen  years  old,  and  in  this  also  the  fracture 
was  by  direct  violence.      Dittmer^  reports  one  in  a  boy  nine  years  old. 

Causes.  The  cause  may  be  direct  or  indirect,  a  blow  or  a  fall  upon 
the  patella  or  the  sudden  vigorous  contraction  of  the  quadriceps  femoris, 
or  the  sudden  flexing  of  the  knee  against  the  opposition  of  the  quadri- 
ceps. The  statistics  that  have  been  collected  to  show  the  relative  fre- 
quency of  these  varieties  vary  widely  and  are,  I  think,  untrustworthy 
because  of  the  difficulty,  or  rather  the  impossibility,  in  many  cases  of 
recognizing  the  mode  in  which  the  fracture  has  been  produced.  The 
patient  slips  or  stumbles,  makes  an  effort  to  save  himself,  falls,  and 
the  patella  is  found  to  be  broken.  He  is  unable  to  say  whether  he 
struck  upon  the  patella  or  upon  the  tuberosity  of  the  tibia,  whether 
directly  in  front  or  upon  the  side,  or,  and  this  I  have  often  met  w^ith, 
he  asserts  that  he  fell  upon  the  patella  because  he  knows  it  is  broken, 
and  cannot  understand  that  the  lesion  could  have  been  produced  in  any 
other  way.  If  the  examination  is  pushed,  and  the  question  asked, 
^^  How  do  you  know  it?"  the  answer  is  often,  '^  Why,  it  must  have 
been  so." 

My  own  conviction  is  that  the  efficient  agent  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases  is  the  contraction  of  the  quadriceps,  either  directly  or  by  the 
opposed  flexion  of  the  knee,  and  the  grounds  for  this  belief  are  the 
numerous  cases  in  which  this  mode  of  production  can  be  clearly  demon- 
strated, the  practical  impossibility  of  producing  any  but  a  comminuted 
fracture  experimentally  by  direct  violence,  and  the  position  of  the 
patella,  which  is  such  that  the  blow  is  rarely  received  upon  it  in  a  fall. 

The  question  whether  muscular  contraction  breaks  it  by  direct  trac- 
tion or  by  bending  it  over  the  convexity  of  the  condyles  is  of  purely 
academical  interest,  and  in  most  cases  it  cannot  be  answered  positively 
because  the  position  of  the  bone  at  the  moment  of  fracture  with  refer- 
ence to  the  condyles  cannot  be  known.  In  a  few  cases  the  fracture  has 
been  caused,  beyond  question,  by  simple  traction  without  bending  or 
cross-strain,  as  in  a  case  reported  by  Grarreau^  in  which  a  second  frac- 

1  Dittmer :  Langenbeck's  Archives,  vol.  lii.  -  Garreau  :  Revue  M(5dieo-Chirurg.,  1853,  p.  375. 


350 


FRACTURES. 


ture  by  muscular  action  occurred  in  the  upper  fragment  twelve  years 
after  the  first  fracture  had  healed  with  a  separation  of  four  centimetres 
(If  inches).  In  others  it  is  equally  certain  that  the  traction  of  the  liga- 
mentum  patellae  was  inclined  somewhat  backward  from  the  vertical  axis 
of  the  patella,  the  fracture  taking  place  when  the  limb  was  partly  flexed. 

The  common  clinical  form  is  a  vigorous  contraction  of  the  quadri- 
ceps, either  simply  in  voluntary  use  of  the  limb  or  aided  by  forced 
flexion  of  the  knee  by  forces  which  overcome  the  opposition  of  the 
muscles.  Thus,  a  man  jumps  and  breaks  the  patella,  or  he  fails  in  an 
effort  to  avoid  a  fall  and  the  leg  is  bent  under  him,  or,  as  in  a  case  of 
my  own,  he  seeks  to  push  a  heavy  box  with  his  foot  resting  against  its 
side  and  the  knee  partly  flexed,  the  foot  slips  down,  the  flexion  of  the 
knee  is  sharply  increased  thereby,  and  the  bone  is  broken.  This  forcible 
flexion  is  a  frequent  cause  of  early  refracture  while  motion  is  still 
limited  and  the  descent  of  the  upper  fragment  prevented  by  adhesions 
or  periarticular  thickening. 

In  a  few  cases  there  is  reason  to  think  that  a  blow  upon  the  bone 
has  cracked  it  or  orginated  some  process  in  it  by  which  its  complete 
fracture  by  muscular  action  shortly  afterward  was  made  easy. 

Pathology.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  by  indirect  violence  the 
fracture  is  transverse  or  slightly  oblique,  and  usually  at  or  just  below 


Fig.  196. 


Fig.  197. 


Unusual  form  of  fracture  of  patella,    a,  anterior  surface  ; 
B,  mesial  section. 


Comminuted  fracture  of  the 
patella.  Bony  union.  Exuber. 
ant    callus   at   several  points- 

(GUELT.) 


the  middle  of  the  bone;  sometimes  it  lies  very  near  one  end  of  the 
bone,  especially  the  lower,  and  once  or  twice  I  have  seen  it  crossing  and 
separating  only  the  upper  inner  corner.  I  have  occasionally  seen  the 
lower  fragment  split  longitudinally,  and  I  have  seen  one  case  (Fig. 
196)  in  which  on  inspection  through  an  incision  the  surface  of  fracture 
was  found  to  be  very  oblique  downward  and  backward  and  was  also 
curved  downward  on  the  anterior  aspect.  Parke'  reports  a  somewhat 
similar  one  seen  two  months  after  the  accident;  the  injury  was  appar- 
ently caused  by  direct  lateral  pressure,  and  the  upper  and  posterior 
fragment,  comprising  nearly  half  the  bone,  lay  wholly  above  the  other. 
Vertical,  comminuted,  and  some  oblique  fractures  are  due  to  direct 
violence,  and  rarely  show  much  displacement. 


1  Parke :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  March,  1893,  p.  303. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PATELLA.  351 

The  displacement  after  transverse  fracture  is  ordinarily  well  marked, 
its  degree  being  modified  by  the  extent  to  which  the  periosteum  and 
lateral  expansions  are  torn.  Occasionally  there  is  none.  The  separa- 
tion, which  may  be  an  inch  or  more,  is  due  in  part  to  the  retraction  of 
the  quadriceps  and  the  tension  of  the  fascia  lata  and  in  part  to  disten- 
tion of  the  joint  by  blood  and  exudate.  While  the  injury  is  fresh  the 
quadriceps,  even  when  actively  contracted,  can  rarely  separate  the  frag- 
ments for  more  than  a  short  distance  when  the  knee  is  fully  extended 
and  the  hip  somewhat  flexed.  Later,  if  the  fragments  remain  ununited, 
the  gradual  shortening  of  the  muscles  increases  the  interval. 

A  third  cause,  which  acts  less  promptly,  is  the  gradual  retraction  of 
the  ligamentum  patella;  in  one  of  Malgaigne's'  old  cases  it  was  short- 
ened one-half,  measuring  only  three  centimetres,  and  in  one  reported 
by  Brunner^  it  was  shortened  from  five  and  a  half  to  one  and  a  half 
centimetres. 

Occasionally  the  lower  fragment  is  so  rotated  that  its  fractured  sur- 
face is  directed  forward. 

The  other  displacements  are  more  readily  recognizable  later.  They 
are  lateral  displacement  and  angular  displacement,  the  angle  pointing 
forward,  backward,  or  to  one  side.  Lateral  angular  displacement 
appears  to  be  commonly  the  result  of  uneven  stretching  of  the  fibrous 
union  after  the  patient  begins  to  use  the  limb;  anterior  angular  dis- 
placement is  not  only  produced  by  the  pressure  of  pads  or  bandages 
above  and  below  the  fragments  when  the  latter  are  in  contact,  or  nearly 
so,  but  it  is  also  the  inevitable  effect  of  separation  by  distention  of  the 
joint,  and  may  apparently  be  caused  by  cicatricial  retraction  of  the 
lateral  soft  parts.  I  have  seen  in  skiagrams  the  upper  fragment 
turned  so  that  its  factured  surface  was  directed  backward.  (Plate 
XIV.,  fig.  1.) 

The  associated  injuries  to  the  soft  parts  have  become  well  known 
through  the  opportunities  for  direct  inspection  furnished  by  frequent 
resort  of  late  to  open  arthrotomy  in  treatment.  They  involve  the 
fibro-periosteal  envelope  of  the  front  of  the  bone,  the  lateral  expan- 
sions and  capsule  on  the  sides,  and  the  fascial  expansions  downward. 

The  fibro-periosteal  layer  on  the  front  of  the  bone  is  usually  torn  at 
a  level  different  in  part  from  that  of  the  fracture  and  rather  irregularly, 
so  that  it  projects  from  the  edge  of  one  or  the  other  fragment,  usually 
the  upper,  as  a  ragged  fringe,  sometimes  fully  half  an  inch  wide,  which 
drops  over  the  fractured  surface  and  is  thus  interposed  between  the 
fragments  when  they  are  brought  together.  Macewen  was  the  first  to 
call  special  attention  to  this  fringe  and  to  suggest  that  it  might  be  a 
bar  to  close,  firm  union.  It  is  sometimes  notably  supplemented  by  one 
or  more  long  strips  of  fascia  (I  have  seen  them  more  than  four  inches 
long)  attached  to  the  upper  fragment  and  drawn  up  from  the  region 
immediately  below,  lying  curled  up  in  the  joint  between  the  fragments. 
The  lateral  expansions  and  the  capsule  are  freely  torn  on  each  side 
transversely,  except  in  the  rare  cases  without  separation. 

The  fracture  may  be  made  compound  by  direct  violence  or  by  tearing 

1  Malgaigne  :  Atlas,  Plate  xiv.,  Fig.  4,  and  p.  17. 

2  Brunner:  Deutsche  med.  Wochenschrift,  May  17, 1888. 


352 


FRACTURES. 


Fig.  198. 


of  the  skin  in  the  separation  of  the  fragments  when  it  has  become 
adherent  to  the  patella  by  an  inflammatory  or  cicatricial  process.  The 
common  instances  of  the  latter  are  in  refracture,  especially  after  opera- 
tive treatment  of  the  first  fracture;  much  more  rarely  in  a  primary 
fracture  after  a  wound  of  the  skin  which  has  not  entirely  healed. 

Symptoms.  In  fractures  by  muscular  action,  with  or  without  a  fall, 
a  sharp  crack  may  be  heard  and  the  patient  is  usually  unable  to  use  his 
limb.  In  a  few  cases  he  has  walked,  and,  indeed,  in  most  it  is  possible 
to  walk  backward,  keeping  the  knee  extended  by  the  pressure  of  the 
heel  on  the  ground,  or  even  to  walk  forward  if  the  uninjured  limb  is 
advanced  and  the  other  swung  up  to  it  but  not  beyond  it. 

The  knee  becomes  promptly  swollen  by  an  effusion  of  blood  or 
synovia  into  it  and  by  tumefaction  of  the  soft  parts,  especially  if  a 
blow  has  been  received  upon  it,  and  the  two  fragments,  separated 
usually  by  a  well-marked  interval,  can  be  made  out  and  their  inde- 
pendent mobility  recognized.  This  mobility  may  be  very  slight  if  the 
fragments  are  close  together.  Crepitus  can  often  be  felt  when  the  frag- 
ments are  pressed  together. 

The  subjective  symptoms  are  moderate  pain  when  the  limb  is  at 
rest,  increased  by  movement  and  by  pressing  the  fragments  together 
and  by  pressure  along  the  edge  of  a  fragment,  and  inability  actively 
to  extend  the  leg  or  to  raise  the  heel  from  the  bed.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  in  rare,  entirely  exceptional,  cases  the  fibrous  covering  of  the 
bone  may  remain  untorn  and  constitute  a  suffi- 
cient connection  between  the  fragments  to  make 
a  limited  use  of  the  limb  possible. 

In  vertical  or  comminuted  fractures  the  signs 
recognized  by  palpation  will  vary  in  accordance 
with  the  differences  in  the  lines  of  the  fracture, 
and  in  the  former  active  extension  will  be  pre- 
vented only  by  the  pain  attending  the  effort. 

Course  and  Termination.  The  region  swells 
promptly,  partly  by  reaction  of  the  overlying 
soft  parts,  partly  by  the  distention  of  the  joint 
by  blood  and  synovia;  the  swelling  can  be  largely 
prevented  or  rapidly  reduced  by  methodical 
pressure,  preferably  by  an  elastic  bandage. 

If  the  fragments  are  kept  fairly  well  together 
and  if  neither  is  tilted  a  fibrous  bond  forms  be- 
tween them  which  may  ossify  wholly  or  in  part 
if  the  contact  is  very  exact  (Fig.  198  and  Plates 
XIII.  and  XV.),  but  which  in  cases  not  treated 
by  operation  almost  always  remains  fibrous  and 
usually  lengthens  somewhat  under  use  during  the  first  few  months. 
Even  in  some  operative  cases  which  have  again  come  to  direct  inspec- 
tion after  many  months  the  union  which  was  so  close  that  no  inde- 
pendent mobility  could  be  recognized  has  been  found  to  be  fibrous. 
Most  of  the  skiagrams  I  have  taken  have  shown  bony  union  only  in 
the  posterior  half  or  three-fourths.  They  also  show  an  angular  dis- 
placement producing  a  slight  concavity  of  the  articular  surface  which. 


Bony  union  after  fracture 
of  the  patella.  Specimen  201 
of  the  Mus6e  Dupuytren, 


PLATE   XIII. 


Fig.  1. — Fracture  of  Carpal  Scaphoid. 


Fig.  2. — Patella,  three  months  after  Periosteal  Suture  of  Fracture. 


PLATE  XIV. 


Fig.  1. 


-Fracture  of  Patella,  S  months  old;    after  Treatment  by  Straight  Splint. 
Active  Extension  almost  complete. 


Fig.  2.— Fracture  of  Patella;    two  years  after  Mediate   Suture. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PATELLA. 


353 


according  to  Chaput/  favors  full  restoration  of  function.  If  the  frag- 
ments are  not  kept  together,  or  if  one  is  turned  so  that  its  fractured 
surface  is  directed  forward  or  backward,  the  union  between  them  is  by 
a  bond  formed  mainly  by  the  overlying  soft  parts  (Fig.  199),  but  some- 
times by  a  thicker  one  apparently  of  new  formation  (Fig.  200);  it 
seems  probable  that  the  latter  form 

is  produced  by  the  elongation  of  a  fig.  199.  fig.  200. 

shorter  bond  formed  under  favor- 
able conditions  of  proximity  and 
position. 

Hypertrophy  of  the  fragments 
is  frequently  noticed  and  some- 
times appears  mechanically  to  limit 
flexion  of  the  knee;  occasionally 
also  bony  nodules,  sometimes  quite 
large,  form  within  the  connecting 
band. 

On  the  first  attempts  to  use 
the  limb,  whether  these  are  made 
promptly  or  only  after  a  month  or 
two,  the  joint  is  found  to  be  very 
stiff,  but  usually  the  range  in- 
creases quite  rapidly  and  full  ac- 
tive flexion  and  extension  are  ulti- 
mately re-established.  In  a  cer- 
tain, not  large,  proportion  of  cases 
there  is  notable  loss  of  function  : 
either  inability  fully  to  flex,  or 
almost  complete  loss  of  active  ex- 
tension although  the  joint  is  freely 
movable,  or  inability  to  make  com- 
plete active  extension,  the  limb 
remaining  slightly  flexed. 

These  disabilities  coincide  with  and  presumably  depend  upon  the 
varying  conditions  of  the  fragments  and  uniting  bond  which  have  been 
described. 

Inability  to  flex  appears  to  be  largely  due  to  retraction  of  the  portion 
of  the  capsule  attached  to  the  upper  fragment  and  of  the  fascia  lata  on  the 
outer  side,  especially  of  the  upper  side  of  the  rent  in  the  lateral  expan- 
sion, and  sometimes  to  enlargement  of  the  patella,  itself  the  result  of 
hypertrophy  of  the  fragments  or  of  a  short  stiff  bond  between  them 
which  makes  the  bone  too  long  to  turn  over  the  curve  of  the  condyles. 
Retraction  of  the  quadriceps  seems  not  to  be  an  important  factor  in 
this  disability.     (See  also  the  section  on  Disability  After  Fracture.) 

Loss  of  active  extension,  when  marked  and  when  combined  "with 
free  flexion,  is  due  to  insufficient  union  between  the  fragments  and  the 
absence  of  complementary  fascial  connections  between  the  quadriceps 
and  the  leg,  such  as  are  found  in  some  cases.      It  is  remarkable  that 


Fibrous  union  with  great 
separation,  after  fracture 
of  the  patella.  The  band 
adheres  to  the  broken  sur- 
face of  the  lower  fragment. 
(Holmes's  System.) 


M 


Long  fibrous 
union. 


1  Chaput :  These  de  Paris,  1885,  and  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anat.,  April, 

23 


8,  p.  459. 


354  FRACTURES. 

this  loss  interferes  so  slightly  with  ordinary  use  of  the  limb  in  most 
cases;  the  patients  often  walk  easily  and  securely,  although  they  are 
exposed  to  fall  whenever  their  weight  rests  only  on  the  partly  flexed 
limb.  They  seem  instinctively  to  depend  upon  the  sound  limb  when- 
ever the  use  of  the  damaged  one  would  be  unsafe.  There  is  difficulty 
in  going  up  and  down  stairs  and  in  rising  from  a  seat.     In  the  case 

Fig.  201. 


Extreme  separation  of  the  fragments  after  fracture  of  the  patella. 

represented  in  Fig.  201  the  patient  claimed  not  to  be  aware  of  any 
noteworthy  defect  in  the  limb  although  active  extension  was  almost 
entirely  absent. 

The  common  defect  is  slight  limitation  of  active  extension,  the 
patient  being  unable  to  raise  the  heel  from  the  bed  without  first 
slightly  flexing  the  knee. 

Degeneration  of  the  quadriceps  in  direct  consequence  of  the  trauma 
has  been  alleged  as  a  cause  of  diminution  of  the  power  of  active  exten- 
sion, and  has  been  used  as  an  argument  for  early  resort  to  massage. 

Rupture  of  the  uniting  band  or  bone  (^'refracture")  is  not  infrequent 
in  the  first  few  months,  or  even  much  later  when  flexion  has  remained 
limited.  The  cause  is  always  forcible  flexion  of  the  knee  beyond  the 
range  that  has  been  acquired,  as  in  a  fall;  it  has  occasionally  been 
caused  by  the  surgeon  in  an  attempt  to  increase  the  range  by  passive 
motion.  The  mechanism  is  the  pulling  away  of  the  lower  fragment, 
the  corresponding  descent  of  the  upper  being  prevented  by  the  pre- 
viously mentioned  conditions.  Occasionally  the  soft  parts,  including 
the  skin,  have  been  so  adherent  that  the  rupture  has  involved  them 
also,  thus  freely  opening  the  joint.  In  the  past  such  an  accident  was 
frequently  followed  by  suppuration  of  the  joint  and  the  consequent 
loss  of  limb  or  life.  This  complication  is  more  likely  to  happen  when 
the  skin  over  the  fracture  has  been  incised  in  operative  treatment. 

Fracture  of  a  fragment  has  occurred  in  a  few  cases. 

The  course  of  a  compound  fracture  depends  on  the  occurrence  or 
avoidance  of  infection;  if  it  is  avoided  the  course  and  termination  are 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PATELLA.  355 

practically  those  of  simple  fracture;  if  it  occurs  it  creates  serious  risk 
to  life  and  limb,  leading  to  anchylosis  or  amputation. 

Treatment.  The  obstacles  to  apposition  of  the  fragments  and  their 
close  reunion  are  the  pull  of  the  quadriceps,  the  distention  of  tlie  joint, 
and  the  interposition  of  the  fibro-periosteal  fringe  or  aponeurotic  shreds. 
Later  causes  of  limitation  of  function  are  adhesions  and  retraction  of 
the  soft  parts  of  the  joint,  hypertrophy  of  the  fragments,  and  possibly 
degeneration  of  the  quadriceps. 

The  numerous  methods  of  treatment,  which  respectively  seek  more 
or  less  specifically  to  remove  one  or  another  obstacle  or  late  conse- 
quence, may  be  grouped  as  operative  and  non-operative,  including  in  the 
former  those  in  which  the  fragments  are  mechanically  fastened  together 
either  after  open  arthrotomy  or  by  means  introduced  subcutaneously  or 
acting  temporarily  or  permanently  through  the  punctured  skin;  in 
short,  those  which  distinctly  involve  the  chance  of  infection  of  the  joint. 

The  points  to  be  considered  in  choosing  between  these  two  main 
methods  are  that  a  long  experience  has  shown  that  non-operative 
methods  furnish  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  in  which  they  are  prop- 
erly used  a  result  which  is  functionally  satisfactory  even  if  the  union 
of  the  fragments  is  not  close,  that  most  of  the  failures  are  apparently 
due  to  unfitness  of  the  method  chosen  or  its  faulty  use,  that  only  in  a 
small  proportion  of  cases  are  the  conditions  such  as  to  make  a  bad 
result  inevitable  without  resort  to  operative  methods,  and  that  most  of 
the  later  causes  of  limitation  of  function  are  equally  active  after  either 
method  of  treatment.  That  direct  mechanical  approximation  and 
maintenance  of  the  fragments,  if  the  dangers  of  the  operation  are 
escaped,  practically  annuls  or  ensures  the  removal  of  the  primary 
obstacles  in  all  cases,  notably  hastens  the  restoration  of  function,  and 
probably  makes  that  restoration  more  complete  in  some  cases,  besides 
making  it  possible  in  those  in  which  otherwise  it  would  certainly  fail 
to  be  obtained,  cannot  be  denied.  On  the  other  hand,  operation  exposes 
to  infection;  and  if  infection  occurs  the  result  is  almost  certain  to  be  a 
stiff  joint,  amputation,  or  death.  In  short,  it  takes  less  time  and  makes 
a  good  result  more  certain,  but  some  of  its  failures  are  disastrous  to  an 
extent  far  beyond  that  of  non-operative  failures. 

If  there  was  no  risk  in  an  open  operation  it  would  deserve  selection 
in  almost  every  case,  if  only  because  it  makes  possible  the  removal  of 
those  certain  causes  of  failure  which  are  sometimes  present  and  cannot 
otherwise  be  recognized  and  removed,  such  as  tilting  of  the  fragments 
and  the  interposition  of  bundles  of  fascia.  The  propriety  of  resort  to 
operation  turns,  therefore,  in  the  absence  of  special  reasons,  upon  the 
measure  of  safety  with  which  it  can  be  done,  and  while  I  believe  that 
certain  methods,  when  surrounded  by  every  precaution,  can  be  em- 
ployed Avith  an  assurance  of  success  that  justifies  resort  to  them,  and 
while  I  habitually  use  them,  yet  I  have  never  taught  them  as  routine 
practice,  but  on  the  contrary  have  strongly  advised  against  their  use 
except  by  those  who  can  bring  to  them  not  merely  experience  in  oper- 
ating but  also  the  habit  of  taking  surgical  precautions  and  the  aid  of 
trained  assistants  who  have  the  same  habit,  who  are  practising  those 
precautions  daily;  in  short,  the  personnel  of  an  active  surgical  hospital 


356 


FBAGTUBES. 


service.  I  do  not  mean  that  any  one  of  the  many  operative  methods 
proposed  and  used  can  be  done  with  this  assurance  of  success,  but  only 
that  the  one  with  which  I  am  familiar,  and  which  now  (February, 
1898)  I  have  used  in  more  than  seventy  cases  without  accident,  can  be  so 
done,  and  that  only  because  it  is  freer  than  most  operations  from  those 
more  or  less  unavoidable  causes  to  which  we  attribute  our  disasters.  I 
refer  especially  to  the  difficulty  of  making  the  hands  clean.  The  gen- 
eral practitioner,  and  even  the  occasional  surgeon,  is  not  only  fully 
justified  in  using  a  non-operative  method  but  ought  to  do  so;  and  he 
can  feel  assured  that  the  methods  at  his  command  justify  the  expecta- 
tion of  a  satisfactory,  even  if  not  perfect,  result. 

1.  NoN-OPEEATiVE  TREATMENT.  The  opposiug  factors  specially 
sought  to  be  controlled  by  most  of  the  methods  are  the  effusion  in  the 
joint  and  the  action  of  the  quadriceps  to  create  or  maintain  separation. 

The  production  of  the  effusion  may  be  opposed  by  systematic  press- 
ure or  cold ;  its  absorption  may  be  hastened  by  pressure  or  massage,  or 
it  may  be  immediately  removed  by  puncture  or  aspiration.  I  prefer 
pressure  with  a  light  rubber  bandage;  this  will  remove  the  effusion 
rapidly  or,  if  the  case  is  seen  early,  will  notably  limit  its  production. 
It  should  be  aided  by  immobilization  of  the  joint. 

Immediate  removal  of  the  effusion  by  aspiration  or  puncture,  with 
or  without  washing  of  the  joint,  is  occasionally  practised,  but,  except 
in  rare  conditions  such  as  a  large  intra-articular  hsematoma,  has  no 
marked  superiority  over  the  slower  removal  by  pressure.  If  washing 
is  done  it  should  be  with  a  hot  sterile  salt  solution,  not  with  carbolic 
acid. 

After  removal,  immediate  or  gradual,  recurrence  must  be  opposed 
by  bandaging;  the  application  of  strips  of  adhesive  plaster  so  as 
entirely  to  cover  the  front  and  sides  of  the  joint  has  been  recom- 
mended, but  a  well-applied  roller  is  probably  equally  efficient. 


Fig.  202. 


Dressing  for  fracture  of  the  patella.    The  final  turns  of  the  roller  in  front  of  the  knee 
are  not  shown  in  the  cut. 


Approximation  of  the  fragments  is  effected  by  the  hands,  and  its 
maintenance  by  a  great  variety  of  devices  from  a  simple  circular 
bandage  to  complex  apparatus.  All  are  combined  with  a  posterior 
splint  for  immobilization  and  usually  with  confinement  to  the  bed  with 
the  foot  raised  for  at  least  a  month.     As  for  active  separation  of  the 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PATELLA.  357 

fragments  by  the  quadriceps,  full  extension  of  the  knee  with  elevation 
of  the  foot  (flexion  of  the  hip)  prevents  it. 

The  simplest  form  is  a  roller  bandage  applied  over  a  long  straight 
or,  better,  a  moulded  posterior  splint,  the  turns  immediately  above  and 
below  the  fragments  being  placed  obliquely,  as  shown  in  Fig.  202. 
Fixation  has  been  sought  in  encasement  in  plaster  of  Paris  by  pressing 
the  still  soft  dressing  snugly  down  above  and  below  the  fragments  and 
maintaining  the  pressure  until  the  dressing  has  hardened,  but  an  irre- 
movable dressing  which  prevents  inspection  exposes  to  rude  disappoint- 
ment on  its  removal,  for  as  the  limb  grows  loose  within  the  control  of 
the  fragments  is  lost  and  separation  may  occur  and  remain  unrecog- 
nized until  it  is  too  late  to  remedy  it. 

More  exact  fixation  of  the  upper  fragment  has  been  sought  by  fixed 
or  elastic  traction  on  the  skin  close  above  it,  so  applied  that  its  pressure 
will  be  downward  and  backward  and  thus  act  upon  the  fragment. 
Thus,  a  strip  of  adhesive  plaster  an  inch  or  two  wide  is  laid  across 
close  above  the  fragment  and  its  ends  carried  downward  on  either  side 
to  the  sides  or  back  of  the  splint  at  the  calf,  as  in  Fig.  203.     For 

Fig.  203. 


a  number  of  years  I  used  this  plan  with  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing 
interposed  on  each  side  to  make  the  traction  elastic,  and  was  well  satis- 
fied with  the  results.  Sometimes  the  plaster  is  cut  in  a  broad  U-shape 
that  it  may  fit  better. 

Massage  has  been  strongly  recommended  to  reduce  the  swelling,  pre- 
vent adhesions,  diminish  retraction  of  the  capsule,  regenerate  the  quad- 
riceps, and  hasten  convalescence.  It  has  even  been  claimed  that  it 
could  be  trusted  to  secure  a  good  result  without  immobilization  of  the 
joint  or  confinement  to  bed,  but  even  its  most  ardent  recent  advocates 
have  not  repeated  the  claim.  I  do  not  think  it  removes  the  effusion  as 
rapidly  and  conveniently  as  elastic  pressure  does;  after  the  second  or 
third  week  it  hastens  absorption  of  the  exudate  and  improves  the 
circulation  as  after  other  injuries,  but  I  doubt  if  it  does  more  than 
somewhat  shorten  the  period  of  convalescence. 

In  most  fractures  by  direct  violence  the  preservation  of  much  of  the 
periosteal  envelope  prevents  separation,  and  no  special  measures  are 
required  to  keep  the  fragments  together. 

Thomas^  reports  eleven  cases  to  prove  that  an  excellent  result  can  be 
easily  obtained  without  confinement  to  bed.     He  simply  immobilizes 

1  Thomas  :  Provinc.  Medical  Journal,  August  1,  1889. 


S58  FRACTURES. 

the  joint  by  the  splint  which  he  uses  in  disease  of  the  knee,  two  metal 
rods  lying  on  either  side,  attached  to  the  heel  of  the  shoe,  and  fitted 
with  a  perineal  band  and  three  straps,  one  each  behind  the  knee  and 
across  the  front  of  the  thigh  and  leg.  It  is  worn  for  four  or  five 
months. 

To  summarize  :  an  elastic  bandage  covering  the  patella  and  six  inches 
above  and  below  may  be  applied  for  a  few  days  to  reduce  or  prevent 
swelling,  and  if  it  keeps  the  fragments  well  together  it  may  be  con- 
tinued for  a  fortnight.  Then  the  limb  is  placed  in  a  long  posterior 
plaster  gutter  or  on  a  straight  posterior  splint  and  bandaged  from  the 
foot  to  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh,  the  turns  immediately  above  and 
below  the  fragments  being  placed  obliquely  as  above  shown,  and  the 
patient  is  kept  in  bed  on  his  back  with  his  foot  well  raised.  A  month 
or  six  weeks  after  the  accident  the  limb  is  encased  in  plaster  and  the 
patient  allowed  to  go  about  on  crutches.  If  the  attention  can  be  given, 
the  splint  may  be  cut  open  in  front  and  removed  daily  for  massage,  and 
after  a  month  it  may  be  left  off  at  night  and  then  in  the  house  during 
the  day,  and  the  patient  encouraged  to  move  the  joint.  The  danger  to 
be  avoided  is  premature  forcible  flexion  of  the  knee,  which  is  most 
likely  to  happen  by  accident,  as  in  a  fall,  and  the  prolonged  use  of  the 
splint  is  mainly  as  a  protection  against  this  accident.  The  closer  the 
union  the  shorter  the  time  it  needs  to  be  worn,  but  certainly  no  great 
strain  should  be  put  upon  the  bond  until  after  the  second  month. 

A  few  methods,  which  may  be  termed  intermediate  between  the 
operative  and  non-operative,  have  been  devised  to  act  directly  upon 
the  fragments  without  the  necessity  of  opening  the  joint,  but  as  they 
require  multiple  punctures  of  the  skin  which  must  be  kept  open  for 
several  weeks,  and  as  these  punctures  may  communicate  with  the  seat 
of  fracture  through  the  spaces  created  by  the  extravasated  blood,  the 
chance  of  infection  exists  as  in  open  operation,  while  the  work  is  done 
less  easily  and  effectively. 

Malgaigne's  hooks  (Fig.  204),  the  earliest  of  these,  may  be  taken  as 
the  type.      The  points  of  the  hooks  are  passed  through  the  skin  and 

engaged    respectively   in    the    upper 
Fig.  20i.  and  lower  ends  of  the  patella,   and 

then  brought  together  by  the  screw 
until  the  fragments  are  coaptated.  It 
is  an  efficient  method  and  is  usually 
well  borne,  but  the  presence  of  swell- 
ing may  make  the  application  difficult 
or  impossible.  They  must  be  worn 
three  or  four  weeks.  The  danger  is 
Malgaigne's  hooks.  of  suppuration  about  the  points  and 

of  its  possible  extension  to  the  joint. 
The  instrument  has  been  modified  by  Levis— two  separate  pairs  in- 
stead of  a  double  one,  by  W.  K.  Otis,  who  made  the  individual  parts 
adjustable,  and  by  Duplay,  who  made  it  stronger  and  firmer.  It  has 
furnished  many  good  results,  and  the  accidents  following  its  use  have 
been  few.  Of  course  the  punctures  must  be  carefully  protected.  To 
avoid  making   punctures  in  the  skin  Trelat  used  two  gutta-percha 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PATELLA.  359 

plates  moulded  to  the  surface  above  and  below  and  engaged  the  hooks 
in  them, 

I  devised  and  tried  in  a  few  cases'  a  modification  consisting  of  a 
two-pronged  fork  bent  on  the  flat,  which  was  engaged  in  the  upper 
fragment  with  its  shank  resting  on  the  thigh  above,  and  was  drawn 
downward  by  an  elastic  cord.  It  is  easier  of  adjustment  than  Mal- 
gaigne's  hooks  and  did  the  work  equally  well,  but  suppuration  was 
occasionally  free.      I  long  ago  abandoned  it  for  the  suture. 

Mayo  Robson'^  passed  a  steel  pin  transversely  through  the  tendon  of 
the  quadriceps  close  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  patella,  and  another 
through  the  ligamentum  patellae  close  to  the  lower  edge,  and  then  drew 
the  fragments  together  and  maintained  them  by  a  ligature  about  the 
projecting  portions  of  the  pins  on  each  side.  I  should  think  it  an 
easier  method  than  Malgaigne's.  Dieffenbach  had  long  before  driven 
pegs  into  the  fragments  and  tied  them  together. 

Anderson^  modified  Robson's  method  by  passing  the  pins  through  the 
fibro-periosteal  covering  of  the  fragments,  a  disadvantageous  change, 
I  should  think,  because  it  brings  the  punctures  nearer  the  fracture  and 
thereby  increases  the  chance  of  infection  of  the  joint  in  case  suppura- 
tion should  take  place  about  the  pins,  as  it  did  in  one  of  his  four  cases. 

Certain  other  methods  of  subcutaneous  or  temporary  fixation  which 
resemble  the  above  in  some  respei  ts  will  be  mentioned  in  the  next 
section  because  in  all  the  joint  is  entered,  directly  or  indirectly  through 
the  gap  made  by  the  fracture,  and  as  therefore  direct  and  early  infec- 
tion is  possible  they  should  be  compared  with  others  carrying  the  same 
risk. 

2.  Opeeative  Treatment.  This,  which  began,*  in  the  antiseptic 
period,  with  Lister's  exposure  of  the  fracture  and  wiring  of  the  frag- 
ments, presents  a  great  number  of  methods  and  procedures,  some  of 
which  are  a  natural  evolution  from  their  predecessors  in  the  direction 
of  simplicity,  efficiency,  or  safety,  while  others  are  merely  novelties 
obtained  at  the  price  of  some  disadvantage  or  based  upon  the  exag- 
geration of  the  importance  of  some  indication.  The  fundamental  idea 
is  the  mechanical  fixation  of  the  fragments  by  some  form  of  suture, 
and  the  associated  one  is  either  the  removal  of  the  effusion  or  of  the 
interposed  periosteal  fringe,  or  the  reduction  of  the  risk  by  the  use  of 
punctures  instead  of  a  free  incision.  Their  comparison  will  be  made 
easier  by  first  considering  certain  facts  and  general  principles. 

The  pull  of  the  quadriceps  when  the  knee  is  fully  extended  and  the 
hip  slightly  flexed  is  so  weak  that  even  when  the  muscle  is  actively 
contracted  it  will  not  separate  the  fragments  more  than  half  an  inch. 
I  have  repeatedly  observed  this  during  an  open  arthrotorny,  and  I 
have  seen  several  patients  pass  through  an  attack  of  delirium  tremens 
in  the  first  week  without  tearing  apart  the  fragments  although  they 
were  fastened  together  only  by  catgut  or  light  silk  sutures.  It  is  plain, 
therefore,  that  a  strong  suture,  one  of  metal  or  heavy  silk,  is  not  neces- 

1  Stimson  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  January  3, 1885,  p.  23. 
~  Robsou:  British  Medical  Journal,  March  30,  1889. 
3  Anderson:  Lancet,  July  2.  1892. 

*  In  1834  Dr.  Barton,  of  Philadelphia,  fastened  the  fragments  together  by  a  ^vire  passed  through 
them  and  knotted  outside  the  skin  ;  the  patient  died. 


360  FRACTURES. 

sary  to  the  proper  approximation  of  the  fragments  if  the  joint  is  not 
distended  and  if  the  foot  is  kept  elevated.  Consequently,  any  addi- 
tional risk  or  complexity  of  procedure  involved  in  the  use  of  a  strong 
suture  is  not  justified.  This,  in  my  opinion,  is  sufficient  for  the  rejec- 
tion of  all  methods  of  suturing  which  require  drilling  of  the  bone, 
even  without  consideration  of  the  other  disadvantages  of  a  permanent 
suture  through  it  which  have  been  described  in  Chapter  VII. 

The  removal  of  the  effusion  facilitates  approximation,  reduces  ten- 
sion, and  probably  diminishes  the  chance  of  the  formation  of  adhesions 
and  periarticular  thickening  and  retraction.  Other  things  being  equal, 
therefore,  methods  which  include  such  removal  are  preferable  to  those 
which  do  not,  and  if  they  also  permit  the  adjustment  of  an  interposed 
periosteal  fringe  or  aponeurotic  shred  they  have  an  additional  advan- 
tage. 

The  periosteal  fringe,  long  charged  with  much  of  the  responsibility 
for  failure  of  bony  or  close  fibrous  union,  has  been  shown  by  large 
experience  with  operative  methods  in  which  it  was  disregarded  to  be 
usually  a  negligible  factor;  that  is,  long  series  of  cases  treated  by  sub- 
cutaneous suture  have  given  close  union  in  almost  all,  and  yet  it  must 
be  believed  that  a  fringe  of  some  size  was  present  in  most  of  them. 
On  the  other  hand,  I  think  the  large  aponeurotic  shreds  which  1  have 
seen  several  times  would  probably  have  been  a  serious  obstacle  if  they 
had  been  left,  and  possibly  similar  ones  have  been  responsible  for  some 
of  the  failures  noted  under  methods  of  treatment  usually  efficient.  It 
is,  therefore,  not  necessary  to  choose  an  open  method  of  operating  in 
order  to  adjust  the  fringe,  but  probably  in  a  small  proportion  of  cases 
there  is  present  a  fringe  or  shred  of  such  size  that  it  will  diminish  the 
success  of  any  operation  which  does  not  effect  its  removal.  Again, 
other  things  being  equal,  an  open  method  better  protects  against  this 
obstacle  to  success. 

Infection  may  occur  in  any  operation  which  wounds  the  skin,  and 
the  chance  of  its  spread  to  the  joint — the  great  danger — is  greater  if 
that  wound  communicates  with  the  joint  or  the  seat  of  fracture.  The 
briefer  the  existence  of  that  wound  or  of  that  connection,  the  less  the 
danger.  All  the  so-called  subcutaneous  methods  require  two  or  more 
small  incisions,  and  in  all  a  suture  of  silk  or  wire  is  passed  either 
directly  into  the  joint  or  through  the  line  of  fracture  or  its  immediate 
neighborhood.  If  suppuration  occurs  at  a  puncture  the  suture  opens 
a  direct  road  for  its  spread  to  the  joint.  The  size  of  the  wound  is  not 
a  measure  of  the  chance  of  infection;  that  comes,  if  the  common  pre- 
cautions are  taken,  mainly  from  the  hands  of  the  operator  and  his 
assistants. 

Finally,  the  permanent  presence  in  the  tissues  of  a  foreign  body  is 
not,  according  to  general  experience,  a  matter  of  indifference;  occasion- 
ally suppuration  takes  place  about  it  after  a  long  interval,  and  not 
infrequently  its  removal  has  been  required  because  of  pain  and  irrita- 
tion. 

The  operative  methods  are  :  (1)  by  open  incision — direct  suture  of 
the  fragments  through  holes  drilled  in  them,  suture  of  the  fibro-perios- 
teal  layer,  and  mediate  suture  through  the  tendon  of  the  quadriceps 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PATELLA.  361 

and  ligamentum  patellte;  (2)  subcutaneous  suture — l>y  wire  through 
the  whole  length  of  the  fragments,  or  by  silk  through  the  tendons  and 
crossing  the  front  of  the  bone;  (3)  subcutaneous  permanent  ligature 
surrounding  the  fragments  in  the  sagittal  plane  and  lying  partly  in  the 
joint;  (4)  temporary  ligatures  passing  through  the  joint  as  in  (3),  or 
through  the  tendons  as  in  (2),  or  through  the  bone,  aud  tied  outside 
the  skin. 

The  methods  are  far  too  numerous  to  permit  a  detailed  description 
and  criticism,  even  if  it  were  not  probable  that  most  of  them  w'ill  be 
abandoned  in  favor  of  the  simpler  and  safer  ones.  iMany  of  them,  too, 
can  be  judged  in  classes.  Thus,  for  reasons  given  above,  1  would  reject 
all  in  which  a  permanent  suture  is  placed  in  the  bone  itself. 

Temporary  ligature  through  the  tendons  (one  of  the  earliest  methods 
proposed),  or  through  the  bone,  or  around  it  through  the  joint  seems 
to  me  to  be  more  dangerous,  because  of  the  prolonged  communication 
with  the  exterior,  and  less  efficient  than  the  similar  subcutaneous 
methods. 

The  subcutaneous  methods  which  can  be  done  equally  well  by  an 
open  incision  appear  to  have  an  equal  risk  with  and  to  lack  the  advan- 
tages which  belong  to  the  latter. 

Barker's  subcutaneous  ligature  about  the  fragments  (silver  or  silk 
passing  through  the  joint)  opens  a  direct  road  for  the  spread  to  the 
joint  of  infection  occurring  at  either  puncture  or  small  incision,  and  as 
it  also  fails  to  provide  for  satisfactory  evacuation  of  the  joint  and 
adjustment  of  the  periosteal  fringe  I  should  reject  it.  It  appears  to 
have  met  with  considerable  favor  and  success  since  its  introduction  in 
1894  and  has  been  warmly  commended  by  several. 

My  personal  experience  is  limited  to  the  subcutaneous  mediate  silk 
suture  through  the  tendon  and  the  ligamentum  patellae  (1889-1892, 
about  forty  cases)  and  open  incision  with  the  same  or  the  fibro-perios- 
teal  suture  (1892-1898,  about  seventy  cases).  In  the  first  series  infec- 
tion occurred  twice  and  resulted  in  a  stiff  joint,  suppuration  appearing 
in  one  of  them  after  the  patient  had  left  the  hospital,  apparently  well, 
in  the  second  week.  In  the  second  series  all  the  cases  have  recovered 
without  accident  and  with  close  union;  all  that  I  have  seen  after  the 
third  month  have  had  good  use  of  the  joint  except  one  very  stout  ner- 
vous woman  who  could  not  be  persuaded  to  abandon  crutches;  her 
patella  was  freely  movable  laterally  and  union  was  close,  but  flexion 
was  limited  to  30  degrees  three  mouths  after  the  accident. 

I  began  with  the  subcutaneous  method  because  I  thought  its  risks 
less  than  those  of  free  incision,  but  when  I  found  that  the  extrava- 
sated  blood  often  escaped  freely  through  some  of  the  four  small  inci- 
sions and  that  consequently  the  suture  lay  free  within  the  area  of 
fracture  and  laceration  I  abandoned  it  for  the  single  free  incision  and 
was  soon  convinced  that  the  patient  was  equally,  perhaps  better,  pro- 
tected. A  special  advantage  of  the  latter  method  is  that  the  operation 
can  be  done  without  once  touching  the  cut  tissues  with  the  fingers,  and 
to  that  I  attribute  the  complete  freedom  from  infection.  I  have 
frequently  done  the  operation  under  local  anaesthesia — cocaine  or 
freezing-. 


362  FRACTURES. 

The  method  is  as  follows  :  The  surface  having  been  prepared,  an 
incision  is  made  in  the  median  line  slightly  overlapping  the  two  frag- 
ments; the  sides  are  drawn  apart,  the  fragments  lifted  in  turn  with  a 
sharp  retractor,  and  their  surfaces  freed  from  clot  or  fringe;  while 
they  are  held  up  the  joint  is  thoroughly  washed  with  a  hot  sterile  salt 
solution.  Then  the  fragments  are  drawn  snugly  together  with  hooks, 
the  fringe  adjusted,  and  two  or  three  catgut  sutures  placed  in  the  peri- 
osteum along  the  edge  of  the  fracture,  or  a  single  silk  or  stout  catgut 
suture  passed  through  the  tendon  and  ligamentum  patellae  so  that  its 
two  strands  lie  on  the  front  of  the  bone.  Sometimes  additional  sutures 
are  placed  in  the  rents  in  the  lateral  expansions.  The  incision  is  closed 
without  drainage  with  an  uninterrupted  silk  suture,  the  dressing  ap- 
plied, and  the  limb  bound  upon  a  posterior  splint.  The  patient  is  kept 
in  bed  with  the  foot  elevated  for  a  week,  the  silk  suture  of  the  incision 
is  then  removed,  and  a  light  plaster-of-Paris  encasement  applied. 
After  a  few  days  the  patient  leaves  the  hospital  on  crutches,  and  after 
a  month  the  dressing  is  cut  down  the  middle  in  front,  and  he  is  directed 
to  wear  it  only  in  the  daytime.  Usually  the  joint  can  be  flexed  at  least 
90  degrees  by  the  end  of  the  third  month,  often  earlier,  and  the  patient 
usually  discards  the  splint  entirely  before  that  time,  since  he  is  told  it 
serves  only  as  a  protection  against  damage  by  a  fall.  In  no  case  have 
I  seen  the  fragments  separate  under  use,  but  several  have  come  back 
in  the  third  or  fourth  month  with  refracture  caused  by  a  fall. 

I  have  treated  a  few  cases  without  immobilization  after  the  tenth 
day,  but  the  gain  in  rapidity  of  restoration  of  function  has  not  been 
sufficient  to  justify  the  risk  of  accident. 

For  Ceci's^  method,  first  subcutaneous  wire  suture  through  bone; 
Aiken's^  modification,  the  wire  passing  only  once  through  the  bone  and 
then  back  under  the  skin;  Barker's^  method,  subcutaneous  ligature 
through  the  joint  about  the  patella;  Stimson's,^  subcutaneous  mediate 
suture  through  the  tendon  and  ligamentum,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  original  accounts.  Other  plans  not  above  mentioned  are  those  of 
Wolff,^  open  incision,  two  metal  rivets  driven  into  each  fragment  to 
receive  silver  wires  by  which  the  fragments  are  fastened  together; 
Kittredge,^  two  similar  rivets  placed  astride  the  line  of  fracture;  and 
Axford/  temporary  wire  suture  through  the  bone  and  back  outside  the 
skin.  Other  older  temporary  measures  are  Barton's  (1834,  the  same 
as  Axford's),  Volkmann's  silk  loops  transversely  through  the  tendon 
and  ligamentum  patellae  and  tied  together  over  the  skin,  and  Kocher's 
(1880)  surrounding  wire  ligature,  passing  like  Barker's  through  the 
joint  beneath  the  patella  but,  unlike  his,  including  the  skin  in  its  loop. 

Compound  fractures  specially  need  protection  from  infection  be- 
cause of  the  importance  of  the  joint  and  the  danger  to  life  or  limb 
involved  in  its  suppuration.     If  infection  has  already  occurred  the 

1  Ceci :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fiir  Chirurgie,  February,  1888. 

2  Aiken :  British  Medical  Journal,  July  23,  1892. 

3  Barker :  Lancet,  April  18,  1896,  and  American  Text-book  of  Surgery,  1897. 

*  Stimson :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  May  10,  1890,  p.  531,  and  American  Text-book  of  Surgery, 
1892. 
5  WolflF:  Deutsche  med.  Wochenschrift,  May  14,  1891. 
s  Kittredge ;  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  November  19,  1891. 
^  Axford  ;  Annals  of  Surgery,  July,  ]898. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  PATELLA.  363 

joint  must  be  cleaDed  as  thoroughly  as  possible  and  drainage  provided 
on  each  side.     The  fragments  must  be  sutured  together. 

Disability  After  Fracture.  This  may  be  due  to  stiffness  of 
the  joint  or,  much  less  frequently,  to  the  loss  of  active  extension.  The 
causes  of  the  former  are  varied,  and  but  few  of  those  which  are  per- 
manent, which  do  not  gradually  diminish  under  use,  can  be  removed 
by  operation.  Many  attempts  to  relieve  have  been  made  upon  the 
theory  that  the  fault  lay  in  separation  of  the  fragments  or  in  the 
absence  of  a  firm  bond  between  them,  the  usual  plan  being  to  open 
the  joint  and  bring  the  fragments  together.  Failures  have  been  numer- 
ous, either  through  inability  to  close  the  gap,  or  through  infection,  or 
through  persistence  of  the  disability  after  an  operative  success.  Even 
in  many  of  the  cases  in  which  improvement  has  followed  the  operation 
it  seems  probable  that  an  equal  improvement  would  have  come  in  time 
without  the  aid  of  the  interference.  Chaput,'  who  has  thoroughly 
.studied  the  conditions,  attributes  the  loss  of  flexion  to  hypertrophy  or 
rigid  elongation  of  the  united  patella  by  which  it  is  made  too  long  to 
pass  around  the  condyles,  or,  much  more  frequently,  to  the  ascent  of 
the  upper  fragment  (with  a  separation  of  two  to  five  centimetres),  in 
consequence  of  which  the  upper  portion  of  the  capsule  and  the  lateral 
expansions  become  so  shortened  that  the  descent  of  the  fragment  is 
impossible,  and  it  cannot  be  sufficiently  mobilized  without  a  division 
of  its  attachments  too  extensive  to  be  practicable  or  possibly  compatible 
with  its  vitality;  and  even  if  the  lower  fragment  is  brought  up  to  the 
upper  one  by  detachment  of  the  ligamentum  patellae  from  the  tibia 
(Von  Bergmanu,  1887)  and  is  united  with  it  flexion  would  still  be  lost. 
This  being  so,  what  is  required  is  not  the  approximation  or  reunion  of 
the  fragments  but  the  removal  of  the  obstacle  to  the  descent  of  the 
upper  one.  Chaput  did  this  in  one  case  by  excising  the  upper  fragment 
and  obtained  a  good  result,  the  patient  being  able  to  walk  up  and  down 
stairs  and  carry  a  burden  of  200  pounds;  the  range  of  motion  is  not 
stated.  His  grouping  of  the  different  forms  and  their  respective  treat- 
ment is  as  follows  : 

1.  Close  union.     Medical  treatment  and  exercise. 

2.  Elongation  of  the  j)atella  by  hypertrophy  or  a  stiff  bond  with 
loss  of  flexion.      Extirpation  of  the  patella. 

3.  Short  flexible  bond.     Massage. 

4.  Bond  two  to  five  centimetres  long  with  loss  of  flexion.  Extir- 
pation of  upper  fragment. 

5.  Bonds  more  than  five  centimetres  long,  and  those  cases  of  class 
4  in  which  active  extension  is  lost.  Suture  of  the  fragments  after  free 
separation  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  quadriceps  and  upper  part  of  the 
capsule  from  the  femur.  This  denudation  of  the  femur  he  proposes  to 
effect  through  a  curved  transverse  incision  at  the  level  of  the  lower 
fragment  or,  if  the  gap  is  long,  through  a  longitudinal  one;  for  the 
denudation  he  would  use  the  elevator  or  knife  and  would  suture  the 
fragments  with  wire  because  the  strain  might  be  too  great  for  periosteal 
sutures. 

1  Chaput :  Fractures  ancieunes  de  la  RoLule.    These  de  Paris,  1885,  and  La  Semaine  M(5dicale, 
June  17,  1891. 


364  FBAGTUBES. 

Rupture  of  Bond  ('^  Eefractiire").  This  has  rarely  seemed  to 
me  to  require  more  than  rest  in  bed  with  the  foot  elevated.  As  it  is 
caused  by  the  tearing  away  of  the  lower  fragment  from  the  upper  one 
in  forcible  flexion,  full  extension  of  the  joint  brings  the  torn  surfaces 
into  contact,  and  we  have  only  to  wait  for  them  to  reunite,  opposing 
swelling,  if  necessary,  by  appropriate  measures.  Once  or  twice  I  have 
reopened  the  joint  and  again  sutured  the  fragments,  and,  of  course, 
this  would  be  done  if  the  fracture  is  compound.  The  prognosis  is 
made  worse  by  the  prolongation  of  the  confinement  and  the  repetition 
of  the  trauma  and  its  consequences. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEG. 

According  to  the  table  in  Chapter  I.  fractures  of  the  tibia  or  of 
both  bones  constitute  6  per  cent,  of  those  of  the  lower  extremity.  The 
more  frequent  seat  is  at  or  near  the  junction  of  the  lower  and  middle 
thirds.  When  both  bones  are  broken  the  fibula  is  usually  broken  at 
a  higher  level  than  the  tibia. 

Statistics  show  that  infancy  and  childhood  are  almost  exempt,  and 
that  the  maximum  of  frequency  is  found  between  the  ages  of  thirty 
and  sixty  years,  those  three  decades,  according  to  Malgaigue,  furnish- 
ing equal  numbers. 

1.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  UPPER  END  OF  THE  TIBIA  AND  FIBULA 
OR  OF  THE  TIBIA  ALONE.^ 

The  causes  of  these  fractures  are  direct  and  indirect  violence;  in  the 
former  a  blow  received  directly  upon  the  part,  as  the  fall  of  a  heavy 
body  or  the  kick  of  a  horse;  in  the  latter  a  fall  from  a  height  or  a 
twist  of  the  limb,  especially  abduction. 

The  line  of  fracture  may  be  transverse,  oblique,  or  longitudinal,  in 
the  latter  case  passing  into  the  joint  and  separating  only  a  portion  of 
the  articular  end  from  the  shaft,  or  there  may  be  a  crush  of  the  internal 
condyle  of  the  tibia  with  rupture  of  the  external  lateral  ligament. 
Transverse  fractures  by  direct  violence,  the  fall  of  a  stone,  the  kick  of 
a  horse,  have  been  observed  at  four  and  seven  centimetres  from  the 
articular  edge.  Comminuted  fractures  have  been  caused  by  direct 
violence  and  by  falls  upon  the  feet,  the  shaft  penetrating  and  splitting 
the  head.  Oblique  fracture,  the  line  running  into  the  joint  and  sepa- 
rating the  whole  or  part  of  either  condyle,  appears  to  be  caused  by 
abduction  or  adduction  of  the  leg,  the  fracture  taking  place  on  the  side 
toward  which  the  leg  is  bent. 

Of  longitudinal  fracture  I  have  seen  one  case,  a  man  of  twenty-five 
years.  The  line  of  fracture  ran  from  the  inner  part  of  the  outer  artic- 
ular surface  directly  downward  in  a  sagittal  plane.  The  separation  at 
the  upper  end  was  about  half  an  inch  and  was  maintained  partly  by  a 
small  fragment  lodged  deeply  in  the  cleft,  but  even  after  removal  of 
the  latter  the  displacement  could  not  be  wholly  reduced.  The  cause 
was  a  fall  from  a  ladder,  but  the  mechanism  was  not  known.  The 
joint  was  so  loosened  that  the  tibia  could  be  moved  outward  nearly  half 
an  inch.  Recovery  took  place  with  active  flexion  nearly  to  a  right 
angle  and  marked  genu  valgum. 

1  Including  separation  of  the  upper  tibial  epiphysis  and  avulsion  of  the  tubercle  of  the  tibia. 


366 


FRACTURES. 


The  displacement  varies  with  the  character  of  the  fracture  and  the 
fracturing  force;  in  a  transverse  fracture  without  comminution  it  is 
usually  slight;  in  comminution  of  the  upper  end  and  in  oblique  frac- 


FiG.  205. 


Fig.  206. 


Fig.  207. 


Fracture  of  the  head  of  the  tibia,  with 
impaction  and  separation  of  the  upper 

fragments. 


Fracture  of  the  head 
of  the  tibia. 


Fracture  of  upper  ends 
of  both  bones. 


ture  of  either  tuberosity  the  fragment  may  be 
notably  displaced  or  tilted.  The  direct  or  indirect 
implication  of  the  joint  ensures  an  efPusion  within 
it,  and  the  proximity  of  the  main  vessels  makes 
their  injury  more  likely  than  in  fracture  at  most 
other  points.  Both  tibial  arteries  and  the  pop- 
liteal vein  have  been  torn,  the  injury  in  every  case 
leading  to  amputation  or  death. 
Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis,  in  reaching  which  the  aid  of  an  anaesthetic 
may  be  required,  is  made  by  recognition  of  the  irregularity  of  outline, 
pain  on  local  pressure  and  on  pressing  the  leg  upward,  and  possibly 
abnormal  mobility  and  crepitus.  In  high  transverse  fractures  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  mistake  the  injury  for  a  subluxation  of  the  knee. 
Prognosis.  The  prognosis  of  this  injury  is  exceptionally  serious, 
because  of  the  proximity  of  the  joint  and  the  possibility  of  inflamma- 
tory complications  and  the  more  or  less  complete  loss  of  the  functions 
of  the  knee  which  that  and  the  derangement  of  the  articular  surface  in 
oblique  and  comminuted  fractures  involve,  and  also  because  of  the 
exceptionally  long  period  that  is  necessary  for  consolidation.  The 
average  period  in  seven  cases  collected  by  Poncet  was  about  four 
months.  No  satisfactory  explanation  has  been  given  of  this  peculi- 
arity. 

Treatment.  Displacement  must  be  corrected  by  traction  and  direct 
pressure  according  to  its  character,  and  retention  effected  either  by 
permanent  traction  or  by  a  suspended  posterior  splint  with  the  knee 
partly  flexed  or  by  encasement  of  the  entire  limb  in  plaster.  The 
indications  vary  so  much  with  the  position,  direction,  and  extent  of 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEG.  367 

the  fracture  that  general  rules  cannot  well  be  made.  Complete  encase- 
ment is  valuable  to  prevent  bowing  of  the  knee  when  the  fracture 
extends  into  the  joint. 

When  the  fracture  extends  into  the  joint  function  may  be  so  limited 
by  an  irregular  position  of  the  articular  fragments  that  I  have  thought 
it  might  be  wise  to  expose  them  by  incision  for  more  accurate  adjust- 
ment. With  proper  precautions  it  would  be  justifiable  if  the  irregu- 
larity was  great  and  not  otherwise  remediable,  but  I  have  met  with 
only  one  case  that  seemed  to  require  it. 

If  the  fracture  is  compound  and  if  suppuration  of  the  joint  occurs 
a  free  outlet  for  the  pus  must  be  promptly  provided  by  special  open- 
ings at  the  sides  rather  than  through  the  wound  which  can  hardly  fail 
to  be  unsuitably  placed  for  effective  drainage. 

Separation  of  the  epiphysis  has  been  noted  in  a  few  cases.  Bruns 
collected  four,  and  Hutchinson^  says  he  has  records  of  ten,  including 
three  unpublished  cases.  The  recently  reported  cases  that  I  have  seen 
are  those  of  Heuston  and  Manly. ^  In  Hutchinson's  list  the  extremes 
of  age  were  one  and  sixteen  years.  The  common  cause  appears  to  be 
a  wrench  of  the  leg,  abduction  or  adduction,  by  which  a  transverse 
strain  is  made.  In  at  least  one  case  subsequent  interference  with 
growth  has  been  noted. 

Avulsion  of  the  spine  of  the  tibia  by  the  crucial  ligament,  which  has 
been  noted  a  few  times,  is  to  be  classed  as  a  complication  of  dislocation 
of  the  knee  rather  than  as  a  form  of  fracture. 

Avulsion  of  the  Tubercle  of  the  Tibia.  To  the  tubercle  is  attached  the 
ligamentum  patellae,  and  all  the  cases  of  its  fracture  which  have  been 
reported  have  been  caused  by  the  action  of  the  quadriceps  in  some 
violent  effort,  usually  jumping,  and  most  of  them  in  youths  between 
sixteen  and  eighteen  years  of  age.  The  frequency  in  youth  is  to  be 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  tuberosity  is  a  downward  prolonga- 
tion of  the  epiphysis  and  remains  separated  from  the  shaft  by  conjugal 
cartilage  until  growth  is  completed.  Miiller,'  who  has  written  the 
only  special  article  upon  the  subject,  collected  seven  cases  and  added 
one  of  his  own.  To  these  may  be  added  one  by  Keyser*  and  one  by 
Landsberg.''  The  size  of  the  fragment  has  varied  in  length  from  two 
to  five  centimetres,  and  in  one  exceptional  case  (Richet)  the  rupture 
ran  partly  through  the  tubercles  (both  legs)  and  partly  through  the 
ligamentum  patellae. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  inability  to  use  the  limb  immediately 
following  the  effort,  which  sometimes  is  accompanied  by  a  cracking 
sound,  and  the  recognition  of  a  movable  lump  of  bone  about  two  inches 
below  the  patella.  On  pressing  this  lump  downward  and  backward 
against  the  tibia  crepitus  is  felt.  The  knee-joint  is  more  or  less  dis- 
tended by  an  effusion. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  to  press  the  fragment  into  place  and 
maintain  it  there  by  a  bandage  or  strips  of  adhesive  plaster  while  the 

1  Hutchinson  :  British  Medical  Journal,  March  31, 1894. 

2  Henston  and  Manly  :  British  Medical  Journal,  July  21  and  September  22,  1888. 

3  Muller:  Beitrage  zur  klin.  Chir.,  November,  1887,  p.  257. 
*  Keyser:  Reported  in  Sajous's  Annual,  1888,  vo'.  ii.  p.  267. 
5  Landsberg:  Centralblatt  fur  Chir.,  September  28,  1889. 


368 


FRACTURES. 


limb  is  kept  extended  upon  a  splint  for  four  or  five  weeks.  Will,  who 
opened  the  joint  under  the  impression  that  he  was  dealing  with  a  frac- 
ture of  the  patella,  utilized  his  incision  to  pin  the  fragment  in  place 
with  a  steel  drill,  and  obtained  a  good  result. 

The  ultimate  result  has  been  good  in  all  the  cases,  but  in  one  the 
restoration  of  motion  v/as  not  complete  until  after  a  year. 


Fig.  208. 


2.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  SHAFT. 

Fractures  by  direct  violence  may  occur  at  any  point;  those  by  indi- 
rect violence  are  much  more  frequent  at  or  near  the  junction  of  the 
lower  and  middle  thirds  than  at  any  other  point.  It  seems  probable, 
as  taught  more  especially  by  Gosselin,  that  torsion  of  the  limb  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  production  of  the  fracture,  the  twist  being  due 
either  to  the  forcible  contraction  of  the  muscles  or  to  the  propulsion 
of  the  upper  portion  while  the  lower  one  is  fixed  by  the  pressure  of  the 
foot  upon  the  ground. 

The  varieties  of  fracture  common  to  other  long  bones  are  found  here, 
and  in  addition  a  special  variety,  the  V-shaped  fracture,  first  pointed 
out  by  Gosselin,  which  although  occasionally  found 
elsewhere  is  much  more  frequent  in  the  leg.  In  these, 
which  are  especially  frequent  below  the  middle  of  the 
bone,  the  upper  fragment  terminates  in  front  and  on 
the  inner  side  in  a  more  or  less  sharp  triangular  point, 
the  lower  fragment  presents  a  similar  point  posteriorly, 
and  from  the  bottom  of  the  depression  in  the  lower  frag- 
ment which  corresponds  to  the  first  point  a  fissure  passes 
spirally  downward  and  usually  runs  into  the  ankle- 
joint,  sometimes  splitting  off  a  superficial  fragment  on 
the  posterior  aspect  as  shown  in  Fig.  208.  The  extent 
of  the  fissures  and  the  implication  of  the  ankle-joint 
give  this  variety  of  fracture  an  especial  importance. 

It  is  quite  rare  for  the  tibia  alone  to  be  broken  when 
the  fracture  is  by  indirect  violence,  for  the  force  con- 
tinues to  act,  if  only  for  a  moment,  and  breaks  the 
weaker  fibula  all  the  more  easily,  and  usually  at  a 
higher  point  than  the  tibia. 

The  subcutaneous  position  of  the  tibia  throughout 
its  entire  length  greatly  exposes  its  fractures  to  the 
chance  of  becoming  compound  either  by  the  direct 
action  of  the  causative  violence  when  the  fracture  is 
direct,  or  by  the  perforation  of  the  skin  by  the  end  of 
v-shaped  fracture,  one  of  the  fragments,  usually  the  upper  one,  when  the 
fracture  is  indirect. 
The  displacements  show  the  usual  varieties,  but  the  most  common 
and  important  is  the  projection  of  the  lovver  end  of  the  upper  fragment 
when  it  terminates  in  an  anterior  point,  as  it  usually  does,  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  predominant  muscles  of  the  calf  aiding  it  by  creating  an  an- 
terior angular  displacement. 


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PLATE   XVI, 


Fig.  1.— Potts'   Fracture  by  Abduction  ;    Male,  -40  years; 
Internal  Malleolus  Unbroken. 


Fracture,  2  months  old;    Backward    Displaeennent. 
See  also  Plate  XVII.,  Fig.  1. 


PLATE  XVII. 


Fig.  1.— Potts'    Fracture  by  Abduetion ;    same  as    Plate  XVI.,   Fig.  2. 


Fig.  2.  —  Bimalleolar  Fracture  by  Inversion  ;  Boy,  14  years  ;  External 
Malleolus  separated  at  Epiphyseal  Line;  Fracture  of  Internal 
Malleolus  does  not  show,  but  -was  recognized  clinically. 


PLATE  XVIII. 


Bimalleolar  Fracture  by  Inversion  in  a  Youth  ;  Line  of  Fracture  passing 
above  the  Base  of  the  Internal  Malleolus;  External  Malleolus  sepa- 
rated  at  Epiphyseal    Line. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEO.  3fj9 

In  addition  to  the  usual  symptoms  of  crepitus,  abnormal  mobility, 
pain,  and  loss  of  function,  there  is  also  tlie  irregularity  in  the  outline 
of  the  subcutaneous  portion  of  the  tibia  which  may  often  be  recognized 
by  passing  the  finger  along  it.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  say  whether 
or  not  the  fibula  is  broken  as  well  as  the  tibia  without  making  a  more 
severe  and  painful  examination  than  the  need  of  the  information  will 
justify.  When  both  bones  are  broken  the  mobility  is  usually  much 
greater  than  when  the  tibia  alone  is  broken,  and  by  making  gentle 
pressure  with  the  finger  along  the  line  of  the  fibula  the  point  of  frac- 
ture can  usually  be  determined. 

Beside  the  frequent  complication  of  a  communicating  wound  of  the 
skin,  and  the  comminution  which  is  so  often  the  result  of  direct  vio- 
lence, injury  to  the  principal  vessels  is  occasionally  met  with.  Nepveu,^ 
in  a  very  complete  and  elaborate  paper  read  before  the  Surgical  Society 
of  Paris,  collected  more  than  fifty  cases,  among  which  are  found  exam- 
ples of  injury  to  both  tibials,  the  peroneal,  and  the  nutrient  artery  of 
the  tibia.  Injury  to  the  tibial  or  peroneal  nerves  seems  to  be  much 
more  rare.  Mourret  collected  twenty-seven  cases  of  aneurism  compli- 
cating fracture,  five  of  which  were  mistaken  for  abscess  and  opened. 

I  have  seen  hemorrhage  occur  from  the  anterior  tibial  on  the  eighth 
day  after  fracture  by  direct  violence  without  displacement;  the  rupture 
was  one  and  a  quarter  inches  above  the  fracture  and  was  evidently  due 
to  bruising  of  the  artery  by  the  wheel  which  caused  the  fracture. 

A  simple  fracture  without  persistent  displacement  will  usually  become 
firmly  consolidated  in  six  weeks;  but  in  the  comminuted  ones  and  in 
those  that  are  oblique  with  persistent  displacement  the  callus  remains 
weak  much  longer.  Complete  recovery  is  long  delayed  by  rigidity  at 
the  ankle,  tenderness  of  the  skin,  feebleness  of  the  circulation,  and 
neuralgic  pains  which  are  more  common  after  fractures  of  the  leg  than 
after  those  of  other  long  bones.  In  the  old  and  rheumatic  this  delay 
is  especially  prolonged. 

If  the  suppuration  becomes  free  after  a  compound  fracture  it  is  prob- 
able that  complete  recovery  will  be  postponed  for  even  a  much  longer 
time,  and  that  sinuses  leading  down  to  bare  or  necrosed  bone  will  re- 
main open  for  many  months  or  will  reopen  at  intervals.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  subcutaneous  position  of  the  tibia  makes  it  easier  to  drain  the 
cavity  of  the  fracture  thoroughly  and  to  remove  splinters,  and  thus 
makes  the  danger  to  life  less  than  after  compound  fracture  of  bones  that 
are  more  deeply  placed. 

Treatment.  Reduction  of  the  displacement  can  generally  be  made 
by  traction  at  the  foot  and  counter-extension  at  the  knee,  this  joint 
being  slightly  flexed  to  relax  the  muscles  of  the  calf.  In  the  more 
difficult  cases  in  which  spasm  of  the  muscles  opposes  reduction  com- 
pression of  the  femoral  artery  for  a  few  minutes,  as  suggested  by  Broca, 
has  sometimes  proved  useful  in  my  experience.  In  a  small  proportion 
of  cases  complete  reduction  is  impossible,  probably  because  of  the  inter- 
position of  a  small  piece  of  bone  or  of  a  muscular  bundle  between  the 
fragments. 

1  Nepveu  :  Bulletins  de  la  Soci(§t6  de  Chirurgie,  1875,  p.  365. 
24 


370 


FRACTURES. 


Maintenance  of  the  redaction  depends  largely  upon  the  character  of 
the  fracture;  when  this  is  nearly  transverse  and  toothed,  the  displace- 
ment is  unlikely  to  recur:  but  when  it  is  oblique  the  difficulties  of 
complete  retention  may  be  great.  The  segment  of  the  limb  below  the 
fracture  is  too  short  to  permit  traction  by  strips  of  adhesive  plaster,  as 
in  fracture  of  the  thigh,  and  the  surgeon  has  to  depend  upon  some  form 
of  splint  or  an  immovable  dressing,  neither  of  which  will  certainly 
prevent  shortening,  although  the  amount  may  be  so  slight  as  to  be 
without  practical  importance. 

The  usual  routine  of  treatment  in  simple  fractures  without  marked 
displacement  is  to  put  the  patient  in  bed  with  the  limb  in  a  Yolkmann 
splint  (Figs.  32  and  209)  for  about  a  week  or  until  the  swelling 
has  subsided,  and  then  to  encase  it  in  plaster  of  Paris.  Immediate 
application  of  plaster  is  objectionable  because  either  the  swelling  is 


Volkmann's  splint  for  leg. 

likely  to  increase  and  make  the  dressing  too  tight,  or  it  will  diminish 
and  leave  it  too  loose.  The  stocking  bivalve  plaster  splint  (Fig.  210) 
is  a  convenient  means  of  combining  the  advantages  of  the  primary 
Yolkmann  splint  and  the  later  encasement.  The  details  of  its  con- 
struction are  given  on  page  90.  Care  must  be  taken  to  maintain  full 
length  of  the  leg  and  to  avoid  angular  or  rotatory  displacement  during 
the  hardening  of  the  plaster.  It  can  be  applied  while  the  injury  is 
recent,  and  loosened  or  tightened  as  the  need  arises,  and  it  permits 
easy  inspection  to  detect  and  correct  such  displacements  as  may  occur 
beneath  it.  It  also  permits  massage  and  the  application  and  change 
of  such  dressings  as  may  be  needed  for  associated  wounds  of  the  skin 
or  for  blisters. 

It  may  become  so  loose  after  a  week  or  two  that  it  does  not  properly 
support  the  fragments,  and  should  then  be  renewed.  It  should  be 
worn  until  mobility  can  no  longer  be  recognized,  usually  five  to  seven 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEO. 


371 


weeks,  and  the  patient  can  go  about  on  crutches  during  most  of  that 
time.  If  union  is  delayed  beyond  that  time  it  is  well  to  let  the  patient 
bear  part  of  his  weight  upon  the  foot  in  walking,  angular  displacement 
thereby  being  prevented  by  a  strong  plaster  encasement. 


Fig.  210. 


Fig.  211. 


Bivalve  or  stocking  splint. 


Posterior  gypsum  splint  or  gutter. 


Instead  of  a  Volkmann  splint  during  the  first  week  side  splints  of 
wood  or  wire  or  a  posterior  plaster  moulded  splint  (Fig.  211)  may  be 
used,  and  they  may  also,  especially  the  latter,  be  serviceable  during  the 
later  stages  if  wounds  of  the  anterior  soft  parts  require  dressing. 

A  number  of  devices  for  maintaining  continuous  traction  have  been 
suggested,  but  their  inherent  defects  are  such  that  they  have  nev^er  come 
into  general  use.     Figs.  212  and  213  show  two  such. 


Fig.  212. 


Dr.  Neill's  dressing  for  continuous  traction. 


Direct  pressure  by  a  metal  pin  or  a  pad  controlled  by  a  screw' was 
occasionally  used  when  the  projecting  end  of  the  upper  fragment  could 
not  otherwise  be  controlled  and  especially  if  it  threatened  to  perforate 
the  skin.  It  is  now  generally  deemed  better  to  expose  the  fracture  by 
incision  and  remove  the  cause. 


372 


FRACTURES. 


In  compound  fractures  the  bivalve  or  fenestrated  or  interrupted  splint 
may  be  used,  or  anterior  and  posterior  moulded  splints  one  of  which 
holds  the  fragments  in  place  while  the  other  is  removed  that  the  dress- 


FlG.  213. 


Continuous  traction  in  fracture  ot  the  leg. 

ing  may  be  changed.  The  details  of  treatment  of  the  wound  are  here 
of  special  importance,  and  particularly  the  distinction  to  be  made 
between  fractures  that  are  compound  by  direct  violence  and  those  by 
indirect  violence.  For  these  and  for  ambulatory  treatment  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Chapter  VII. 

Suspension  may  be  employed  with  any  of  these  splints  and  often 
promotes  comfort  notably. 


3.  FRACTURES  AT  THE  LOWER  END  OF  THE  LEG. 

In  this  group  I  place  the  rare  fractures  of  both  bones  in  which  the 
lower  end  of  the  tibia  is  crushed  or  splintered,  separation  of  the  lower 
epiphysis  of  the  tibia  and  the  allied  supramalleolar  fracture,  the  numer- 
ous and  varied  fractures  of  one  or  both  bones  at  or  near  the  joint  caused 
by  forcible  inversion  or  eversion  of  the  foot,  sometimes  aided  by  the 
weight  of  the  body,  of  which  the  most  common  is  known  as  Pott's 
fracture,  and  the  much  rarer  fracture  of  the  posterior  articular  portion 
of  the  tibia.  The  feature  which  almost  all  have  in  common  is  the 
action  of  the  causative  violence  through  the  foot. 

A,  Comminuted  Fracture  of  the  Lower  End  of  the  Tibia  with  Fracture 

of  the  Fibula. 

The  fractures  which  constitute  this  group  are  too  rare  and  varied  to 
permit  a  systematic  description.  The  tibia  is  broken  either  by  direct 
violence  acting  upon  its  side  to  crush  it,  or,  more  frequently  appar- 
ently, by  a  fall  from  a  height  in  which  the  bone  is  broken  by  a  trans- 
verse strain  and  then  its  lower  portion  split  by  the  penetration  into  it 
of  the  other.  Thus,  in  a  case  reported  by  Chassaignac  the  tibia  was 
broken  four  finger  breadths  above  the  joint  and  the  lower  fragment 
split  into  four  pieces;  the  fibula  was  broken  at  two  places  in  its  lower 
third.  A  specimen  in  the  museum  at  Val  de  Grace  is  shown  in  Fig. 
214;  the  lower  end  of  the  tibia  was  broken  into  six  fragments. 

Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis  must  be  made  by  recognition  of  the  abnor- 
mal mobility  and  the  mobility  of  the  fragments;  probably  the  aid  of 
ansesthesia  would  always  be  necessary  to  appreciation  of  the  details. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  must  aim  to  effect  and  maintain  as  com- 
plete reduction  as  possible,  acting  upon  the  fragments  by  traction 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEG.  373 

through  the  foot  and  by  direct  pressure.  The  implication  of  the  joint 
and  the  frequent  derangement  of  the  articular  surface  by  fragmentation 
make  loss  of  function  in  the  ankle-joint  inevitable,  and  therefore  the 
foot  must  be  maintained  at  right  angles  to  the  leg  and  without  eversion 
or  inversion  of  the  sole  in  order  that  its  useful- 
ness may  not  be  further  diminished  by  a  fixed  Fig.  214. 
faulty  position.  If  the  injury  is  compound  by 
direct  violence  amputation  may  be  expected  to 
give  a  better  functional  result  than  conservative 
treatment  in  most  cases. 

B.   Supramalleolar  Fracture. 

This  term  was  created  by  Malgaigne  and  ap- 
plied to  fractures  which  for  the  most  part  were 
low  or  partial  forms  of  the  preceding  class,  the 
line  of  fracture  always  running  into  the  joint  and 
usually  comminuting  the  end  of  the  bone,  but 
there  are  cases  in  which  the  tibia  is  broken  across 
within  an  inch  or  two  of  its  lower  surface  and 
with  fracture  of  the  fibula  at  or  above  the  same 
level.  Tillaux'  was  able  to  produce  this  form 
experimentally  by  inversion  of  the  foot,  and  says 
the  fracture  then  takes  place  first  in  the  fibula,  comminuted  fracture  of  the 
and  only  in  the  tibia  if  the  force  continues  to  lower  portion  of  the  leg. 
act;  he  reports  one  case  in  which  dislocation  of 

the  upper  end  of  the  fibula  took  the  place  of  fracture  of  that  bone, 
the  line  of  fracture  of  the  tibia  lying  three  finger  breadths  above  its 
lower  surface.  In  the  few  cases  I  have  seen  the  mechanism  could  not 
be  learned,  but  I  see  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it  can  be  effected  also  by 
eversion  of  the  foot. 

Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis  is  made  by  pain  on  pressure  along  the  line 
of  fracture  and  on  pressing  the  foot  up  against  the  leg,  and  possibly 
by  recognition  of  abnormal  mobility  and  crepitus. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  immobilization,  preferably  in  a  fixed 
dressing,  using  the  foot  to  control  the  position  of  the  lower  fragment. 

C.  Separation  of  the  Epiphysis  of  the  Tibia. 

This  is  more  frequent  than  that  of  the  upper  epiphysis,  11  to  4  in 
Bruns's  100  cases  of  all  kinds.  The  cause  is  a  cross-strain  in  ever- 
sion and  perhaps  in  inversion  of  the  foot,  sometimes  the  result  of  great 
violence  as  in  a  fall  from  a  height,  sometimes  a  simple  twisting  of  the 
foot  in  a  misstep. 

In  some  cases,  as  in  Fig.  215,  the  outer  portion  of  the  shaft  is  broken 
off,  evidently  during  eversion;  and  in  some  the  injury  is  compound 
with  marked  protrusion  of  the  shaft  through  the  wound  on  the  inner 
side.  The  fibula  is  almost  always  broken  at  a  higher  point,  and 
although  the  upper  limit  of  its  own  epiphysis  is  situated  well  below 

1  Tillaux  :  Anatomie  topographique,  p.  1174. 


374 


FEACTUBES. 


that  of  the  tibia  its  separation  occasionally  takes  the  place  of  fracture 
of  the  shaft. 

Hutchinson  collected  eight  reported  cases  of  arrest  of  growth  after 
the  injury,  with  overgrowth  of  the  fibula  and  inversion  of  the  foot. 

The  principle  of  treatment  is  the  same  as  in  supramalleolar  fracture. 


Fig.  215. 


D.  Fractures  by  Eversion  and  Abduction  of  the  Foot.     Pott's  Fracture. 

Beside  being  a  very  common  injury  this  gains  special  importance 
from  the  frequency  with  which  the  cardinal  principles  of  its  treatment 
are  overlooked  and  the  occasional  great  disability 
which  results.  The  lesions  vary  much  in  extent 
aud  detail;  indeed,  occasionally  fracture  is  wholly 
absent  and  some  of  the  forms  have  been  classed 
with  dislocations.  But  these  differences  are  due 
either  to  alternative  lesions  or  to  the  early  cessa- 
tion of  the  force  before  the  typical  form  has  been 
reached,  and  the  mode  of  production  in  its  two 
forms  is  constant,  so  that  all  the  variations  are 
parts  of  a  single  nosological  eutity.  The  differ- 
ences make  a  name  anatomically  descriptive  of 
the  group  almost  impossible;  the  one  above 
given,  based  on  the  mode  of  production,  is  useful 
to  distinguish  the  group  from  the  following  one 
which  has  certain  points  of  resemblance,  and 
correctly  includes  all  the  forms,  but  it  is  not 
suitable  for  current  use;  the  alternative  title, 
Pott's  fracture,  has  not  only  the  advantage  of 
convenience  but  also  that  of  long  association 
It  deserves,  I  think,  to  be  retained  as  the  principal 


Separation  of  epiphysis  of 
tibia.     (HoFFA ) 


with  the  injury, 
name. 

Cause  and  Pathology.  The  cause  is  a  twist  of  the  foot — eversion  and 
abduction — aided  somewhat  by  the  weight  of  the  body.  According  as 
the  eversion  or  the  abduction  predominates  the  lesions  take  one  or  the 
other  of  two  easily  distinguished  forms,  as  follows  : 

If  eversion  is  the  sole,  or  main,  movement  the  force  is  exerted 
through  the  internal  lateral  ligament  and  breaks  the  internal  malleolus 
squarely  off  at  its  base;  then  it  presses  the  external  malleolus  outward, 
rupturing  the  tibio-fi  bular  ligament,  and  breaks  the  tibula  close  above 
the  malleolus.  Sometimes,  instead  of  pure  rupture  of  the  tibio-fibular 
ligament,  there  is  avulsion  of  the  portion  of  the  tibia  to  which  it  is 
attached,  in  front  or  behind  or  both,  but  I  believe  this  to  be  rare. 
These  lesions  can  be  easily  produced  experimentally  by  fixing  the  foot 
in  a  vise  and  pressing  the  upper  part  of  the  leg  outward. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  abduction  of  the  front  of  the  foot  is  the  prin- 
cipal movement  the  first  and  last  of  these  three  lesions  vary:  instead 
of  a  square  break  of  the  internal  malleolus  at  its  base,  there  is  an 
oblique,  almost  marginal,  fracture  of  its  anterior  portion,  or,  more 
commonly,  there  is  rupture  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  internal  lat- 
eral ligament;  then  follows  rupture  of  the  tibio-fibular  ligament,  and, 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEO. 


375 


as  the  movement  continues,  the  torsion  of  the  fibula  produces  an  oblique 
fracture  the  upper  end  of  which  is  found  three  or  four  inches  above 
the  tip  of  the  malleolus.  If  the  movement  is  arrested  in  time  fracture 
of  the  fibula  may  not  occur.  P^xperimentally  this  can  be  easily  jjro- 
duced  and  the  sequence  of  events  accurately  observed.  Clinically  it 
cannot  be  demonstrated  so  easily,  for  the  patient  can  rarely  give  a 
detailed  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  injury  was  received,  but 
in  one  of  my  cases  the  mechanism  was  evident :  while  the  patient  was 
kneeling  on  one  knee,  the  foot  resting  on  the  hyper-extended  toes,  he 
was  pressed  backward  so  that  his  buttocks  rested  on  and  forced  the 
ankle  inward,  causing  abduction  of  the  front  of  the  foot.  The  essen- 
tial lesion  is  the  tibio-fibular  diastasis,  the  rupture  of  those  ligaments, 
and  the  consequent  widening  of  the  mortise  within  which  the  astragalus 
is  held. 


Fig.  216. 


Pott's  fracture,  right  side ;  stiowing  outward  displacement  aud  absence  oi  eversion. 

Two  complications  which  may  appear  in  the  first  variety  were,  so 
far  as  I  know,  first  observed  and  reported  by  me;^  I  have  seen  two 
cases  of  each.  One  is  the  rotation  of  the  internal  malleolus  about  an 
antero-posterior  axis  so  that  its  fractured  surface  lies  parallel  to  and 
just  beneath  the  skin,  the  fragment  being  exceptionally  prominent  and 
movable.  The  other  is  the  interposition  between  the  malleolus  and  the 
tibia  of  a  large  strip  of  periosteum  torn  from  the  tibia;  in  this  condi- 
tion also  the  malleolus  is  exceptionally  prominent  and  movable.  In 
all  my  four  cases  the  fracture  was  exposed  and  readjustment  made 


1  Stimson  :  Transactions  of  the  New  York  Surgical  Society,  in  New  York  Medical  Journal,  Jan. 
26,  1889,  p.  108,  and  Pott's  Fracture,  New  York  Medical  Journal,  June  25,  1892. 


376 


FRACTURES. 


through  an  incision  ;  recovery  followed  with  full  restoration  of  func- 
tion. 

Another  occasional  complication  is  the  breaking  of  the  posterior  lip 
of  the  articular  surface  of  the  tibia.      See  Section  D. 

Another,  not  very  uncommon,  complication  of  the  first  variety  is 
laceration  of  the  skin  on  the  inner  side  by  the  end  of  the  tibia,  which 
may  project  through  the  wound;  this  is  due  to  the  prolongation  of  the 
action  after  fracture,  by  which  the  foot  is  forced  outward  and  everted 
and  the  skin  torn  across  the  brokeu  edge  of  the  tibia.  The  displace- 
ment is  of  the  foot  (astragalus)  and  outer  malleolus  outward  and  back- 

FlG.  217. 


The  same ;  showing  backward  displacement. 


ward.  This  displacement  is  usually  slight,  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  but 
it  may  be  much  more,  and  the  backward  displacement  is  sometimes  so 
great  that  the  body  of  the  astragalus  lies  almost  wholly  behind  the 
tibia. 

Symptoms.  The  appearance  of  the  region  is  usually  so  characteristic 
that  the  diagnosis  can  be  made  at  a  glance,  the  characteristic  feature 
being  the  outward  displacement  of  the  foot  and  the  corresponding  prom- 
inence of  the  internal  malleolus  or  the  adjoining  portion  of  the  tibia 
(Fig.  216);  in  the  marked  cases  the  backward  displacement  is  also 
plainly  to  be  seen  (Fig.  217).  The  former  is  most  apparent  when  the 
muscles  are  relaxed,  as  by  aufesthesia,  or  when  swelling  is  absent. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEG. 


377 


The  pathognomonic  signs  are  abnormal  lateral  mobility  at  the  ankle, 
which  can  be  shown  by  grasping  the  foot  with  one  hand  so  that  the 
posterior  portion  of  the  sole  rests  in  the  pahn,  with  tlie  tliunib  close 
below  the  external  malleolus  and  the  index  finger  below  the  internal 
malleolus,  and  moving  it  bodily  inward  and  outward  while  the  other 
hand  grasps  the  leg  above  the  ankle  and  steadies  it  (Figs.  218  and 
219).  This  manipulation  sometimes  produces  a  distinct  click  by  the 
impact  of  the  astragalus  against  the  internal  malleolus. 


Pig.  218. 


Fig.  219. 


Pott's  fracture ;  method  of  recognizing  abnormal  lateral  mobility. 

In  like  manner  abnormal  mobility  backward  and  forward  can  some- 
times be  shown  by  clasping  the  back  of  the  heel  w^ith  the  fingers  of 
both  hands,  placing  the  thumbs  on  the  front  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
tibia,  and  then  alternately  lifting  the  foot  and  allowing  it  to  drop  back, 
the  patient  being  recumbent. 

Three  points  of  tenderness  on  pressure  are  constant  and  character- 
istic :  one  in  front  of  the  position  of  the  tibio-fibular  ligament,  that  is, 
in  the  groove  between  the  tibia  and  the  external  malleolus,  showing 
the  rupture  of  this  ligament;  one  at  the  base  of  the  internal  malleolus 


378 


FRACTURES. 


or  Dear  its  anterior  border  or  just  in  front  of  it,  marking  the  fracture 
of  the  malleolus  or  the  rupture  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  lateral 
ligament;  the  third  over  the  outer  aspect  of  the  fibula,  close  above  the 
malleolus  in  the  first  variety,  an  inch  or  so  higher  in  the  second,  mark- 
ing the  fracture  of  the  fibula.  Abnormal  mobility  of  the  two  frag- 
ments may  sometimes  be  recognizable. 

Marked  ecchymosis  appears  beneath  the  external  malleolus  and 
usually  also  beneath  the  internal. 


Fig.  220. 


Fig.  221. 


# 


Old  Pott's  fracture ;  outward 
displacement. 


The  same ;  backward  displacement. 


Pressure  upward  against  the  heel  is  not  painful,  and  the  patient  can 
sometimes  walk  if  he  steps  carefully  and  without  much  movement  in 
the  ankle-joint. 

Prognosis.  If  reduction  is  made  and  maintained  the  prognosis  is 
good,  the  patient  almost  always  regaining  full  use  of  the  joint,  but  if 
either  backward  or  outward  displacement  persists  (Figs.  220  and  221) 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEG. 


379 


the  disability  is  likely  to  be  marked.  Backward  displacement  limits 
dorsal  flexion  at  the  ankle,  and  the  patient  is,  therefore,  obliged  to  turn 
the  toes  well  outward  in  walking;  outward  displacement  brings  the 
weight  of  the  body  too  far  to  the  inner  side  of  the  foot  and  thus  pro- 
duces a  strain  upon  the  internal  lateral  ligament  which  promptly  causes 
fatigue  and  pain. 

Fig.  222. 


Pott's  fracture ;  posterior  plaster  splint. 


Treatment.     Reduction,  to  facilitate  which  anaesthesia  is  sometimes 
advisable,  is  made  by  pressing  the  calcaneum  forward  and  inward;  the 


Fig.  223. 


Pott's  fracture ;  lateral  plaster  splint. 


hand  is  placed  against  the  back  and  outer  side  of  the  heel  and  pressed 
forward  and  then  forcibly  inward.     It  is  best  maintained  by  a  poste- 


FlG.  224. 


Dupuytren's  splint. 

rior  and  a  lateral  plaster  splint,  such  as  those  shown  in  Figs.  222  and 
223.     They  are  preferable  to  complete  encasement  in  plaster  because 


380  FRACTURES. 

they  permit  inspection  of  the  inner  side  of  the  ankle  and  the  immediate 
detection  of  recurrence,  and  to  wooden  splints  (Fig.  224)  because  they 
are  more  secure.  They  can  be  conveniently  made  of  a  four-inch  plaster 
roller  by  soaking  it  and  running  it  back  and  forth  on  a  table  until 
twelve  or  fifteen  layers  of  suitable  length  have  been  put  together.  The 
posterior  splint  should  extend  from  the  toes,  along  the  sole,  and  up  the 
calf  nearly  to  the  knee.  The  lateral  one  should  begin  just  in  front  of 
the  external  malleolus,  pass  over  the  dorsum  of  the  foot  to  the  inner 
side,  under  the  sole,  and  up  along  the  outer  side  of  the  leg  to  the  same 
height.  They  are  snugly  moulded  and  bound  to  the  limb  while  still 
wet  with  a  roller  bandage  which  may  be  removed  after  the  plaster 
has  set,  its  place  being  taken  by  a  few  turns  of  a  bandage  just  above 
the  ankle  and  at  the  upper  end  of  the  splint.  While  the  plaster  is 
setting  reduction  must  be  maintained  by  an  assistant  or  by  resting  the 
heel  on  a  sand-bag  with  the  limb  in  outward  rotation  so  that  the  foot 
will  be  pressed  forward  and  inward.  I  have  sometimes  placed  the 
lateral  splint  on  the  inner  side. 

Such  a  splint  may  be  conveniently  and  safely  applied  immediately 
after  the  accident,  for  if  strangulation  should  threaten  the  circular 
bandages  can  be  loosened  sufficiently  to  relieve  the  constriction  without 
disturbing  the  position  of  the  foot.  If  applied  while  the  limb  is  swol- 
len the  shrinking  can  be  met  by  tightening  the  circular  bands,  but  it 
is  better  to  apply  a  new  one  after  a  few  days. 

In  compound  fracture  with  a  small  wound  infection  can  generally  be 
avoided  by  the  usual  measures  and  a  good  result  obtained.  If  the 
wound  is  or  should  become  infected  drainage  must  be  made  on  both 
sides,  and  the  foot  kept  square  upon  the  leg  that  its  usefulness  may  be 
as  great  as  possible  after  the  probable  result  of  anchylosis. 

In  the  rare  cases  of  rotation  of  the  internal  malleolus  or  interposition 
of  a  strip  of  periosteum  the  condition  should  be  corrected  through  an 
open  incision. 

In  old  fractures  with  unreduced  displacement  relief  can  be  had  only  by 
operation.  Supramalleolar  osteotomy  enables  the  foot  to  be  brought 
back  into  line  with  the  leg,  but  does  not  correct  the  backward  displace- 
ment which  almost  always  coexists.  I  have  never  emj)loyed  it,  but 
have  always  resorted  to  a  formal  attempt  to  bring  the  astragalus  and 
external  malleolus  back  to  their  places,  using  two  lateral  incisions,  as 
follows  (Figs.  225,  226)  : 

One  incision  begins  at  the  front  of  the  fibula  three  inches  above  the 
ankle,  is  carried  downward,  passing  in  front  of  the  malleolus,  and  then 
curved  forward  on  the  side  of  the  foot;  the  fracture  is  exposed  and  the 
lower  fragment  again  detached.  The  second  incision  begins  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  tibia  at  the  same  level  as  the  first  and  passes  down  to 
the  front  of  the  malleolus  and  thence  forward  to  or  beyond  the  tubercle 
of  the  scaphoid.  Through  it  the  internal  malleolus,  if  it  was  broken 
off  in  the  original  injury,  is  again  detached  from  the  tibia  with  a  chisel, 
and  the  end  of  the  tibia  protruded  so  that  it  is  easy  to  liberate  the 
astragalus  and  cut  away  any  new  growth  of  bone  that  may  have  formed 
on  the  back  of  the  tibia.  The  foot  is  then  easily  restored  to  place,  the 
incisions  closed,  and  a  bulky  dressing  applied  and  covered  with  plaster 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEG. 


381 


of  'Paris.    In  the  nine  or  ten  cases  in  which  I  have  done  this  the  res- 
toration of   form   has  been  complete,  and    that  of   function  always 


Fig.  22C. 


t 

/ 


Pott's  fracture  ;  same  case  as  in  Figs.  220  and  221 ;  showing  result  of  operation. 

an  improvement  upon  the  previous  condition  and  sometimes  a  very 
marked  one. 

E.  Fractures  of  the  Malleoli  by  Inversion  of  the  Foot. 

This  injury,  which  also  is  a  common  one,  presents  several  varieties 
differing  notably  in  the  extent  of  the  lesions,  the  immediate  disability, 
and  the  prognosis.  The  fibula  may  be  alone  broken  at  or  close  above 
the  base  of  the  malleolus  or  at  the  epiphyseal  line  in  the  young,  or 
with  its  fracture  may  be  associated  that  of  the  tip  of  the  internal  mal- 
leolus or  one  passing  obliquely  upward  and  inward  through  the  tibia 
and  separating  a  fragment  composed  of  the  internal  malleolus  and  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  adjoining  bone  (Plate  XVIIl.).  The  variations 
appear  to  be  due  to  differences  in  the  amount  or  force  of  the  inversion 
and  to  the  extent  to  which  the  weight  of  the  body  acts  as  a  factor. 


382  FRACTURES. 

Thus,  the  first  effect  of  inversion  is  to  break  the  fibula;  if  the  move- 
ment is  continued,  or  possibly  if  its  direction  is  somewhat  different, 
the  astragalus  presses  against  and  breaks  off  the  tip  of  the  internal 
malleolus;  but  if  the  weight  of  the  body  is  added,  as  in  a  fall  upon 
the  inverted  foot,  the  astragalus  presses  upward  and  inward  against 
the  inner  portion  of  the  tibia  and  breaks  off  the  larger  fragment. 

The  first  form  of  the  injury,  fracture  of  the  external  malleolus  or 
fibula  alone,  is  of  slight  importance,  producing  no  displacement  of  the 
astragalus  and  getting  well  under  a  simple  protective  dressing.  The 
same  is  nearly  equally  true  of  the  second  form,  added  fracture  of  the 
tip  of  the  internal  malleolus,  but  more  time  is  required  before  the  limb 
can  be  freely  used.  The  third  form  is  much  more  serious  and  usually 
results  in  considerable  restriction  of  motion  at  the  joint. 

Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis  is  made  in  the  first  two  varieties  by  recog- 
nition of  tenderness  on  pressure  at  the  lines  of  fracture  and  of  inde- 
pendent mobility  of  the  external  malleolus  by  pressing  its  tip  inward 
while  another  finger  is  placed  at  the  seat  of  fracture  to  feel  the  tilting 
of  the  upper  end  of  the  fragment.  In  the  third  variety  the  line  of 
fracture  of  the  tibia  can  be  recognized  by  tenderness  on  pressure  and 
by  the  irregularity  produced  by  the  displacement  upward  and  inward 
of  the  fragment. 

Treatment.  For  the  first  two  varieties  it  is  sufficient  to  immobilize 
the  part  by  plaster  of  Paris,  taking  care  to  keep  the  foot  well  pressed 
inward  while  the  plaster  is  setting  in  order  that  the  malleolar  mortise 
shall  not  be  widened.  In  the  third  variety  the  effort  must  be  made  to 
correct  the  displacement  of  the  tibial  fragment  by  pressing  it  down- 
ward and  outward,  and  to  immobilize  with  the  foot  well  forward, 
guarding  against  backward  displacement,  and  the  external  malleolus 
pressed  snugly  against  the  tibia,  guarding  against  outward  displacement. 

F.  Fracture  of  the  Posterior  Portion  of  the  Articular  Surface  of  the  Tibia.^ 

This  may  be  a  complication  of  Pott's  fracture,  the  fragment  being 
rather  small,  or  the  crush  may  be  so  extensive  that  the  symptoms  and 
treatment  are  very  different.  In  the  slighter  form  the  breaking  of  the 
tibia  is  apparently  produced  by  the  weight  of  the  body  pressing  the 
posterior  and  outer  part  of  the  articular  surface  against  the  displaced 
astragalus,  and  yet  I  have  known  it  to  be  caused  by  the  comparatively 
slight  violence  of  a  fall  from  an  almost  stationary  bicycle.  I  have 
never  seen  it  in  a  fresh  injury  and  do  not  know  whether  it  could  be 
recognized;  the  signs  of  Pott's  fracture  would  be  recognizable,  of 
course,  and  possibly  the  additional  fracture  might  be  shown  by  dis- 
placement of  the  foot  (astragalus)  slightly  upward  as  well  as  backward 
and  outward. 

The  treatment  is  that  of  Pott's  fracture. 

The  more  severe  form  is  rare  and  apparently  the  result  of  a  fall  from 
a  height  upon  the  foot.  I  have  one  old  specimen  of  extensive  crushing 
with  fracture  of  the  external  malleolus  and  its  displacement  backward, 
but  repair  has  obliterated  most  of  the  details.     Probably  under  an 

1  See  also  Backward  Dislocation  of  the  Foot. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEG.  383 

ansesthetic  the  general  condition,  if  not  the  details,  could  be  recognized 
by  palpation.  The  treatment  would  be  to  make  such  reduction  as  was 
possible  and  to  immobilize  in  plaster  splints. 


4.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  FIBULA. 

A.  Fracture  of  the  Upper  End.^ 

This  may  be  caused  by  direct  violence,  by  muscular  action  (contrac- 
tion of  the  biceps),  or  more  commonly  by  forcible  adduction  of  the  leg 
acting  through  the  external  lateral  ligament  attached  to  the  head  of 
the  fibula.  In  two  of  the  reported  cases  (Stimson,  Weir)  the  lesion 
was  a  separation  of  the  epiphysis.  In  a  number  of  the  cases  paralysis 
of  the  extensor  and  peroneal  muscles  and  loss  of  sensation  in  the  region 
supplied  by  the  musculo-cutaneous  branch  of  the  peroneal  nerve  were 
noticed  shortly  after  the  accident,  and  in  some  persisted  until  the 
patients  passed  from  observation.  Weir  and  IMarchant  exposed  the 
nerve  in  their  cases  and  found  it  unbroken  but  apparently  compressed 
by  the  edge  of  the  fragment;  the  patients  recovered  almost  completely 
from  the  paralysis. 

The  upper  fragment  has  been  widely  displaced  upward  in  most  of 
the  cases,  and  it  has  usually  been  impossible  to  bring  it  fully  back  to 
its  place,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  any  disability  has  resulted  there- 
from. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  consists  in  approximation  of  the  frag- 
ments by  bandaging  aided  by  flexion  of  the  knee  to  relax  the  biceps  and 
plaster  of  Paris  to  prevent  adduction  of  the  leg.  If  peroneal  paralysis 
exists  it  would  probably  be  well  to  expose  the  nerve  for  some  little 
distance  above  and  below  the  fracture  in  order  to  reunite  it  if  it  is  torn 
or  to  relieve  pressure  upon  it. 

B.  Fractures  of  the  Shaft. 

These  fractures  are  produced  by  direct  violence.  The  displacement 
is  slight  because  of  the  support  given  by  the  tibia,  and  the  diagnosis 
is  made  upon  the  localized  pain  and  possibly  crepitus  and  recognizable 
mobility  or  irregularity  of  outline.  Occasionally  symptoms  indicative 
of  injury  to  the  cutaneous  branch  of  the  peroneal  nerve  are  present, 
presumably  by  the  violence  which  caused  the  fracture. 

Treatment.  The  only  treatment  needed  is  protection  against  external 
violence  and  movement  of  the  lower  fragment  by  twisting  the  foot; 
this  is  conveniently  given  by  a  plaster  or  silicate  dressing  extending 
from  the  toes  to  the  knee.  ,  It  should  be  worn  for  about  three  weeks, 
and  care  should  be  taken  for  a  fortnight  longer  to  avoid  muscular  strain 
and  lateral  pressure  by  the  foot  at  the  ankle. 

1  For  reported  eases,  which  are  not  numerous,  see  the  first  edition  of  this  work  and  Gurlt's 
Knochenbriichen,  vol.  i.  p.  243  ;  Duplay,  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  deChirurgie,  1880.  p.  218 :  Terrier,  Idem, 
p.  222;  Leggatt,  Lancet,  March  31,  1888;  Hirschberg.  Arch,  fiir  klin.  Chir..  vol.  xxxvii.  p.  199; 
Weir,  New  York  Medical  Journal,  May  26,  1888  ;  Marchant,  La  France  M6d.,  February  21,  1889  ; 
and  Chapin,  New  York  Medical  Journal,  September,  1891,  p.  12. 


CHAPTEE  XXVI. 

FEACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOOT. 

1.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  ASTRAGALUS. 

These  are  commonly  the  result  of  falls  from  a  height,  the  bone 
being  broken  between  the  calcaneum  and  the  tibia,  and  the  lesion  being 
frequently  associated  with  fracture  of  the  calcaneum  and  with  disloca- 
tion at  the  ankle  and  fracture  of  the  fibula;  in  other  cases  the  force 
acts  transversely. 

The  direction  and  extent  of  the  line  of  fracture  vary  greatly;  the 
bone  may  be  divided  transversely,  or  longitudinally,  or  horizontally, 
or  into  several  pieces,  and  the  fragments  may  be  widely  separated  and 
dislocated. 

When  there  is  no  displacement  or  external  wound  the  diagnosis  may 
be  very  difficult,  because  the  symptoms  are  not  distinctive  and  indicate 
only  severe  injury  to  the  foot,  pain,  swelling,  inabilty  to  bear  the  weight 
of  the  body  on  it,  and  perhaps  crepitus  on  handling  or  flexing  and 
extending  it.  The  diagnosis  must  be  made  by  exclusion  of  other 
injuries,  by  localized  pain,  and  possibly  by  recognition  of  a  displaced 
fragment,  or  of  independent  mobility  of  the  head  of  the  bone.  I  have 
once  found  it  by  the  x-rays,  in  combination  with  fracture  of  the  os 
calcis  and  without  displacement,  when  unable  to  recognize  it  clinically. 

When  there  is  no  displacement  treatment  is  directed  simply  to  immo- 
bilize the  joint  and  control  the  inflammation;  a  plaster  bandage  should 
be  applied,  especial  attention  being  given  to  the  position  of  the  foot, 
which  should  be  at  right  angles  to  the  leg  in  the  antero-posterior  plane 
and  without  inversion  or  e version. 

If  a  fragment  is  broken  from  the  upper  articular  surface  of  the  body 
it  should  be  removed.  If  the  neck  has  been  broken  and  the  head  dis- 
placed it  should  be  restored  to  its  place,  by  an  incision  if  necessary,  or 
removed  if  it  is  found  to  be  completely  detached.  If  the  body  should 
prove  to  be  crushed  or  comminuted  its  total  excision,  with  or  without 
the  head  and  neck,  will  probably  yield  a  much  better  functional  result 
than  conservative  treatment. 

In  compound  fractures  by  direct  violence  removal  of  the  astragalus 
is  indicated  because  the  functional  result -is  likely  to  be  better  than 
after  even  successful  conservative  treatment. 


2.  FRACTURE  OF  THE  CALCANEUM. 

This  bone  may  be  broken  by  a  fall  upon  the  foot  from  a  height,  by 
contraction  of   the  muscles  attached    to  the  tendo  Achillis,  and  by 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOOT.  385 

forcible  inversion  of  the  sole  of  the  foot.     The  extent  and  position  of 
the  fracture  vary  with  the  causes. 

In  a  fall  directly  upon  the  sole  the  bone  is  splintered  or  a-ushed,  and 
especially  so  in  its  anterior  half,  and  its  vertical  diameter  is  diminished 
by  the  crushing  and  its  transverse  diameter  increased  (Fig.  227). 
Sometimes  the  bone  is  also  split  longitudinally.  There  is  some  reason 
to  think  that  forcible  pressure  upon  the  ball  of  the  foot,  dorsal  flexion, 
resisted  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  calf,  may  produce  the 
same  result  by  the  following  mechanism :  the  arch  of  the  foot  is  ex- 
tended, the  thick,  strong  inferior  calcaneo-scaphoid  ligament  made 
tense,  and  the  calcaneum  broken  behind  the  insertion  of  this  ligament; 
then,  the  force  continuing  to  act,  the  broken  bone  is  further  crushed 
by  the  astragalus. 

Pig.  227. 


Fracture  of  the  calcaneum,  with  crushing. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  of  a  vertical  or  crushing  fracture  are 
somewhat  indefinite,  and  the  diagnosis  is  not  always  easy,  as  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  surgeons  so  experienced  as  Malgaigne,  Bonnet,  Huguier, 
and  Legouest  have  mistaken  the  injury  for  fracture  of  the  fibula  or 
ankle.  The  symptoms  are  increase  of  its  transverse  diameter,  which, 
however,  may  be  completely  masked  by  the  swelling  below  and  about 
the  malleoli,  flatness  of  the  sole  and  approximation  to  it  of  the  mal- 
leoli, especially  of  the  internal  one,  pain,  and  loss  of  function.  Crepi- 
tus is  either  absent  or  obscure;  abnormal  mobility  may  be  recognized 
by  moving  the  posterior  portion  laterally.  Pain  is  caused  by  direct 
pressure  and  by  a  voluntary  effort  to  make  plantar  flexion  against 
resistance  at  the  toes.  The  tendo  Achillis  feels  less  tense  when  pressed 
upon,  and  the  depression  on  each  side  of  it  is  obliterated  by  swelling. 
The  deformity  of  the  heel  is  best  recognized  when  compared  with  its 
fellow  while  the  patient  is  kneeling. 

Treatment,  The  treatment  is  immobilization,  preferably  with  mas- 
sage, for  about  three  weeks;  use  of  the  limb  to  be  renewed  as  soon  as 
the  patient  can  bear  his  weight  upon  it. 

When  the  direction  of  the  violence  with  reference  to  the  axis  of  the 
leg  is  such  that  the  foot  is  adducted  or  inverted  by  it,  the  strain  is 
brought  upon  the  external  lateral  ligament  and  the  sustentaculum  tali, 
with  the  result  of  producing  fracture  of  the  fibula  as  described  on  page 
381,  or  rupture  of  the  external  lateral  ligament,  or  avulsion  of  a  scale 

25 


386  FRACTURES. 

of  bone  from  the  side  of  the  calcaneum  where  the  ligament  is  inserted, 
or  fracture  of  the  sustentaculum  tali. 

With  the  first  of  these  we  have  not  here  to  deal.  A  case  of  avulsion 
of  a  scale  of  bone  came  under  my  observation  at  the  Presbyterian  Hos- 
pital in  1880;  the  patient  had  fallen  from  a  height  of  ten  feet,  striking 
upon  his  left  foot.  I  saw  him  on  the  following  day  and  found  the  foot 
and  ankle  much  swollen,  with  obscure  crepitus  and  pain  on  manipulation 
of  the  side  of  the  heel  below  the  outer  malleolus.  The  swelling  sub- 
sided under  lead  and  opium  lotions,  and  in  a  few  days  I  could  distinctly 
make  out  a  movable  flat  fragment  evidently  detached  from  the  outer 
side  of  the  calcaneum  below  the  malleolus.  The  movements  of  the 
foot  and  ankle  were  normal  and  painless  except  when  the  peroneal 
muscles  were  made  to  contract,  then  pain  was  felt  below  the  external 
malleolus.  The  sheath  of  the  tendons  of  these  muscles  was  swollen 
below  and  behind  the  malleolus. 

Fracture  of  the  sustentaculum  tali  was  first  described  by  Abel.^  In 
his  first  case  the  injury  was  thought  to  be  a  Pott's  fracture  of  the 
ankle,  and  its  real  character  was  disclosed  at  the  autopsy.  The  patient 
was  a  young  man  who  in  dismounting  from  a  horse  slipped  on  a  stone 
and  turned  his  foot  forcibly  inward.  He  attempted  to  walk,  and  the 
position  of  the  foot  then  changed  instantly  to  marked  valgus.  A  lon- 
gitudinal wound  three  inches  long  below  the  external  malleolus  opened 
the  ankle-joint  and  the  joint  between  the  astragalus  and  calcaneum. 
There  was  tenderness  on  pressure  below  the  internal  malleolus,  and  on 
the  fibula  above  the  external  malleolus.  These  symptoms  together 
with  the  apparent  broadening  of  the  ankle  and  e version  of  the  foot  led 
to  the  erroneous  diagnosis  mentioned.  Erysipelas  set  in  and  the  patient 
died  on  the  fifteenth  day. 

The  fibula  and  tibia  were  found  uninjured,  the  sustentaculum  tali 
broken  off,  and  the  external  lateral  ligament  divided  in  the  line  of  the 
wound. 

Abel  afterward  saw  two  cases  in  which  he  thought  this  injury  had 
been  received  some  time  before.  In  both  the  foot  had  been  violently 
invented,  and  in  one  the  sustentaculum  tali  seemed  to  be  doubled  in 
size.  The  symptoms,  primary  and  ultimate,  corresponded  to  the  fol- 
lowing which  he  gives  as  diagnostic  of  the  injury. 

1.  The  mode  of  production:  forcible  inversion  of  the  sole  of  the  foot. 

2.  The  immediate  change  in  the  position  of  the  foot,  from  inversion 
to  eversion,  and  the  permanent  sinking  of  the  inner  border  of  the  foot 
and  internal  malleolus  (valgus). 

3.  Shortening  of  the  heel  by  slight  displacement  of  the  calcaneum 
forward;  this  can  be  best  recognized  by  measuring  from  one  malleolus 
to  the  other  around  the  heel,  and  was  verified  by  experiment. 

4.  Pain  and  disability. 

I^  presented  to  the  New  York  Surgical  Society  a  specimen  of  this 
fracture  combined  with  that  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  os  calcis  and 
the  inner  part  of  the  scaphoid.  The  patient,  a  man  thirty  years  of 
age,  was  injured  by  jumping  from  a  height  of  thirty  feet  during  a 

1  Abel :  Archiv  fur  klin.  Chirurgie,  1878,  vol.  xxii.  p  396. 
-  Stimson  :  New  York:  Medical  Journal,  January  21,  1888. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOOT.  387 

paroxysm  of  deliriarn  tremens,  and  died  soon  after  he  was  brought  to 
the  hospital.  The  appearanee  of  the  left  foot  closely  resembled  that 
of  splay-footed  valgus;  the  internal  border  in  front  of  the  ankle  was 
lowered,  and  the  front  of  the  foot  was  somewhat  abducted.  The  head 
of  the  astragalus  was  prominent  on  the  interal  border.  The  region  of 
the  internal  malleolus  was  apparently  normal,  except  so  far  as  it  was 
involved  in  the  general  swelling;  the  external  malleolus  was  promi- 
nent, and  its  appearance  suggested  that  the  fibula  had  been  broken 
above  the  ankle.  A  piece  of  bone,  freely  movable  with  crepitus,  could 
be  felt  in  front  of  the  astragalus  on  the  inner  border,  and  there  was 
marked  crepitus  just  in  front  of  the  external  malleolus.  On  dissection, 
the  astragalus  was  found  to  be  displaced  forward  upon  the  tibia  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch,  its  head  being  somewhat  adducted,  projecting 
internally  beyond  the  scaphoid.  A  fragment  of  the  scaphoid,  includ- 
ing the  entire  height  of  its  inner  border  and  having  an  average  thick- 
ness of  an  eighth  of  an  inch,  was  broken  off.  The  sustentaculum  tali 
was  detached  and  the  anterior  portion  of  the  calcaneum  was  fractured 
transversely  and  crushed;  its  anterior  articular  surface  was  fissured, 
but  the  fragments  were  not  separated.  It  seemed  as  if  the  fracture 
must  have  occurred  during  abduction  of  the  front  of  the  foot,  by  the 
violent  propulsion  of  the  astragalus  downward,  forward,  and  inward, 
during  which  movement  the  prominent  wedge-shaped  angle  below  the 
external  articular  surface  was  driven  into,  and  thus  crushed,  the  ante- 
rior part  of  the  calcaneum.  The  fracture  of  the  scaphoid  was  appar- 
ently effected  by  the  pressure  of  the  head  of  the  astragalus,  possibly 
aided  by  the  tension  of  the  tibialis  posticus  and  the  anterior  portion  of 
the  internal  lateral  ligament.  The  mechanism  of  the  fracture  of  the 
sustentaculum  tali  was  not  easily  comprehended.  An  explanation  that 
seemed  plausible  was  that  the  fracture  was  effected  by  avulsion  through 
the  internal  lateral  ligament,  made  tense  by  eversion,  the  fracture  of 
the  process  being  aided  by  that  of  the  adjoining  portion  of  the  calca- 
neum. 

The  foot  should  be  immobilized  in  a  plaster  bandage  or  splints  with 
the  sole  sufficiently  inverted  to  favor  reunion  of  the  fragments,  but 
without  lengthening  of  the  external  lateral  ligaments  if  they  have  been 
torn. 

Fracture  by  muscular  action,  contraction  of  the  soleus  and  gastroc- 
nemii,  has  beeu  observed  a  number  of  times.  Malgaigne  collected 
eight  cases,  rather  briefly  reported;  in  two  the  fracture  was  caused  by 
a  misstep,  and  in  five  by  a  fall  upon  the  feet,  in  two  of  which  it  is 
noted  that  the  patient  alighted  upon  the  ball  of  the  foot.  The  fracture 
seems  to  take  place  always  behind  the  astragalus  and  sometimes  to 
separate  only  a  portion  corresponding  to  the  insertion  of  the  tendo 
Achillis.  The  displacement  in  some  cases  was  slight,  in  others  extreme, 
four  and  one-half  inches  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  fragment  to  the 
bottom  of  the  heel  in  Constance's^  case,  in  which,  nevertheless,  the 
patient  made  a  good  recovery  with  perfect  use  of  the  limb,  although 
the  displacement  persisted. 

1  Constance :  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  1829,  p.  222,  quoting  from  an  English 
journal. 


388  FRACTURES. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Anningson^  the  mechanism  of  the  fracture 
seems  very  clear.  A  woman,  forty-two  years  old,  after  stepping  down 
from  a  doorway  to  the  sidewalk,  a  distance  of  about  six  inches,  cried 
out  that  she  had  ^'  put  out  her  ankle."  She  walked  home  slowly,  a 
distance  of  one  hundred  yards.  A  fragment  of  bone  was  found  two 
and  a  half  inches  above  the  heel  in  the  line  of  the  tendo  Achillis  which 
was  lacking  below  it;  its  lower  edge  was  a  little  above  the  level  of  the 
lower  end  of  the  internal  malleolus;  it  measured  one  inch  transversely 
and  ''  had  been  torn  off  the  posterior  surface  of  the  os  calcis  where  a 
cavity  could  be  felt.  The  whole  depth  of  the  bone  had  not  been  torn 
away,  but  only  the  upper  three-fourths,  and  the  inferior  edge  of  the 
fragment  was  tilted  backward.  The  usual  treatment  of  ruptured  tendo 
Achillis  was  adopted,"  and  eight  weeks  afterward  the  patient  was  able 
to  walk  without  limping  and  complained  only  of  some  loss  of  spring. 

I  have  seen  a  similar  fracture,  but  with  less  displacement  of  the  frag- 
ment, caused  by  jumping  from  a  boat,  the  fracture  apparently  occurring 
as  the  patient  alighted  on  his  toes. 

The  foot  should  be  maintained  in  the  position  of  complete  plantar 
flexion,  and  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  flex  the  knee  also.  This  can 
be  done  by  a  plaster  dressing,  or  an  anterior  splint,  or  a  shoe  with  a 
cord  extending  from  its  heel  to  a  band  about  the  upper  part  of  the  leg 
or  the  lower  part  of  the  thigh.  Gussenbauer^  successfully  treated  a 
case  by  nailing  the  fragment  in  place. 


3.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  METATARSAL  BONES. 

These  are  usually  the  result  of  direct  violence,  and  consequently  are 
often  associated  with  contusion  or  laceration  of  the  skin  even  when  the 
fracture  is  not  compound.  The  first  is  the  one  most  frequently  broken, 
the  fifth  is  next  in  order  of  frequency. 

There  is  but  little  tendency  to  displacement  except  when  several 
bones  are  broken  at  the  same  time,  and  the  usual  displacement  is  of  the 
broken  end  of  either  fragment  toward  the  dorsum  of  the  foot. 

The  diagnosis  is  made  by  localized  pain,  abnormal  mobility  and 
crepitus  when  the  first  or  fifth  is  broken,  and  pain  when  the  corre- 
sponding toe  is  pressed  bodily  backward  against  the  metatarsus. 

A  simple  fracture  is  not  a  serious  injury,  its  course  is  uncomplicated, 
its  result  favorable;  but  a  compound  fracture  may  lead  to  much  bur- 
rowing of  pus,  necrosis  of  the  fragments,  and  grave  inflammatory  com- 
plications, and  the  treatment  should  be  directed  actively  to  their 
prevention;  if  suppuration  becomes  profuse  the  freest  possible  drainage 
should  be  provided  and  counter-openings  made  on  the  sole  or  dorsum 
as  the  case  may  require. 

The  limb  and  foot  may  be  supported  upon  a  moulded  splint  of  plas- 
ter, felt,  or  pasteboard,  and  secured  to  it  with  a  roller  bandage.  In 
compound  fracture  the  gauze  dressings  will  immobilize  the  fragments 
sufficiently. 

i  1  Anningson  :  British  Medical  Journal,  1878,  vol.  i.  p.  128. 

2  Gussenbauer :  Centralblatt  lur  gesammte  Therapie,  June,  1888. 


FRACTURES  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOOT.  389 

4.  FRACTURES  OF  THE  PHALANGES. 

These  are  caused  by  direct  violence  and  are  usually  compound,  and, 
as  in  similar  injuries  of  the  hand,  may  be  the  starting-point  of  very 
serious  inflammatory  complications.  Immersion  of  the  foot  in  a  bath 
containing  1  or  2  per  cent,  of  carbolic  acid  once  or  twice  daily  for  an 
hour  each  time  is  a  valuable  means  of  arresting  commencing  inflam- 
mation. 

The  dressings  of  a  compound  fracture  will  immobilize  the  toe  suffi- 
ciently, and  in  a  simple  fracture  it  is  usually  sufficient  to  place  the  foot 
on  a  splint.  If  it  is  thought  desirable  the  toe  itself  may  be  steadied 
by  strips  of  adhesive  plaster  applied  longitudinally  to  its  dorsum  and 
sides,  or  it  may  be  made  fast  to  the  adjoining  ones. 


DISLOCATIONS. 


CHAPTER    XXVII. 

GENERALITIES. 

A  DISLOCATION  IS  a  permanent,  abnormal,  total  or  partial  displace- 
ment from  each  other  of  the  articular  portions  of  the  bones  entering 
into  the  formation  of  a  joint. 

The  term  diastasis  is  employed  to  indicate  a  direct  separation,  tem- 
porary or  permanent,  of  articular  surfaces,  without  lateral  gliding  of 
one  upon  the  other,  as  when  the  pubic  bones  separate  at  the  symphysis, 
or  the  tibia  and  fibula  are  torn  apart,  or  in  some  injuries  of  the  spinal 
column. 

If  the  displacement  is  only  momentary,  the  parts  immediately  return- 
ing to  their  normal  relations,  the  injury  is  classed  as  a  sprain. 

When  a  coexisting  wound  of  the  soft  parts  establishes  communication 
between  the  outer  air  and  the  cavity  of  the  joint,  the  dislocation  is  said 
to  be  compound;  and  when  there  exist  associated  lesions  of  the  joint  or 
neighboring  tissues  so  extensive  or  peculiar  as  to  present  special  indi- 
cations or  create  special  difficulties  in  treatment,  such  as  fracture  or 
laceration  of  vessels,  nerves,  or  integuments,  it  is  said  to  be  complicated  ; 
under  other  circumstances  it  is  described  as  simple. 

When  the  articular  surfaces  are  so  far  displaced  that  they  no  longer 
touch  each  other,  or  that  they  touch  only  by  their  edges,  the  dislocation 
is  said  to  be  complete  ;  if  the  displacement  is  less,  it  is  called  an  incom- 
plete dislocation  or  subluxation.  Incomplete  dislocations  are  frequent 
in  the  ginglyraoid  and  arthrodial  joints,  and  the  controversy  as  to  their 
frequency  or  infrequency  in  the  enarthroses  has  arisen  not  from  any 
doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  the  new  relations  of  the  articular  surfaces  to 
each  other  or  of  the  extent  of  the  displacement,  but  solely  from  differ- 
ences in  definition,  some  authors  maintaining  that  only  those  dislocations 
should  be  deemed  complete  in  which  the  head  of  the  bone  has  entirely 
left  its  bony  socket,  and  all  those  incomplete  in  which  any  portion  of 
the  head  remains  within  the  area  bounded  by  the  rim  of  the  socket, 
whether  portions  of  the  articular  surfaces  are  in  contact  with  each  other 
or  not.  Under  that  definition  many  dislocations  of  the  shoulder  and 
of  the  hip  would  probably  have  to  be  classed  as  incomplete,  if  the  exact 
relations  of  the  bones  could  be  determined;  and  as  such  accuracy  of 
diagnosis  would  rarely  be  attainable,  and  the  doubtful  cases  would  not 
differ  clinically  from  those  in  which  the  displacement  is  greater,  the 
adoption  of  such  a  classification  would  serve  only  to  embarrass  and 
obscure.  It  seems  to  me  much  simpler  and  more  practical,  even  if 
somewhat  arbitrary,  to  call  all  traumatic  dislocations  of  the  hip  and 
shoulder  complete  in  which  the  centre  of  the  head  of  the  bone  has 
passed   beyond  the  rim  of  the  socket.     The  incomplete  dislocations 


394  DISLOCATIONS. 

would  then  be  exceptional,  practically  only  those  in  which  a  portion  of 
the  rim  of  the  socket  is  broken  off  and  pushed  aside  by  the  displaced 
head,  as  in  a  case  mentioned  by  Robert^  in  an  animated  discussion  of 
this  subject  before  the  Society  de  Chirurgie. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  dislocation  is  of  a  single  joint  only, 
but  occasionally  two  or  more  joints  may  be  simultaneously  dislocated, 
and  the  injury  is  then  said,  according  to  circumstances,  to  be  hilaie^xil, 
double,  or  multiple.  When  a  symmetrical  bone,  having  joints  on  both 
sides  of  the  median  line  of  the  body,  as  the  lower  jaw  or  a  vertebra, 
suffers  dislocation  of  these  joints,  the  injury  is  called  bilateral  or  double. 
When  both  ends  of  a  bone  are  dislocated,  as  has  been  observed  in  the 
clavicle,  ulna,  and  fibula,  the  dislocation  is  said  to  be  double  or  total. 
The  same  term  is  also  applied  to  symmetrical  dislocations  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  body,  as  of  both  shoulders  or  both  hips. 

Multiple  dislocations  are  those  in  which  two  or  more  bones  are  simul- 
taneously dislocated,  as  two  fingers,  a  shoulder  and  a  hip.  Some 
authors  include  under  this  term  those  dislocations  which  others  term 
total. 

A  method  of  nomenclature  accurately  descriptive  of  the  different 
varieties  of  dislocation  has  not  been  established.  As  a  general  rule, 
subject,  however,  to  some  exceptions,  the  bone  which  is  more  distant 
from  the  trunk  or  median  line  of  the  body,  the  one  that  is  generally 
moved  upon  the  other,  is  said  to  be  dislocated;  thus  a  dislocation  at  the 
hip,  at  the  shoulder,  is  called  a  dislocation  of  the  femur,  of  the  humerus. 
Or  the  joint  alone  is  named,  as  a  dislocation  of  the  elbow,  of  the  hip, 
of  the  shoulder.  As  an  example  of  the  exceptions  may  be  mentioned 
dislocation  of  the  outer  end  of  the  clavicle,  a  term  universally  preferred 
to  dislocation  of  the  acromion. 

The  same  lack  of  uniformity  appears  in  the  names  given  to  the  vari- 
ous dislocations  that  may  occur  at  the  individual  joints,  and  the  prac- 
tice has  grown  up  of  using  in  each  case  such  a  name  as  may  most 
readily  and  accurately  indicate  either  the  general  character  of  the  dis- 
placement or  some  important  special  feature  connected  with  it.  When 
the  name  of  the  joint  is  used,  and  a  term  indicating  direction  is  added, 
as  dislocation  of  the  elbow  backward,  forward,  to  the  inner  or  to  the 
outer  side,  the  latter  denotes  the  direction  in  which  the  distal  member 
of  the  joint  has  been  displaced.  Whenever  the  use  of  the  name  of  the 
joint  would  give  rise  to  ambiguity,  it  is  common  to  prefer  the  name  of 
one  of  the  bones  constituting  it,  as  a  dislocation  of  the  radius  and  ulna 
backward,  instead  of  dislocation  of  the  elbow  backward.  Strictly  speak- 
ing, it  is  true  that  this  might  be  mistaken  for  a  dislocation  at  the  wrist, 
and  that,  therefore,  it  would  be  well  to  add  "  at  the  elbow,"  but  cus- 
tom has  so  well  established  the  meaning  of  the  different  terms  now  in 
use  that  in  practice  such  a  mistake  would  hardly  be  made.  Other  dis- 
locations, again,  have  received  names  denoting  the  relations  of  the  dislo- 
cated bone  to  certain  muscles  or  bones,  as  subcoracoid  or  subpectoral 
dislocation  of  the  humerus,  and  dislocation  of  the  (head  of  the)  femur 
upon  the  dorsum  of  the  ilium  or  into  the  obturator  foramen. 

1  Robert :  Bull,  de  la  Soci(5t6  de  Chirurgie,  January  19,  1853,  p.  389. 


OENEBALITIES. 


395 


ThQ primitive  ov primary  displacement  is  the  one  immediately  effected 
by  the  causative  violence  which  produces  the  dislocation;  if  the  dislo- 
cated bone  afterward  shifts  to  another  position,  the  displacement  is  said 
to  be  consecutive  or  secondary.  This  shifting  of  the  position  of  tlie 
dislocated  end  sometimes  has  very  important  consequences  as  regards 
treatment,  because  the  end  of  the  bone  may  thereby  be  removed  from 
its  position  opposite  the  rent  in  the  capsule  through  which  it  escaped 
from  the  cavity  of  the  joint,  and  it  may  need  to  be  brought  back  to 
that  position  before  it  can  be  replaced  in  the  joint. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  a  dislocation  is  produced  suddenly  by 
external  violence  or  by  muscular  action,  or  by  the  two  acting  together 
upon  a  healthy  joint,  and  when  thus  produced  it  is  called  traumatic. 
In  other  cases  the  joint  has  been  altered  by  disease  previous  to  the 
occurrence  of  the  dislocation,  and  this  latter  is  effected  by  the  gradual 
action  of  the  muscles  or  even  by  gravity;  these  are  known  as  sfjonta- 
neous,  and  present  many  varieties.  (See  Chapter  XXXVI.)  A  third 
class,  congenital  dislocations,  is  composed  of  those  in  which  the  dislo- 
cation occurs  during  intra-uterine  life,  presumably  as  the  result  of  a 
malformation  or  defective  development.  Dislocations  produced  during 
delivery  are  traumatic.  The  second  and  third  classes  will  be  sepa- 
rately considered,     (See  Chapters  XXXV.  and  XXXVI.) 

Statistics.  Compared  with  other  surgical  injuries,  dislocations  are 
infrequent;  the  proportion  to  fractures  is  about  1  to  10. 


Dislocations  at  the  Hudson  Street  Hospital,  New  York, 
Hospital  and  Dispensary. 


1894-1897. 


Hip,  dorsal 

•     ^^ 

thyroid 

1 

Knee 

5 

Patella,  outwai'd 

2  ;  ^            ... 

Head  of  fibula  . 

1 

^  Liower  extremity, 

Ankle 

1 

Astragalus 

3 

Metatarsus 

■         1  J 

Clavicle,  outer  end     . 

.       21  1 

sternal  end  . 

3 

Shoulder    . 

.     178 

Elbow 

.       41 

Head  of  radius' . 

.       10 

Ulna,  upper  end' 

6 

lower  end    . 

1 

-  Upper  extremity. 

Carpus 

2 

trapezium    . 

1 

semilunar    . 

1 

Metacarpal 

.       28 

Metacarpo  phalangeal 

md 

phalangeal 

.     127  J 

Lower  jaw 
Vertebrae    . 

.       33  1 
3  J 

-  Head  and  trunk, 

19 


4  per  ct. 


419 


5.39  per  ct. 


36 


7.59  per  ct. 


474 


1  Including  cases  with  associated  fracture. 


396 


DISLOCATIONS. 


Table  of  400  Eecekt  Traumatic  Dislocations  (Kronlein) 
Hospital  and  Polyclinic. 


Kind. 

Sex. 

Age. 

Totals. 

Joints. 

M. 

F. 

0 
1 

0 

1 

0 

0 
1 

0 
1 

f-H 

0 
1 

0 

1 

Percentages  of 
frequency. 

Hip       .        .        .        .| 

Knee    .        .        .       .-| 

Foot     .... 
Metatarso-phalangeal 

Sboulder     . 

Elbow .       .       .       .\ 

Wrist   .... 
Metaearpo-phalangeal 
InterphM  Ian  geal 

Iliac     .    .    . 
Obturator     . 
Pnbic  .    .    . 
Lateral     .    . 
Patella  out-    \ 
ward  1 
backward 

4 
2 
1 
4 

2 

1 
3 

180 

3 

1 

77 

9 
1 

23 
7 
4 

11 
2 

"l 

336 

"i 

1 
1 

23 

17 
6 

"4 
1 
2 

"2 

6 

64 

2 
2 

22 
9 

6 
1 

1 

"i 

"i 
2 

i 

2 

44 
5 

"k 

"3 

1 
1 
1 

i 

1 

53 
2 

14 

1 

1 
4 
5 
2 

i 

3 

1 

"i 

1 

44 

1 

5 

"s 
1 

"2 

"i 

48 
4 

"i 

1 

"4 
2 

1 

"i 

1 

"2 

35 

'i 
3 

"3 
"i 

"i 

1 

19 
1 

"i 

2 

1 

... 

if  ' 

?: 

3 
203-^ 
3^207 

15;  ^ 

27 
8 
6 

11 

2       ■ 

1.7 

0.5 
0.7 

5L7    ■ 

27.2 

0.2 
6.7 
2 
1.5 

2.7 

2.5   ' 
0.2    ■ 

Lower, 
■  etxremity, 
20  =  5 

Subcoracoid  \ 
and  axillary  j 
Erecta .    .    . 
Infraspinous 
Of  forearm     \ 
backward  j 
Of  radius .     . 
Dorsal  of  ulna 

Upper 
>  extremity, 
369  =  92.2 

Sterno-clavicular 

Aeromio-clavicular  . 

Lower  jaw  .       .        .  | 
Cervical  vertebrae 

Unilateral    . 
Bilateral.      . 

Trunk, 
'       11  =  2.8 

60 

48 

23 

3 

44|69 

88  65 

400 

4( 

)0 

4C 

0 

The  following  table  summarizes  the  other  two  with  Malgaigne's 
statistics  of  the  Hotel-Dieu  : 


Cases. 


Upper  extremity 


Trunk. 


Malgaigne,  hospital  .  .  .  .  |  491 
Kronlein,  hospital  and  polyclinic  .  400 
Stlmson,  hospital  and  dispensary  .  474 


These  tables  show  the  great  relative  frequency  of  dislocations  of  the 
upper  extremity  as  compared  with  those  of  the  lower.  Each  set  of 
statistics  shows  that  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  is  far  more  common 
than  that  of  any  other  joint,  and  that  next  in  frequency  come  disloca- 
tions of  the  elbow.  These  two  dislocations  may  be  estimated  as  together 
comprising  from  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  all  cases,  excluding  the 
phalanges. 

As  between  males  and  femahf^,  Malgaigne  and  Gurlt  found  the  injury 
three  times  as  frequent  in  the  former  as  in  the  latter;  Kronlein  found 
it  five  times  as  great.  Dislocations  of  the  lower  jaw  are  an  exception, 
being  four  times  (Kronlein)  as  frequent  in  women  as  in  men. 

Age.  No  age  is  exempt;  dislocations  have  occurred  as  early  as  the 
moment  of  birth  and  as  late  as  the  age  of  ninety  years.     The  relative 


1  Krbnlein  :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  26,  p.  5. 


GENERALITIES. 


397 


liability  to  the  injury  at  different  ages  is  not  shown  by  simply  com- 
paring the  number  of  eases  observed  at  those  ages,  but  by  also  com- 
paring these  numbers  with  the  number  of  people  at  those  ages  living 
in  the  community  where  the  observation  is  made.  This  comparison 
has  been  made  by  Kronlein  for  Berlin,  with  the  following  results  : 

Fkequency  of  Dislocations  at  Different  Ages. 


71-80 

3 

117 

10+ 


Absolute  frequency 

Relative  number  of  people  living  . 

Relative  frequency  as  computed  for  equal  1 
numbers  of  people J 


1-10 

11-20 
69 

21-30 

31-40 
65 

41-50 

51-60 

61-70 

44 

88 

60 

48 

23 

1872 

1620 

2529 

1679 

940 

599 

282 

10 

18 

15 

16 

27 

35 

35 

From  this  it  appears  that  a  smaller  proportion  of  individuals  between 
the  ages  of  one  and  ten,  and  seventy-one  and  eighty  years  receive  dis- 
locations than  in  any  othei-  decade  of  life;  and  the  highest  proportions 
are  found  between  the  ages  of  fifty-one  and  sixty  and  sixty-one  and 
seventy.  It  is  further  to  be  noticed  that  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  is 
very  rare,  and  that  of  the  elbow  very  common,  before  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years.  Kronlein' s  table  shows  that  of  207  cases  of  the  shoulder,  in 
only  two  were  the  patients  less  than  twenty-one  years  old,  and  that  of 
109  cases  of  the  elbow  80  were  no  older,  the  age  in  31'  being  between 
one  and  ten  years,  and  in  49  between  eleven  and  twenty  years.  Com- 
pared with  fractures,  it  appears  that  the  liability  to  dislocation  is  least 
during  those  periods  of  life  in  which  the  liability  to  fracture  is  greatest 
— that  is,  in  infancy  and  youth  and  in  old  age;  the  latter  part  of  this 
statement  may  need  some  modification,  for  while  dislocations  are  rare 
after  the  age  of  seventy,  they  are  relatively  frequent  in  the  preceding 
decade.  The  liability  to  each  increases  from  adolescence  through  middle 
life. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

ETIOLOGY  AND  MECHANISM. 

The  causes  of  dislocation  may  be  grouped  in  two  classes  :  a.  Pre- 
disposing; 6.  Immediate  or  determining. 

A.  Predisposing  Causes. 

These  are  found  in  certain  normal  differences  of  form  and  function 
characterizing  certain  joints,  and  in  accidental  or  pathological  conditions 
that  sometimes  arise. 

The  joint  which  is  most  frequently  dislocated  is  the  shoulder-joint, 
and  it  differs  normally  from  others  in  the  wide  range  and  variety  of 
motion  made  possible  by  its  form,  the  laxity  of  its  capsule,  and  the 
absence  of  any  firm  ligament  to  hold  the  bones  closely  together.  A 
wide  range  of  motion  in  one  direction  is  not  necessarily  a  circumstance 
favoring  dislocation;  on  the  contrary,  it  may  protect  against  it  by 
making  it  difficult  to  bring  into  action  the  fulcrum  which  is  furnished 
by  the  edge  of*  the  bone  when  it  arrests  the  motion.  In  a  young 
healthy  person  the  elbow  or  knee  cannot  be  dislocated  by  flexion, 
because  the  motion  is  finally  arrested  by  broad  contact  of  the  soft  parts, 
not  by  the  edge  of  the  joint;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  in  each  case 
extension  is  limited  by  the  structures  of  the  joint  itself,  and  hyper- 
extension  at  once  favors  dislocation  by  rupturing  those  structures.  A 
long  range  of  motion  in  one  plane  does  not  make  the  joint  insecure  so 
long  as  the  two  bony  surfaces  rest  squarely  against  each  other,  as  they 
do  in  the  hinge-joints;  but  when  the  change  of  position  makes  this 
contact  oblique,  as  in  abduction  of  the  arm,  a  displacing  force  exerted 
in  the  direction  of  the  long  axis  of  the  bone  is  resisted  only  by  the 
capsule.  Under  certain  conditions,  therefore,  it  may  be  said  that  free- 
dom of  motion  in  a  joint  diminishes,  and  limitation  of  motion  increases, 
the  liability  to  dislocation. 

Dropsy  of  some  joints  favors  dislocation  by  removing  the  obstacle 
which  the  necessity  of  creating  a  vacuum  between  the  articular  surfaces 
would  otherwise  interpose.  (See  Chapter  XXXVL,  Dislocations  by 
Distention.) 

The  destruction  of  the  ligaments  by  violence  or  disease,  and  fracture 
or  disease  of  the  bony  constituents  of  the  joint,  favor  dislocation,  and 
the  fracture  of  an  associated  or  parallel  bone  may  have  the  same  effect, 
as  fracture  of  the  ulna  favors  dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  radius. 

B,  Immediate  or  Determining  Causes. 

A  bone  may  be  dislocated  by  (1)  external  violence  applied  (a)  directly 
to  it  at  or  near  its  end,  or  (6)  indirectly  and  at  a  distance  from  its  end; 
(2)  by  muscular  action. 


ETIOLOGY  AND  MECHANISM.  399 

1.  External  Violence.  Dislocations  l)v  direct  violence  are  rare,  espe- 
cially if  the  class  is  restricted  to  those  cases  in  which  the  violence  falls 
upon  only  one  of  the  bones  forming  the  joint  and  forces  it  directly 
away  from  the  other.  Thus,  the  head  of  the  humerus  has  been  driv^en 
backward  (subspinous  dislocation)  by  a  blow  of  the  fist  (Busch)  or  bv 
a  fall  in  which  the  front  of  the  shoulder  struck  against  the  corner  of 
a  table  (Kronlein),  or  inward  by  a  fall  upon  the  outer  side  of  the 
shoulder,  or  even  downward  into  the  axilla  by  a  force  received  upon 
and  first  breaking  the  acromion  (Kronlein). 

In  dislocations  by  indirect  violence  the  mechanism  may  vary  greatlv. 
The  force  in  some  cases  is  exerted  directly  along  the  long  axis  of  the 
bone  while  the  limb  is  in  a  position  in  which  the  articular  surfaces  do 
not  rest  squarely  upon  each  other,  and  the  head  of  the  bone  is  driven 
out  of  its  socket,  as  in  some  dislocations  of  the  shoulder  by  a  fall  upon 
the  outstretched  (abducted)  arm  or  by  muscular  action,  or  in  disloca- 
tion of  the  outer  end  of  the  clavicle  by  a  fall  upon  the  shoulder.  The 
mechanism  is  similar  to  that  of  the  first  form  of  dislocation  by  direct 
violence  mentioned  above.  Or  a  much  slighter  force,  favored  by 
conditions  of  leverage  established  at  the  joint,  tears  the  capsule  or 
a  ligament  and  produces  a  dislocation.  This  is  the  most  common 
mechanism.  The  conditions  of  leverage  are  found  at  all  points  where 
normal  movements  are  arrested  or  no  movement  permitted.  The  head 
or  neck  of  a  moving  bone  is  arrested  by  the  edge  of  the  corresponding 
articular  cavity,  or  by  a  projecting  point  of  bone,  or  by  a  tense  liga- 
ment or  portion  of  capsule;  this  at  once  becomes  a  new  centre  of 
motion,  a  fulcrum,  and,  the  force  continuing  to  act  at  the  end  of  the 
bone  or  limb  (the  long  arm  of  the  lever),  the  head  of  the  bone  (or  short 
end  of  the  lever)  is  forced  away  abnormally. 

When  the  force  is  exerted  in  a  direction  in  which  normally  no  motion 
is  permitted,  as  laterally  at  the  elbow,  ankle,  or  knee,  it  meets  at  once 
with  greater  resistance  than  that  habitually  found  at  the  extremes  of 
normal  ranges  of  motion,  and  if  it  is  great  enough  to  overcome  this 
resistance  it  is  more  likely  to  cause  in  addition  other  and  perhaps 
extensive  injuries  of  the  soft  parts  or  of  the  bones. 

Violence,  then,  acting  in  a  given  manner,  may  cause  a  fracture,  a 
dislocation,  or  a  sprain  according  to  its  force,  the  strength  of  the  resist- 
ance offered  by  the  ligaments  and  the  bones  to  which  they  are  attached, 
and  the  prolongation  of  its  action. 

2.  Muscular  Action.  Contraction  of  the  corresponding  muscles  can 
cause  the  dislocation  of  a  sound  joint  in  either  of  two  ways:  it  can,  by 
rapidly  moving  the  limb,  communicate  to  it  a  momentum  which  acts 
in  the  same  manner  as  external  violence  and  produces  a  dislocation 
when  the  normal  limit  of  the  range  of  motion  is  reached  and  condi- 
tions of  leverage  are  established.  A  case,  probably  of  this  kind,  was 
observed  by  Sedillot  ■}  a  woman,  forty-six  years  old,  who  dislocated  her 
shoulder  by  raising  her  arm  to  strike  a  blow.  Or,  secondly,  the  mus- 
cular contraction  acts  like  external  violence  received  at  or  near  the  end 
of  the  bone,  or  transmitted  along  its  longitudinal  axis,  and  draws  the 

1  S6dillot :  Diet.  Encyclop6dique,  art.  Luxations,  p.  23. 


400  DISLOCATIONS. 

bone  out  of  its  socket.  For  this  it  is  essential  that  one  or  two  muscles 
should  contract  violently  while  the  others  that  normally  act  upon  the 
joint  remain  passive,  or  that  the  limb  should  be  in  such  a  position  that 
the  line  of  traction  of  the  muscles  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  opposing 
articular  surface.  Instances  of  this  kind  are  common  at  some  joints; 
dislocation  of  the  lower  jaw  is  commonly  caused  by  muscular  action 
in  yawning,  laughing,  or  vomiting,  and  others  have  been  caused  in  like 
manner  at  the  shoulder  and  hip,  and,  very  exceptionally,  at  other 
joints.     As  illustrative  examples  may  be  mentioned  the  following: 

A  man,  fifty-one  years  old,  dislocated  both  shoulders  (subcoracoid) 
by  drawing  himself  up  with  his  hands;  a  painter  dislocated  his  shoul- 
der while  painting  a  ceiling;  a  woman,  by  trying  to  lift  a  heavy  object 
from  a  shelf;  a  man,  by  trying  to  lift  at  arm's  length  a  heavy  book 
from  the  floor;  and  a  woman,  by  carrying  a  heavy  load  upon  her  head 
with  both  arms  uplifted. 

Many  cases  have  been  reported  in  which  dislocation  has  been  caused 
by  the  convulsive  contractions  of  individuals  affected  with  epilepsy, 
tetanus,  or  uraemia,  or  poisoned  with  strychnine.  In  many  of  the 
cases  reported  as  such  the  dislocation  may  have  been  caused  by  vio- 
lence received  in  falling  during  a  fit  or  by  striking  the  limb  against 
some  object,  but  in  a  number  of  them  the  history  positively  establishes 
the  absence  of  any  other  cause  than  the  contraction  of  the  muscles. 

In  these  cases,  as  in  fractures  by  muscular  action,  it  is  unnecessary 
to  suppose,  and  unwarranted  to  claim,  that  the  strength  of  the  capsule 
or  ligaments  is  less  than  usual,  or  that  the  structure  of  the  joint  varies 
from  the  normal  in  such  a  way  as  to  facilitate  the  production  of  the 
dislocation. 

The  power  of  voluntary  dislocation  of  one  or  several  joints  has  been 
occasionally  observed.  In  a  large  proportion  of  the  cases  its  appear- 
ance has  followed  the  occurrence  of  a  traumatic  dislocation  of  the  same 
joint,  but  in  a  few  instances  the  history  of  the  individual  contained  the 
record  of  no  traumatism  or  diseased  condition  to  which  the  peculiarity 
could  be  referred. 

Recurrent  or  Habitual  Dislocations.  Individuals  are  occasionally  ob- 
served in  whom  dislocation  of  some  one  joint,  commonly  the  shoulder, 
but  also  the  hip,  jaw,  and  clavicle,  frequently  recurs  under  the  influence 
of  some  slight  cause,  and  who  have  acquired  this  liability  as  the  result 
of  an  ordinary  traumatic  dislocation,  or  of  paralysis  of  one  or  more 
of  the  muscles  of  the  joint,  or  of  fracture.  The  first  class  will  be  con- 
sidered in  Chapter  XXIX, ;  of  the  others  the  following  case,  reported 
by  Sir  Astley  Cooper,^  will  serv^e  as  an  illustration  :  ^'A  gentleman 
happened,  as  a  junior  officer  on  board  his  ship,  to  be  placed  under  the 
orders  of  one  of  the  mates  when  the  captain  was  on  shore,  and  for  some 
trifling  offence  was  punished  in  the  following  manner  :  his  foot  was 
placed  upon  a  small  projection  on  the  deck,  and  his  arm  was  lashed 
tightly  toward  the  yard  of  the  ship,  and  thus  kept  extended  for  an 
hour.  When  he  returned  to  England  he  had  the  power  of  readily 
throwing  that  arm  from  its  socket  merely  by  raising  it  toward  his  head, 

1  Cooper :  Dislocations  and  Fractures,  Am.  ed.,  1844,  p.  9. 


ETIOLOGY  AND  MECHANISM.  401 

but  a  very  slight  extension  reduced  it;  the  muscles  were  also  wasted, 
as  in  a  case  of  paralysis." 

The  explanation  is  to  be  found  in  the  loss  of  support  occasioned  by 
the  diminution  of  tlie  tonicity  of  the  muscles  which,  in  such  joints  as 
the  shoulder,  take  the  place  of  short,  firm  ligaments  and  hold  the 
articular  surfaces  in  contact  with  each  other,  a  loss  which  allows  the 
bones  to  be  separated  by  the  action  of  gravity,  or  by  an  effusion  into 
the  joint,  until  the  separation  is  arrested  by  the  capsule.  When  thus 
separated,  a  slight  force  is  sufficient  to  throw  the  head  of  the  humerus 
past  the  edge  of  the  glenoid  cavity  and  produce  a  dislocation  without 
rupture  of  the  capsule. 

The  cases  of  dislocation  due  to  limited  paralysis  of  peripheral  origin 
must  not  be  confounded  with  those  sometimes  accompanying  the 
arthropathies  that  complicate  some  paralyses  of  central  origin  and 
some  cases  of  central  nervous  disease  without  paralysis.  In  the  latter 
the  articular  portions  of  the  bones  are  absorbed  in  the  progress  of  the 
disease,  and  thus  even  a  joint  the  bones  of  which  are  normally  held 
close  together  by  ligaments  becomes  a  loose  one  by  loss  of  bone  sub- 
stance. Strictly  speaking,  such  cases  in  which  the  articular  end  of  the 
bone  has  been  entirely  absorbed  do  not  come  within  the  definition  of 
dislocation,  but  clinicallv  it  is  proper  and  convenient  so  to  designate 
them.     (See  Chapter  XXXVI.) 

The  unequal  growth  of  parallel  and  associated  bones,  tibia  and  fibula, 
or  radius  and  ulna,  may  cause  dislocation  at  one  or  the  other  end. 


26 


CHAPTEE    XXIX. 

PATHOLOGICAL  ANATOMY  IN  RECENT  DISLOCATIONS;  COMPLI- 
CATIONS ;  AND  THE  PROCESS  OF  REPAIR  AFTER  REDUCTION. 

PATHOLOGICAL  ANATOMY. 

As  a  traumatic  dislocation  consists  in  the  forcible  overcoming  of  the 
normal  restraints  upon  the  motion  of  the  joint  in  one  or  more  direc- 
tions, restraints  offered  by  the  ligaments  and  capsules  of  the  joint,  it  is 
almost  invariably  accompanied  by  rupture  of  a  ligament  or  of  the  cap- 
sule. There  is  some  reason  to  think  that  dislocation  of  the  inferior 
maxilla  may  be  an  exception  to  this  rule,  but  the  lack  of  opportunities 
directly  to  examine  such  cases  leaves  the  question  in  doubt.  In  enar- 
throdial  joints, especially  the  shoulder,  where  the  ligaments  are  loose  and 
where  the  bones  are  held  together  by  the  tonicity  of  the  muscles  and 
the  atmospheric  pressure,  such  a  change  as  dropsy  of  the  joint  may  so 
annul  the  effect  of  the  latter  agent  and  overcome  the  former  by  filling 
the  capsule  with  liquid  that  insinuates  itself  between  the  contiguous 
articular  surfaces,  that  the  head  of  the  bone  falls  away  from  its  socket 
and  the  joint  becomes  loose  like  that  of  a  flail;  under  such  circum- 
stances dislocation  may  occur  without  rupture  or  laceration. 

The  capsule  of  an  enarthrodial  joint  is  torn  upon  the  side  toward 
which  the  distal  bone  is  displaced;  in  joints  of  other  forms  the  liga- 
ments may  be  broken  on  either  or  both  sides,  the  extent  and  character 
of  the  injury  varying  with  the  character  of  the  force.  The  rent  in  the 
capsule  may  be  limited  in  extent  and  simple  in  form,  merely  a  longi- 
tudinal or  transverse  slit,  or  it  may  be  irregular  or  may  even  involve 
the  entire  periphery.  Instead  of  suffering  a  rent,  the  capsule  may  be 
torn  away  from  the  bone,  sometimes  bringing  with  it  portions  of  the 
bone  itself  or  remaining  continuous  with  the  periosteum  stripped  up 
from  the  shaft.  Under  similar  conditions  the  position  of  the  rent  in 
the  capsule  is  very  constant,  for  it  is  determined  by  the  posture  of  the 
head  and  the  direction  of  the  force.  In  addition  to  the  laceration  of 
the  capsule  and  ligaments  produced  by  the  pressure  of  the  bone,  others 
may  be  caused  by  the  tearing  off  of  attached  muscles  that  are  put  upon 
the  stretch  by  the  displacement.  This  may  be  effected  by  the  avulsion 
of  thi  tuberosities  upon  which  the  muscles  are  inserted;  the  bone  yields, 
and  the  laceration,  starting  from  the  broken  surface,  extends  across  and 
through  the  adjoining  soft  parts.  This  is  a  frequent  accompaniment 
of  dislocation  forward  and  downward  of  the  shoulder;  the  supra- 
spinatus  and  infraspinatus  muscles,  inserted  respectively  upon  the 
upper  and  middle  facets  of  the  greater  tuberosity  of  the  humerus,  are 
put  upon  the  stretch  and  one  or  both  are  torn  away  from  the  bone. 

The  soft  parts  overlying  the  capsule  may  be  torn  by  extension  of  the 
rent  in  the  capsule  if  they  are  closely  adherent  to  the  latter,  or  by  the 
forcible  passage  through  them  of  the  displaced  bone.  The  surrounding 
muscles  on  the  side  toward  which  the  displacement  takes  place  may  be 


COMPLICATIONS  OF  EECENT  DISLOCATIONS.  403 

contused  or  torn  by  the  passage  of  the  hone,  and  tliose  upon  the  oppo- 
site side  by  being  put  upon  the  stretch.  Blood  is  freely  extravasated 
into  the  cellular  tissue  from  the  ruptured  vessels. 

The  cartihiges  of  incrustation  may  be  bruised  and  sometimes  chipped 
in  the  passage  of  the  surfaces  across  each  otlier,  and  projecting  portions 
of  bone,  apophyses,  or  the  rim  of  an  orbicular  cavity  may  be  broken  off. 

The  bone  itself  seldom  passes  to  any  great  distance  from  its  normal 
position;  its  progress  is  arrested  by  the  ligaments  and  muscles  that 
remain  untorn  and  the  resistance  of  the  soft  parts  that  it  presses  upon, 
and  it  comes  to  rest  lying  directly  upon  the  adjoining  bone  or  with  some 
soft  parts  interposed.  Its  position,  as  taken  in  the  primary  displace- 
ment, may  be  changed  by  the  renewal  of  external  violence,  by  gravity, 
by  a  change  in  the  position  of  the  limb,  or  by  the  spasmodic  contrac- 
tion of  attached  muscles,  but  the  secondary  position  {"  consecutive 
displacement^')  is  habitually  determined  by  the  resistance  of  untorn 
ligaments  which  constitute  the  fulcrum  or  pivot  about  which  the  bone 
turns. 

COMPLICATIONS. 

Other  injuries,  and  severer  or  more  extensive  forms  of  those 
already  mentioned,  may  coexist  with  a  dislocation  as  complications. 
They  include  fracture  of  the  bone,  partial  or  complete  rupture  of 
large  bloodvessels  or  nerves,  and  extensive  laceration  of  the  soft 
parts.  To  constitute  a  "  complication"  of  the  dislocation  the  associ- 
ated injury  should  be  the  direct  or  consecutive  result  of  the  original 
violence  upon  adjoining  tissues,  and  should  create  special  indications 
for,  or  difficulties  in,  treatment.  A  fracture  of  the  leg  caused  by  the 
same  fall  that  dislocates  the  shoulder  is  not,  in  this  sense,  a  "  compli- 
cation" of  the  dislocation;  but  a  fracture  of  the  ulna  accompanying 
dislocation  of  the  radius,  or  a  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  humerus 
accompanying  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  is  a  complication,  for  the  two 
injuries  are  associated  in  their  origin  and  in  their  treatment. 

Bones.  Not  all  fractures  that  coexist  with  dislocation  of  even  the 
same  bone  are  necessarily  to  be  deemed  complications,  since  some  habit- 
ually accompany  certain  dislocations,  may  even  not  be  recognizable 
clinically,  and  neither  receive  nor  require  special  treatment.  Such  are 
fractures  of  epiphyses  or  tubercles  to  which  muscles  are  attached,  and 
some  fractures  of  a  portion  of  the  articular  end  of  the  bone  or  of  the  rim 
of  an  orbicular  cavity.  In  others  the  dislocation  is  rather  to  be  deemed 
a  complication  or  incident  of  the  fracture,  since  it  is  made  possible  by 
it,  as  in  some  fractures  of  the  vertebrae  and  in  fracture  of  the  olecranon 
with  dis|)lacement  forward  (or  upward)  of  the  radius  and  ulna. 

Relatively  common  are  those  in  which  the  force  is  exerted  through 
the  head  of  the  bone  upon  the  margin  of  the  opposing  articular  sur- 
face, breaking  off  the  latter;  the  dislocated  bone  leaves  the  joint  through 
the  gap  thus  created,  driving  the  fragment  before  it,  or  else  tears  the 
capsule  and  esca|)es  in  the  usual  manner.  The  commonest  examples 
of  this  kind  are  found  in  fractures  of  portions  of  the  rim  of  the  glenoid 
and  cotyloid  cavities,  and  some  fractures  at  the  ankle  with  dis- 
placement of  the  astragalus.     Others,  that  are  closely  analogous,  are 


404  DISLOCATIONS. 

fractures  of  the  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna  or  of  the  head  of  the 
radius,  or  of  both,  in  dislocation  backward  of  both  bones. 

Bruising  or  deep  indentation  of  the  head  of  the  bone  by  impact  upon 
the  edge  of  the  socket  has  been  noted  several  times  at  the  shoulder  and 
once  by  myself  at  the  hip.  It  cannot  be  recognized  clinically  and  is 
not  known  to  have  important  consequences,  but  when  the  impact  is 
along  the  anatomical  neck  of  the  humerus  it  may  detach  the  head,  and 
in  two  cases^  the  head  of  the  femur  has  been  split  vertically;  in  a  third^ 
the  head  and  neck  were  split  longitudinally,  apparently  after  disloca- 
tion had  taken  place. 

A  very  rare  complicating  fracture  is  that  of  the  central  part  of  the 
acetabulum  when  the  head  of  the  femur  is  driven  through  it  into  the 
cavity  of  the  pelvis  by  great  violence. 

Much  more  common,  but  seldom  deserving  to  be  classed  as  compli- 
cations, are  those  fractures  by  avulsion,  already  referred  to,  in  which, 
ligaments  or  muscles  being  put  upon  the  stretch,  the  bony  prominences 
to  which  they  are  attached  are  torn  off.  Some  of  them  may  be  looked 
upon  as  habitual,  or  at  least  frequent,  accompaniments  of  certain  dis- 
locations, for  example,  fracture  of  the  greater  tuberosity  of  the  humerus 
in  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  forward  and  downward,  and  fracture  of 
the  internal  epicoudyle  in  dislocation  of  the  elbow. 

The  form  in  which  the  complication  most  seriously  affects  the  treat- 
ment and  prognosis  is  that  in  which  the  bone  is  broken  completely 
across  near  the  dislocated  end.  The  commonest  examples  are  found 
at  the  shoulder,  where  the  line  of  fracture  follows  either  the  anatomical 
or  the  surgical  neck,  and  the  special  difficulty  in  treatment  arises  from 
the  smallness  of  the  upper  fragment,  whereby  it  is  made  difficidt  or 
impossible  so  to  act  upon  it  as  to  return  it  to  its  normal  position  in  the 
joint.  In  68  cases  of  tiais  kind  collected  by  Thamhayn^  14  were  of  the 
anatomical  neck  of  the  humerus,  and  of  these  in  only  2  was  the  dislo- 
cation reduced;  while  of  the  46  cases  in  which  the  fracture  occupied 
the  surgical  neck  20  were  reduced.  McBurney's  recent  (1893)  method 
of  reducing  with  the  aid  of  a  hook  inserted  into  the  fragment  has 
greatly  diminished  the  difficulty.  The  mechanism  of  the  combined 
lesions  is  sometimes  obscure,  as  regards  its  details,  and  varies  in  the 
■different  cases,  the  dislocation  sometimes  preceding  and  sometimes  fol- 
lowing the  fracture,  and  perhaps  sometimes  occurring  simultaneously. 
In  a  specimen  figured  by  Krdnlein  the  head  of  the  humerus,  after 
fracture  of  the  anatomical  neck,  has  been  completely  reversed  and  lies 
wedged  between  the  tuberosities. 

Bloodvessels.  Injury  of  a  large  bloodvessel  adjoining  a  dislocated 
joint  (the  dislocation  not  being  compound)  is  a  comparatively  rare  acci- 
dent, and  one  that  depends  either  upon  the  close  relations  of  the  vessels 
and  the  bones,  as  at  the  shoulder  and  knee,  or  upon  violence  so  great 
as  to  displace  the  bone  to  a  greater  distance  than  usual,  or  in  an 
unwonted  direction. 

1  Birkett :  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,  1869,  vol.  lii.  p.  133.    Moxon  :  Medical  Times  and 
Gazette,  1872,  vol.  i.  p.  96. 

2  Riedel :  Beilage  zum  Centralb.  fur  Chir.,  1885,  p.  92. 

3  Thamhayn  :  Schmidt's  Jahrbuch,  1868,  vol.  cxl. 


COMPLICATIONS  OF  RECENT  DISLOCATIONS.  405 

In  most  of  the  recorded  cases  the  dislocation  has  been  of  the  shoul- 
der, inward  and  forward,  and  the  lesion  has  consisted  either  in  the 
rupture  of  a  large  arterial  branch,  the  anterior  circumflex  or  the  sub- 
scapular, at  or  near  its  orio^in,  or  in  such  stretching  of  the  axillary- 
artery  that  its  inner  and  middle  coats  have  been  torn  across,  the  outer 
one  remaining  undivided,  or,  more  rarely,  in  rujiture  of  the  main  vein. 
The  injury  may  result  in  the  immediate  formation  of  a  traumatic  aneu- 
rism or  in  the  gradual  formation  of  an  encysted  one,  or  in  gaugrene  of 
the  distal  portion  of  the  limb.  In  some  of  the  recorded  cases  it  is  not 
possible  to  determine  whether  the  injury  to  the  vessel  was  the  imme- 
diate result  of  the  dislocation  or  of  the  efforts  to  reduce  it. 

The  symptoms  vary  greatly,  but,  except  at  the  shoulder,  are  not 
likely  to  leave  any  doubt  concerning  the  nature  and  details  of  the 
injury.  Injury  to  the  inner  and  middle  coats  alone  may  in  some  cases 
be  recognized  by  the  immediate  cessation  of  the  brachial  and  radial 
pulse,  in  others  only  by  the  subsequent  gradual  formation  of  an  aneu- 
rism. In  other  cases  the  prompt  appearance  and  rapid  growth  of  a 
fluctuating  swelling  in  the  axilla,  perhaps  accompanied  by  extensive 
ecchymosis  and  alarming  symptoms  of  collapse  or  shock,  sufficiently 
prove  the  fact  of  an  internal  hemorrhage;  but  the  source  of  the  bleed- 
ing, whether  from  an  arterial  branch,  the  main  artery,  or  the  vein,  may 
remain  in  doubt,  for  the  radial  pulse  may  persist  even  when  the  hem- 
orrhage comes  directly  from  the  axillary  artery.  The  subject  will  be 
more  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  XXXIV.,  p.  411. 

In  a  case  observed  by  Korte,'  this  complication  accompanied  a  dis- 
location of  the  shoulder  caused  by  a  blow  received  upon  its  upper  sur- 
face while  the  arm  was  abducted;  the  dislocation  was  spontaneously 
reduced  before  the  arrival  of  the  surgeon,  and  probably  the  displace- 
ment was  only  slight.  An  aneurism  formed,  and  was  opened  under  the 
impression  that  it  was  an  enlarged  lymphatic  gland.  The  autopsy  indi- 
cated that  the  lesion  was  avulsion  of  the  anterior  circumflex  artery  at 
its  origin,  and  showed  also  that  the  inner  and  middle  coats  of  the 
axillary  artery  were  torn  transversely  at  a  higher  point,  but  the  calibre 
of  the  vessel  was  not  thereby  obstructed. 

The  following  cases  illustrate  other  varieties  : 

Mr.  J.  W.  Turner^  reported  two  cases  of  rupture  of  the  popliteal 
artery  complicating  dislocation  of  the  knee.  In  the  first  a  man,  twenty- 
four  years  old,  fell  from  a  height  of  thirty  feet  and  sustained  a  com- 
pound dislocation  of  the  knee,  the  condyles  of  the  femur  projecting 
through  the  integument  of  the  ham.  The  limb  was  immediately  ampu- 
tated, and  the  two  inner  coats  of  the  popliteal  artery  were  found  to  be 
ruptured,  the  outer  coat  remaining  untorn. 

In  the  second  case  a  middle-aged  woman  fell  while  carrying  a  heavy 
burden  on  her  back.  When  she  was  brought  to  the  hospital  there  was 
found  a  dislocation  of  the  knee  together  with  a  wound  in  the  ham 
through  which,  it  was  said,  the  condyles  of  the  femur  had  projected. 
There  was  no  bleeding;    the  limb  became  greatly  swollen,  and   the 

1  Kfirte  :  Archiv  fur  klinische  Chirurgie,  1SS2,  p.  636. 

2  Turner:  Transactions  of  the  Edinburgh  Medico-Chirurgical  Society,  vol.  iii.  p.  308. 


406  I^ISL  0  OA  TIONS. 

patient  died  on  the  tenth  day.  The  artery  and  vein  were  found  to 
have  been  torn  completely  across. 

Dr.  M.  Goldsmith^  reported  the  case  of  a  man,  forty  years  old,  who 
suffered  a  dislocation  of  the  left  femur;  ''  the  head  of  the  bone  being 
thrust  under  Poupart's  ligament  overrode  the  margin  of  the  pelvis  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  underlie  the  femoral  artery;  it  remained  unreduced 
for  two  months,  when  he  came  under  observation  with  a  diffused  swell- 
ing occupying  the  groin,  filling  the  iliac  fossa,  and  extending  to  the 
middle  of  the  thigh;  feeble  pulsation;  tumor  appeared  a  few  days  after 
the  accident;  pain  severe;  diagnosis,  aneurism;  treatment,  ligature  of 
the  common  iliac  artery;  death  on  fifth  day."  The  femoral  and  exter- 
nal iliac  arteries  were  perforated  to  the  extent  of  an  inch  on  the  pos- 
tero-external  aspect;  the  head  of  the  femur  lay  in  the  cavity  of  the 
aneurism. 

Cases  also  have  been  reported  of  rupture  of  the  anterior  and  poste- 
rior tibial  arteries  in  dislocation  of  the  ankle;  and  Sedillot^  published 
one  in  winch  the  brachial  artery  was  ruptured  at  the  elbow  by  being 
stretched  over  the  end  of  the  humerus  in  a  dislocation  of  the  radius 
and  ulna  backward. 

Nerves.  Injuries  of  the  nerves  may  be  demonstrated  by  direct  exami- 
nation or  inferred  from  the  symptoms.  Examples  of  the  former  are 
uncommon,  and  in  some  of  the  latter  it  may  remain  in  doubt  whether 
the  nerves  were  injured  by  the  displacement  of  the  bone,  or  by  the 
efforts  to  reduce  the  dislocation,  or  by  the  independent  action  of  the 
violence  upon  them.  It  is  asserted^  that  a  fall  upon  the  hand  or 
shoulder,  without  lesion  of  the  skeleton,  is  competent  to  cause  palsy  of 
the  arm;  hence,  it  is  not  always  to  be  inferred  that  a  palsy  following 
a  dislocation  has  been  caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  head  of  the  bone 
upon  the  nerves,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  those  cases  in  which  a 
blow  has  been  received  directly  upon  the  shoulder,  and  the  deltoid 
alone  is  paralyzed. 

The  injury  may  be  a  complete  rupture  or  laceration  of  one  or  more 
nerve  trunks,  or  a  contusion  with  extra vsation  of  blood  about  the  nerve 
and  amid  its  fibres,  or  a  neuritis  originating  in  an  injury  of  some  lesser 
nerve  and  extending  thence  to  the  main  trunk,  or  an  inflammatory  pro- 
cess extending  to  the  nerve  and  causing  its  compression  by  newly 
formed  connective  tissue,  or  simple  compression  by  the  displaced  bone. 

Rupture  or  laceration  of  the  nerve  is  caused  by  violent  pressure 
against  it  of  the  displaced  end  of  the  bone,  and,  in  the  case  at  least  of 
the  larger  trunks,  it  appears  commonly  to  be  associated  with  extensive 
laceration  of  the  other  soft  parts,  including  even  the  overlying  skin. 
Contusion  of  the  nerve  may  be  produced  in  the  same  manner,  and  then 
represents  a  less  degree  of  the  same  injury,  or  by  compression  of  the 
nerve  between  the  displaced  bone  and  an  adjoining  portion  of  the  skel- 
eton, as  between  the  head  of  the  humerus  and  the  wall  of  the  thorax. 

The  symptoms  vary  with  the  character  of  the  injury;  laceration  is 

1  Goldsmith :   American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  July,  1860,  p.  30 ;  abstract  from  the 
Louisville  Medical  Journal,  February,  1860. 
"  SiSdillot:  Diet.  Encyclopedique,  art.  Luxations,  p.  261. 
3  Weir  Mitchell :  Injuries  of  Nerves,  p.  99. 


COMPLICATIONS  OF  RECENT  DISLOCATIONS.  407 

immediately  followed  by  motor  paralysis  and  loss  of  sensation  in  the 
region  supjilied  by  the  nerve,  which  are  permanent  or  persist  until  the 
integrity  of  the  nerve  is  restored;  in  other  forms  of  injury  there  are 
varying  degrees  of  paralysis  and  loss  of  sensation,  numbness,  pain, 
alteration  of  local  nutrition,  and  other  symptoms  of  neuritis,  limited 
at  first  to  the  nerve  directly  injured,  and  afterward  perhaps  extending 
to  others.  In  many  of  the  recorded  cases  a  cure  has  followed  the 
systematic  use  of  electricity. 

The  statistics  of  the  Friedrich's  Hospital  collected  by  Holm'  show 
that  of  112  cases  of  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  there  was  general  paral- 
ysis of  the  arm  in  7,  and  paralysis  of  the  deltoid  alone  in  10.  In  one 
of  them  all  the  muscles  supplied  by  the  median  nerve  were  paralyzed, 
while  those  supplied  by  the  musculo-spiral  were  unaffected.  This  is  a 
much  larger  proportion  than  I  have  observed. 

The  recorded  cases  of  rupture  of  a  nerve  verified  by  direct  exami- 
nation are  few;  the  following  are  examples  of  different  forms  : 

Hilton^  examined  the  body  of  a  man  who  died  thirteen  weeks  after 
having  received  a  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  into  the  axilla;  the  del- 
toid was  much  atrophied,  the  circumflex  nerve  was  small  and  Avas 
^'  distinctly  lacerated,  but  its  actual  condition  was  changed  by  some 
strong  cellular  adhesions,  fixing  it  with  the  radio-spinal  nerve  and  the 
axillary  artery  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  subscapularis  muscle." 
Bouley^  presented  to  the  Societe  Anatomique  a  specimen  of  complete 
dislocation  outward  of  both  bones  of  the  forearm  at  the  elbow,  with 
fracture  of  the  outer  condyle  of  the  humerus,  caused  by  a  fall  upon 
the  elbow  from  a  height  of  twenty-four  feet.  The  patient  refused 
amputation  and  died  twenty  days  after  the  receipt  of  the  injury. 
"  The  lateral  ligaments  of  the  elbow  were  entirely  ruptured,  both 
bones  of  the  forearm  were  situated  external  to  the  lower  end  of  the 
humerus,  and  the  ulnar  nerve  was  lacerated  at  the  level  of  the  articular 
surface." 

HolP  found  in  the  dissecting-room  a  cadaver  with  a  marked  deformity 
of  the  elbow,  and  on  examination  it  appeared  that  the  individual  had 
suffered  fracture  of  the  upper  end  of  the  ulna  and  dislocation  of  the 
head  of  the  radius  upward  and  inward,  and  that  the  ulnar  artery  and 
ulnar  and  median  nerves  had  been  completely  divided  and  had  not 
reunited. 

Miiller,^  seven  months  after  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  which  had 
been  easily  reduced  and  which  had  been  followed  by  gradual  paralysis 
of  motion  and  sensation  in  the  arm,  found,  by  an  axillary  incision,  the 
artery  and  main  nerves  tightly  compressed  by  a  cicatricial  band  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide.  On  division  of  the  band  pulsation  at  once 
reappeared  in  the  brachial  and  radial  arteries;  sensation  and  muscular 
function  reappeared  gradually. 

Of  the  cases  that  have  been  observed  clinically  the  injury  in  most 
has  been  attributed  to  the  reduction,  as  a  consequence  of  too  forcible 

1  Holm:  Schmidt's  Jahrbuch,  vol.  cxxi.  p.  82. 
-  Hilton:  Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  1S47,  vol.  v.  p.  93. 
8  Boiiley :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1837,  p.  101. 
i  Holl  ;'Medicin.  Jahrbuch,  Wien,  1880,  p.  151. 
5  Muller :  Centralb.  fur  Chir.,  1892,  p.  611. 


408  DISLOCATIONS. 

traction,  extreme  abduction  of  the  limb  (arm),  or  to  the  presence  of 
adhesions  between  the  nerve  and  the  parts  with  which  it  has  been  tem- 
porarily brought  into  contact.  In  some  of  these  cases  the  correctness 
of  this  view  cannot  be  questioned;  in  others  the  necessary  data  for  an 
opinion  are  lacking. 

A  man^  fifty-four  years  old  was  seized  by  the  right  arm  and  shaken 
so  violently  as  to  dislocate  the  humerus  into  the  axilla,  causing  pain  in 
the  shoulder  and  instant  loss  of  feeling  and  motion  in  the  hand. 
Reduction  on  the  third  day.  ''  Six  weeks  afterward  the  whole  hand 
and  lower  side  of  the  forearm  were  oedematous,  and  the  former  also 
hard  and  brawn-like,  resisting  pressure.  The  fingers  were  in  the  same 
state,  and  the  whole  hand  was  dark  and  congested,  but  not  shiny  or 
smooth.  The  joints  from  the  wrist  to  the  finger  ends  were  sore,  swol- 
len, and  very  stiff.  The  whole  palm  was  the  seat  of  pretty  severe 
burning,  with  no  darting  or  other  pain."  Partial  loss  of  touch  and 
pain-sense  in  the  median  and  radial  distribution.  The  elbow  motions 
were  perfect,  wrist  flexion  good,  extension  lost;  flexion  of  the  fingers 
good,  extension  and  lateral  motions  lost  from  palsy  of  the  extensors 
and  interossei. 

A  soldier^  fell  from  a  tree,  striking  upon  and  dislocating  his  left 
shoulder;  the  dislocation  was  reduced  within  twenty-four  hours,  and, 
the  previous  pain  and  numbness  disappearing,  he  remained  well  for 
four  weeks,  when  the  arm  began  to  waste,  with  loss  of  power  which 
became  complete  in  a  few  months.  Sensation  was  much  less  altered. 
At  the  close  of  a  year  there  was  only  partial  ability  to  flex  the  arm, 
and  slight  use  of  the  flexors  and  extensors  of  the  fingers.  Marked 
atrophy;  contraction  of  the  pronators.  Rapid  relief  and  final  cure 
were  obtained  by  electricity. 

A  man^  twenty-five  years  old  was  admitted  to  the  Hotel-Dieu  with 
an  intracoracoid  dislocation  of  the  left  shoulder,  caused  shortly  before 
by  a  fall.  Any  motion  communicated  to  the  limb  caused  great  pain 
and  violent  involuntary  contraction  of  all  its  muscles.  The  next  morn- 
ing the  dislocation  was  found  to  have  become  subglenoid,  the  limb  was 
completely  paralyzed,  but  without  loss  of  sensation,  and  although  com- 
municated motion  was  still  painful,  it  did  not  cause  reflex  contractions 
of  the  muscles.  Reduction  was  readily  effected  with  the  aid  of  anaes- 
thesia. The  muscles  of  the  shoulder  reacted  to  the  faradic  current; 
those  of  the  arm  and  forearm  did  not.  The  limb  wasted  rapidly ;  under 
electrical  treatment  an  almost  complete  cure  was  obtained  in  about  two 
years. 

Kronlein*  quotes  Hutchinson  as  having  seen  paralysis  of  the  sciatic 
nerve  follow  an  ischiatic  dislocation  of  the  femur;  and  Sir  Astley 
Cooper^  quotes  a  case  in  which  numbness  of  the  limb  accompanied  the 
same  injury.  Cooper**  also  quotes  a  case  of  suprapubic  dislocation  in 
which  the  pressure  of  the  head  of  the  femur  upon  the  anterior  crural 
nerve  caused  numbness  of  the  thigh. 

1  Weir  Mitchell :  Injuries  of  Nerves,  p.  103.  ^  Weir  Mitchell :  Loc.  eit.,  p.  101. 

8  Duchenne :  De  I'Electrisation  localis6e,  2d  ed.,  p.  179. 

*  Kronlein  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  34.  ^  Cooper:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  67. 

s  Cooper:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  74. 


COMPLICATIONS  OF  RECENT  DISLOCATIONS.  409 

Viscera,  Excluding  the  common  implication  of  the  spinal  cord  in 
dislocations  of  the  vertebrae,  there  are  few  recorded  cases  of  injury  to 
parts  lying  within  the  body  or  neck  by  dislocated  bones.  Such  injuries 
must,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  accompany  dislocation  of  the  head  of 
the  femur  through  the  floor  of  the  acetabulum  into  the  pelvis,  and 
complete  dislocation  backward  of  the  sternal  end  of  the  clavicle  has 
in  some  cases  been  accompanied  by  symptoms  indicating  pressure  on 
the  trachea  or  oesophagus. 

A  case  that  is  entirely  unique,  and  interesting  not  only  because  of 
the  distance  to  which  the  bone  was  displaced,  but  also  because  of  the 
changes  subsequently  undergone  by  the  bone,  and  of  the  ease  with 
which  the  deformity  was  borne,  is  reported  by  Prochaska'  and  by 
Larrey,^  who  had  examined  the  specimen.  A  lad,  sixteen  or  seven- 
teen years  old,  dislocated  his  right  humerus  by  a  fall  upon  the  abducted 
elbow,  and  the  head  of  the  bone  was  driven  between  the  second  and 
third  ribs  (Prochaska  says  the  third  rib  was  fractured)  into  the  chest, 
stripping  up  the  pleura,  but  not  perforating  it.  All  attempts  to  reduce 
it  were  unavailing,  and  the  subsequent  treatment  was  limited  to  vene- 
section, warm  baths,  and  antiphlogistic  measures  for  the  relief  of  urgent 
symptoms.  The  patient  survived  until  the  age  of  thirty-one  (forty, 
Prochaska),  and,  although  the  arm  remained  abducted,  gained  his  live- 
lihood by  woodchopping.  At  the  autopsy  the  head  of  the  humerus 
was  found  within  the  thorax,  covered  by  the  pleura,  and  its  neck  firmly 
placed  between  the  second  and  third  ribs.  The  head  was  so  soft  that 
it  yielded  to  the  slightest  pressure  of  the  finger;  the  articular  cartilage 
and  bony  texture  of  all  the  portion  that  lay  within  the  chest  had 
entirely  disappeared,  leaving  only  a  few  membranous  remains  of  the 
humerus,  of  which  the  greater  part  seemed  to  belong  to  the  costal 
pleura.  Prochaska  describes  it  as  "  naked,  soft,  yielding  to  the  softest 
pressure,  presenting  only  a  thin  envelope,  and  almost  empty  within, 
since  it  had  lost  more  than  half  of  its  internal  bony  substance." 

Soft  Parts  and  Integument  (Compound  Dislocations).  Although 
instances  of  this  complication  have  been  recorded  for  almost  every 
joint,  they  are  yet  of  rare  occurrence,  and  mainly  restricted  to  the 
elbow,  knee,  ankle,  and  phalanges.  Except  in  the  latter  case,  they 
are  commonly  the  result  of  extreme  violence,  and  the  wound  of  the 
skin  is  produced  either  by  the  direct  action  of  this  violence,  or  from 
within  outward  by  the  projecting  end  of  the  bone. 

The  complication  in  the  case  of  the  larger  joints  is  very  grave, 
because  of  the  extent  of  the  injury,  which  is  usually  great  and  marked 
by  much  laceration  and  bruising  of  the  tissues,  and  also  because  of  the 
special  dangers  due  to  the  probable  infection  of  the  wound. 

The  treatment  may  require,  in  addition  to  the  most  rigorous  anti- 
septic measures,  the  partial  excision  of  the  joint,  because  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  otherwise  providing  efficient  drainage  of  all  the  recesses  and 
pouches  of  the  synovial  sac.  To  what  extent  the  results  of  former 
experience   will    be  improved    upon    by   those   of    modern    methods, 

i  Prochaska:  Disquisito  Anatomico-physiol.  Org.  Hiimani.    Wien,  1812,  quoted  by  Malgaigne. 
2  Larrey :  MSm.  de  Chir.  Militaire,  vol.  ii.  pp.  405-407. 


4 1 0  DISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

remains  to  be  determined;  it  can  only  be  said  that  the  promise  is  good, 
and  that  it  is  sustained  by  some  excellent  cures  already  obtained. 

Compound  dislocations  of  the  shoulder  and  hip  are  rare,  those  of  the 
elbow  and  knee  less  so^  and  those  of  the  smaller  joints  much  more 
frequent. 

REPAIR. 

Only  a  few  observations  have  been  made  of  simple  dislocations 
undergoing,  or  that  have  undergone,  repair.  Clinically  it  is  known 
that,  after  a  period  of  a  few  days  or  weeks  marked  by  gradually 
diminishing  tenderness  and  swelling,  the  joint  can  be  freely  used  with- 
out pain,  but  that  sometimes  the  range  of  motion  remains  limited  for 
a  much  longer  period,  and  that  in  some  cases  there  is  a  marked  ten- 
dency to  recurrence  of  the  dislocation.  In  a  few  cases,  in  which 
patients  have  died  within  a  few  days  after  having  suffered  a  disloca- 
tion, the  surrounding  tissues  have  shown  the  remains  of  the  extrava- 
sation of  blood  that  had  taken  place  amid  them,  and  the  rent  in  the 
capsule  has  either  been  occupied  by  a  clot  or  has  been  empty  and 
without  evidence  of  repair.  It  is  to  be  presumed,  however,  that  repair 
usually  takes  place  after  dislocation,  as  it  does  after  many  other  sub- 
cutaneous injuries,  without  suppuration  or  even  much  inflammatory 
reaction,  that  the  ruptured  capsule  reunites  or  that  the  gap  in  it  is 
filled  by  condensation  and  adhesion  of  the  adjoining  connective  tissue, 
that  the  lacerated  muscles  and  ligaments  are  repaired  in  like  manner, 
and  that  these  cicatrices  pursue  the  evolution  common  to  their  class. 

This  process  may,  however,  be  disturbed  by  various  complications. 
If  the  injury  has  been  exceptionally  severe,  if  the  bone  has  been  widely 
displaced,  and  the  surrounding  tissues  much  lacerated,  if  the  efforts  to 
reduce  have  been  violent  and  long  continued,  if  the  joint  has  not  been 
properly  immobilized,  if  passive  motion  has  been  injudiciously  begun 
and  maintained,  or,  finally,  if  the  general  condition  of  the  patient  is 
unfavorable  for  repair,  the  inflammatory  reaction  may  become  exces- 
sive, and  even  end  in  suppuration  and  pyaemia.  If  it  stops  short  of 
this  disastrous  result,  it  may  yet  lead  to  partial  or  complete  anchylosis 
through  the  formation  of  adhesions  between  the  opposed  articular  sur- 
faces or  the  thickening  and  retraction  of  the  capsule  and  periarticular 
tissues.  The  older  records  contain  numerous  instances  in  which  sup- 
puration appears  to  have  been  caused  by  the  efforts  to  reduce,  but  this 
accident  has  become  much  less  common  since  the  introduction  of  anaes- 
thesia and  the  substitution  of  the  so-called  "  mild'^  methods  by  manip- 
ulation for  the  forcible  traction  by  pulleys  which  was  formerly  so  much 
in  vogue. 

Fractures  of  apophyses,  or  portions  of  bone  to  which  muscles  or  liga- 
ments are  attached,  are  repaired  either  by  bony  callus  or  by  a  fibrous 
band,  the  difference  depending  on  the  extent  of  the  separation  and  the 
independent  motion  of  the  fragment.  The  fragment  may  be  withdrawn 
to  such  a  distance  that  the  attached  muscle  or  muscles  permanently 
cease  to  exercise  any  control  over  the  main  bone,  which,  in  conse- 
quence, is  exposed  to  frequent  and  easy  recurrence  of  the  dislocation. 

The  same  infirmity  may  result  from  defective  repair  of  fracture  of 


REPAIR  OF  RECENT  DISLOCATIONS. 


411 


Fig.  228. 


the  rim  of  an  orbicular  cavity.  Instances  of  the  former  variety  are 
most  common  at  the  shoulder-joint,  those  of  the  latter  are  found  at  the 
hip  and  shoulder.  Another  cause  of  the  liability  to  recurrence  at  .the 
shoulder — laxity  of  the  capsule — has  been  indicated  by  Jossel/  who 
had  the  opportunity  to  examine  four  such  cases  after  death;  he  found 
in  all  that  the  supraspinatus  and  infraspinatus  muscles  had  been  torn 
loose  from  their  attachment  to  the  greater  tuberosity,  had  retracted 
behind  the  acromion,  and  had  un- 
dergone atrophy  and  fatty  degenera- 
tion. The  relations  of  the  tendons 
of  these  muscles  with  the  articular 
capsule  are  so  close  that  tlie  rupture 
of  the  former  involves  also  that  of 
the  latter,  and  the  retraction  of  the 
former  creates,  by  drawing  back  one 
side  of  the  rent,  a  large  gap  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  capsule  opening 
into  the  subacromial  bursa.  In  the 
process  of  cicatrization  the  front  part 
of  the  capsule,  that  lying  between 
its  attachment  to  the  humerus  and 
the  rent,  becomes  adherent  at  the 
edge  of  the  rent  to  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  deltoid  close  by  its  at- 
tachment to  the  acromion,  while  the 
posterior  lip  of  the  rent,  after  retrac- 
tion with  the  tendon,  becomes  per- 
manently fixed  at  the  posterior  part 
of  the  acromion.  The  under  surface 
of  the  acromion  is  thus  left  to  fill 
the  gap  between  the  two  lips,  to 
form  the  upper  limit  of  the  articular  cavity,  and  to  be  in  direct  con- 
tact with  the  head  of  the  humerus.  In  none  of  Jdssel's  four  cases 
was  the  normal  communication  between  the  cavity  of  the  joint  and 
the  subscapular  bursa  found  to  be  enlarged;  in  one  the  subcoracoid 
bursa  communicated  with  the  joint,  and  in  one  the  tendon  of  the 
long  head  of  the  biceps  was  ruptured,  and  its  torn  end  had  become 
fixed  in  the  bicipital  groove.  In  two  of  the  cases  a  small  defect  with 
smooth  edges  was  found  in  the  capsule  below  the  tendon  of  the  sub- 
scapularis,  and  in  the  others  the  capsule  appeared  thinned  at  the  same 
point.  Apparently  this  indicated  the  place  at  which  the  head  of  the 
humerus  escaped  through  the  capsule  at  the  time  of  the  first  dislo- 
cation. 

The  cavity  of  the  joint  was  greatly  enlarged  by  these  changes  in  the 
capsule;  in  the  first  its  capacity  was  90  cubic  centimetres,  as  against 
28  in  a  normal  joint,  and  its  length  along  the  upper  portion  was  10 
centimetres  instead  of  the  normal  Sf. 

This  condition  of  the  capsule,  aided  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  con- 


Recurrent  or  habitual  dislocation  of  the 
shoulder,  showing  the  opening  into  the  sub- 
acromial bursa.    (Jossel.) 


1  Jossel :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fUr  Chirurgie,  1880,  vol.  xiii.  p.  167. 


412  DISLOCATIONS. 

trol  and  support  normally  supplied  by  the  supraspinatus  and  infra- 
spinatus muscles,  seems  entirely  adequate  to  explain  the  easy  recur- 
rence of  the  dislocation,  and  the  recent  cases  of  relief  by  operative 
shortening  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule  are  confirmative  of 
the  opinion. 

Gangrene  of  the  limb  may  ensue  upon  the  rupture  of  the  principal 
vessels,  or  even  upon  extensive  laceration  and  violent  inflammatory 
reaction;  and  paralysis  of  one  or  several  muscles  may  manifest  itself 
immediately  or  only  after  the  limb  is  again  brought  into  use,  the  result 
of  injury  to  nerve  trunks  or  of  contusion  of  the  muscle  itself,  or  of 
compression  of  the  nerve  by  a  cicatricial  band  as  in  Miiller's  case 
quoted  above,  page  407. 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

THE  PATHOLOGY  OF  UNREDUCED  C  ANCIENT,"  "  INVETERATE") 

DISLOCATIONS. 

The  changes  that  take  place  about  joints  that  have  long  remained 
dislocated  are  well  understood,  through  direct  observations  of  many 
specimens  in  man  and  through  experiment  upon  animals.  These 
changes  are  partly  the  direct  result  of  purely  inflammatory  processes 
excited  by  the  traumatism  and  the  changed  relations  of  the  parts, 
partly  that  of  disease,  and  partly  that  of  a  seeming  effort  of  nature  to 
create  a  new  and  serviceable  joint.  The  changes  consist,  in  general 
terms,  in  the  condensation  and  thickening  of  connective  tissue  about 
the  displaced  bone  in  such  a  manner  as  to  protect  it  against  further 
displacement,  and  in  the  change  of  the  bones  at  the  new  points  of  con- 
tact partly  by  absorption  and  partly  by  the  formation  of  new  bony 
outgrowths  through  continued  slight  irritation  of  the  bone  itself,  the 
periosteum,  and  the  adjoining  fibrous  and  ligamental  tissues.  The 
irritation  which  leads  to  these  changes  is  furnished  by  motion,  use,  of 
the  limbs;  hence  the  most  striking  examples  are  found  at  the  shoulder 
and  the  hip,  and  these  will  be  used  as  the  basis  of  the  following 
description. 

The  first  changes,  in  point  of  time,  are  those  in  the  bruised  and  torn 
soft  parts  amid  which  the  end  of  the  bone  has  lodged  after  its  escape 
through  the  rent  in  the  capsule.  The  loose  connective  tissue  lying 
about  the  vessels,  nerves,  and  muscular  bundles,  bruised  and  pressed 
back  by  the  head  of  the  bone  and  infiltrated  with  extravasated  blood, 
reacts  in  the  usual  manner  under  the  traumatism  by  becoming  the  seat 
of  an  exudation  and  by  multiplication  of  its  cellular  elements.  The 
latter  follow  their  natural  evolution  into  fibrous  tissue,  and  thus  is 
formed  about  the  bone  a  continuous  fibrous  envelope  enclosing  a  cavity 
within  which  the  end  of  the  bone  lies,  more  or  less  free,  and  continuous 
structurally  on  its  outside  with  the  adjoining  tissues,  some  of  which — 
vessels,  nerves,  and  muscular  fibres — may  be  firmly  imbedded  in  it. 
Its  inner  surface  is  smooth  and  lined  with  flat  cells  resembling  those 
found  on  the  surface  of  normal  or  accidental  bursse,  and  it  is  moistened 
by  a  small  amount  of  liquid  which,  in  some  cases,  closely  resembles 
synovia.  It  seems  probable  that  when  real  synovia  is  present  it  is 
furnished  by  portions  of  the  original  capsule  which  have  remained 
adherent  to  the  bone  and  have  formed  part  of  the  new  cavity.  Indeed, 
the  new  cavity  is  usually  only  an  enlargement  of,  or  addition  to,  the 
original  one,  its  connection  with,  or  its  entire  independence  of,  the  old 
one  being  determined  by  the  character  and  extent  of  the  rent  in  the 
capsule  and  the  distance  to  which  the  head  of  the  bone  has  passed 
through  it;  but  the  capsule  may  be  torn  away  from  the  humerus,  for 


414 


DISLOCATIONS. 


example,  so  completely  that  it  falls  together  behind  it  and  its  cavity  is 
obliterated  by  adhesion  of  the  opposing  surfaces  or  is  shut  off  by  union 
of  the  torn  edges.  The  new  capsule  is  so  small  and  close  and  the 
bands  formed  between  the  bones  by  the  condensation  and  increase  of 
the  surrounding  tissues  are  so  firm  that  motion  is  greatly  restricted  or 
wholly  lost,  and  restoration  of  the  original  relations  can  be  effected  only 
after  a  division  or  laceration  of  those  tissues  far  more  extensive  than 
that  which  accompanied  the  dislocation. 

But  while  these  changes  in  the  soft  parts  tend  permanently  to  fix  the 
bone  in  its  new  position,  other  changes  take  place  in  the  periosteum 
and  the  bone  itself  upon  which  the  displaced  articular  end  rests  and 
moves,  which,  on   the  other  hand,  tend  to  make  this  new  position  a 


Fig.  229. 


Fig.  230. 


Old  supracotyloid  dislocation  of  the  femur,  with 
very  complete  new  acetabulum.  From  the  collec- 
tion at  Bonn.    (Kronlein.) 


Scapula  showing  new  socket  found  in 
an  old  unreduced  subcoracoid  disloca- 
tion.   (Cooper.) 


more  suitable  resting-place  and  to  give  it  a  form  and  character  like 
those  of  the  part  it  is  to  replace.  Thus,  a  new  cotyloid  cavity  may^,be 
formed  upon  the  ilium,  or  a  new  glenoid  cavity  on  the  ioner  side  of 
the  scapula  adjoining  the  old  one.  In  this  new  formation  of  bone  two 
processes  may  take  part — production  of  bone  by  the  periosteum,  and 
ossification  of  the  old  ligaments  and  new  fibrous  tissue.  The  perios- 
teum may  produce  bone  either  after  it  has  been  stripped  up  or  while  it 
is  still  in  place.  If,  in  the  dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  bone,  a  por- 
tion of  the  rim  of  the  corresponding  articular  cavity  is  broken  off  and 
pushed  away,  carrying  with  it  a  strip  of  periosteum  torn  from  the 
adjoining  surface,  but  preserving  its  connection  with  both  pieces,  or  if 


PATHOLOGY  OF  UNREDUCED  DISLOCATIONS.  415 

the  periosteum  is  stripped  up  by  tlie  attached  capsule  or  a  ligament,  as 
occurs  so  frequently  at  the  elbow,  this  loosened  strip  forms  on  its  side 
the  limit  of  the  new  cavity,  and  produces  on  its  under  surface  new 
bone  which  is  continuous  with  the  old  and  with  the  fragment  of  the 
rim,  if  such  has  been  broken  off,  constituting  a  bridge  between  them. 

If  the  periosteum  is  not  stripped  up,  but  the  liead  of  the  bone  escapes 
entirely  from  the  cavity  and  comes  to  rest  u])on  the  outside  of  a  layer 
of  periosteum  still  adherent  to  its  bone,  this  periosteum,  irritated  Ijy 
the  pressure  and  movements,  produces  new  bone  between  itself  and  the 
old,  and  this  production  is  greatest  in  the  zone  just  around  the  point  of 
greatest  pressure.  The  portion  of  periosteum  directly  pressed  upon  dis- 
appears under  the  pressure,  leaving  a  bare  surface  of  bone  in  contact 
with  the  displaced  head,  or  becomes  fibrous  or  fibro-eartilagiuous  in 
structure  ;  while  in  the  immediately  adjoining  portion  the  osteogenetic 
property  is  called  into  play  and  a  ridge  of  l)one  is  built  uj)  around  the 
central  denuded  area.  This  may  be  a  sharply  defined  rim  rising  to  a 
considerable  height  and  closely  resembling  that  for  which  it  is  a  sub- 
stitute, or  it  may  be  a  mass  of  irregular  height  and  outline,  having  little 
or  no  resemblance  to  either  the  glenoid  or  cotyloid  cavity. 

The  details  of  this  formation,  as  observed  by  Baiardi'  at  the  hip  in 
animals,  consist,  first,  in  the  appearance  of  a  circular  cartilaginous  wall 
whose  free  border  is  continuous  with  the  new-formed  fibrous  capsule, 
its  base  resting  upon  the  ilium  and  its  inner  surface  in  contact  with  the 
head  of  the  femur;  its  ossification  (in  rabbits)  is  complete  by  the  thir- 
tieth day,  except  along  its  concave  surface,  where  it  remains  soft, 
shading  off  toward  the  centre  of  the  new  acetabulum  into  a  whitish, 
cartilaginous  like  tissue,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  destroyed  perios- 
teum. On  its  free  border  it  has  the  structure  of  fibro-cartilage;  on  the 
concave  surface  it  closely  approximates  that  of  hyaline  articular  car- 
tilage. At  the  very  centre  the  underlying  bone  is  left  bare  or  is 
covered  by  fibrous  tissue  and  fibro-cartilage,  and  becomes  denser  in 
structure.  Grinewetsky,^  who  experimented  on  dogs,  says  he  never 
found  a  lining  of  periosteum  or  cartilage  inside  the  new  acetabulum; 
the  bone  was  always  sclerosed.  He  also  notes  the  absence  of  endothe- 
lium on  the  inner  surface  of  the  new  capsule. 

The  ossification  may  pass  beyond  the  usual  limits  and  include  por- 
tions of  the  capsule,^  forming  bony  stalactites,  or  even  a  complete 
bony  case  enveloping,  and  perhaps  united  with,  the  head  of  the  bone;*' 
and  in  a  specimen  presented  by  Moreau,^  a  dislocation  of  the  femur 
into  the  obturator  foramen,  the  membrane  filling  the  foramen  had  been 
transformed  into  a  bony  plate  throughout,  except  in  a  strip  along  its 
anterior  margin. 

Some  of  these  experimental  observations  have  been  repeated  upon 
specimens  of  ancient  dislocations  in  man,  in  some  of  which  the  new 
cavity   has    been  found    to  be    lined  with   fibro-cartilage,^  in  others 

1  Baiardi :  Arch,  per  le  Scienze  mediclie,  1S80,  vol.  iv.,  quoted  by  KriJnlein. 

2  Grinewetskv  :  Centralblatt  fur  Chirurg-ie,  1K79,  p.  279. 

3  Thore:  Bnil  de  la  Soc  Aiiatoiniqne,  1S39,  p.  3:1 

*  Cooper;  Loc  cit.,  p.  f)0;  and  Cniveilhier ;  Aiiat.  pathol.,  vol.  i.  p.  425. 
5  Moreau  ;  Mem  de  I'Aoad.  royale  de  Chirurgie,  1759.  vol  ii.  p.  153. 

•  Lepine  and  D6sormeaux  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anat.,  liS44,  p.  167. 


416  DISLOCATIONS. 

with  a  granular  fibroid  tissue  without  apparent  cartilage  of  incrus- 
tation.^ 

The  displaced  head  shows  changes  varying  in  extent  and  consisting 
in  loss  of  its  cartilage,  erosion  of  the  bone  in  places  and  its  increase  in 
others,  and  occasionally  in  profound  changes  of  structure  throughout. 
Thus  in  the  case  just  referred  to,  reported  by  Duguet,  a  dislocation 
inward  of  the  shoulder  of  six  months'  standing,  the  head  of  the 
humerus  was  worn  away  behind  at  the  point  where  it  rested  against 
the  rim  of  the  glenoid  cavity,  which  also  had  in  great  part  disappeared; 
its  anterior  portion  had  preserved  its  cartilage  at  almost  all  points, 
while  its  posterior  portion  had  none,  it  being  there  replaced  by  rather 
tight,  short  fibrous  bands  uniting  the  head  to  the  old  glenoid  cavity. 
In  a  specimen  presented  by  Walsh^  to  the  Royal  Surgical  Society  of 
Ireland,  April  25,  1840,  of  an  old  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  forward, 
the  subscapularis  muscle  was  raised  from  the  scapula  by  the  head  of 
the  humerus,  the  new  glenoid  cavity  was  covered  by  fibro-cartilage, 
the  synovial  sac  was  complete,  and  the  cartilage  of  the  humerus  perfect. 

The  empty  glenoid  or  cotyloid  cavity  diminishes  gradually  in  size 
either  by  absorption  of  that  portion  against  which  the  head  of  the  bone 
rests  or  by  a  general  atrophy,  presumably  due  to  its  disuse,  similar  to 
that  observed  in  the  alveolar  process  after  removal  of  the  teeth,  and 
its  cavity  fills  up  with  fibrous  tissue  that  springs  from  and  replaces  its 
lining  cartilage.  The  glenoid  cavity  has  in  some  cases  been  still  further 
rendered  unfit  for  use  and  inaccessible  by  union  with  the  outer  portion 
of  the  original  capsule,  when  that  has  been  drawn  across  its  face  as  the 
humerus  was  displaced  inward.  And  yet,  occasionally  the  acetabulum 
has  remained  empty  and  its  cartilage  unchanged  for  many  years  (Dreh- 
mann).^ 

When  the  use  made  of  the  limb  is  very  slight  and  the  head  of  the 
bone  is  immovably  fixed  in  its  new  position,  the  development  of  artic- 
ular characteristics  is  slighter  and  the  bone  may  even  diminish  nota- 
bly in  size  or  consistency,  as  in  the  case  quoted  on  page  409,  in 
which  the  head  of  the  humerus  passed  into  the  chest  and  remained 
fixed  there.  This  atrophy  of  disused  parts  is  a  general  rule,  and 
although  observed  in  bone  is  more  marked  in  other  tissues  whose  nutri- 
tive changes  and  functional  activity  are  greater.  In  accordance  with 
this  general  law  the  muscles  which  are  rendered  inactive  by  the  greater 
or  less  fixation  of  the  dislocated  bone  diminish  in  size,  and  if  their 
inactivity  is  complete,  or  even  nearly  so,  their  fibres  undergo  an  actual 
degeneration  and  their  fibrous  tissue  predominates  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  are  hardly  more  than  ligaments.  The  bone,  too,  is  similarly 
affected  throughout  its  entire  length;  it  becomes  smaller,  or,  if  the 
dislocation  has  occurred  daring  youth,  before  development  is  complete, 
it  fails  to  develop  to  the  same  extent  as  its  fellow  on  the  opposite  side, 
and  even  its  normal  curves  disappear. 

These  facts  show  both  the  danger  and  the  futility  of  attempts  to 
reduce  dislocations  that  have  long  existed;  they  show  that  reduction 

1  Duguet :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anat.,  1863,  p.  144.  "  Walsh  :  Gazette  des  Hopitaux,  1840,  p.  330. 

3  Drehmann  :  Beitriige  zur  klin.  Chir.,  1897,  vol.  xvii. 


PATHOLOGY  OF  UNREDUCED  DISLOCATIONS.  417 

can  be  accomplished  only  at  tho  cost  of  lacerations  far  more  extensive 
than  those  involved  in  the  original  injury,  that  among  these  lacera- 
tions may  be  included  rupture  of  important  vessels  or  nerves  that  have 
become  adherent  to  or  included  in  the  fibrous  bands  of  new  formation, 
and  that  even  if  the  bone  can  be  successfully  liberated  from  its  attach- 
ments and  brought  back  to  the  cavity  from  which  it  was  displaced  the 
latter  may  have  become  entirely  unfit  for  its  reception  and  for  a  resump- 
tion of  its  own  original  functions. 

Important  changes  in  the  condition  of  the  limb  may  be  caused  by 
pressure  upon  the  bloodvessels  or  nerves  by  the  displaced  bone  or  by 
injury  done  them  during  attempts  at  reduction.  Instances  of  the  latter 
are  given  in  Chapter  XXXIV. 

Persistent  oedema,  resulting  in  a  condition  resembling  elephantiasis, 
was  observed  by  Bartels'  in  a  patient  whose  shoulder  had  been  dislo- 
cated for  more  than  a  year.  There  was  also  rigidity  of  the  fingers  in 
a  position  indicating  ulnar  paralysis,  which  was  relieved  by  increasing 
the  mobility  of  the  shoulder,  but  the  oedema  persisted. 

1  Bartels  :  Arch,  fur  klin.  Chir.,  1874,  vol.  xvi.  p.  638. 


27 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 

SYMPTOMS  AND  DIAGNOSIS. 

The  symptoms  of  a  dislocation — those  changes  in  the  form,  functions, 
and  sensibility  of  the  part  by  which  the  presence  of  a  dislocation  is  recog- 
nized— are  classed  as  objective  and  subjective  or  rational.  The  former, 
which  alone  are  deemed  demonstrative,  are  those  which  can  be  recog- 
nized by  the  surgeon  on  examination;  the  latter  are  those  for  his  knowl- 
edge of  which  he  must  depend,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  upon  the 
statements  of  the  patient. 

The  examination  of  the  patient  should  always  be  conducted  sys- 
tematically, with  the  view  to  learn  not  merely  the  existence  of  the 
dislocation,  but  also  such  details  and  complications  as  may  be  present 
and  may  affect  the  treatment  and  prognosis;  and  it  should  include  an 
examination  of  the  condition  of  such  bloodvessels  and  nerves  as  may 
have  been  injured  at  the  same  time,  in  order  that  such  injuries,  if  their 
later  consequences  should  become  manifest,  may  not  be  attributed  to 
the  treatment.  If  swelling,  a  large  amount  of  subcutaneous  fat,  or 
pain  should  prevent  a  satisfactory  examination,  anaesthesia  should  be 
employed.  The  character  and  direction  of  the  force  that  produced  the 
dislocation  should  be  learned,  and  also,  if  possible,  the  position  of  the 
limb  at  the  moment  of  its  dislocation,  and  whether  a  "  consecutive" 
has  been  substituted  for  a  "  primary"  displacement,  or,  as  evidence  of 
the  latter  fact,  whether  one  fixed  position  of  the  limb  has  been  sub- 
stituted for  another.  In  doubtful  cases  the  uninjured  limb  should  be 
used  for  comparison,  and  the  question  should  be  asked  whether  or  not 
the  suspected  joint  has  been  previously  the  seat  of  disease  or  injury  the 
consequences  of  which  may  affect  the  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from 
the  examination.  The  essential  point  in  the  examination  is  to  deter- 
mine the  position  of  the  end  of  the  bone,  its  relations  to  that  one  from 
which  it  is  thought  to  have  been  violently  separated,  and  the  best 
evidence  of  this  fact  is  furnished  by  feeling  the  end  of  the  bone  with 
the  fingers,  by  tracing  its  outline,  by  feeling  it  move  when  the  lower 
part  of  the  limb  is  moved. 

Objective  Signs. 

Deformity.  Beside  the  attitude  of  the  patient  or  of  the  limb,  which 
is  often  strikingly  characteristic,  the  aspect  of  the  region  of  the  affected 
joint  is  changed  by  the  inflammatory  swelling,  which  may  appear 
promptly  or  tardily  and  be  accompanied  by  ecchymosis  and  by  altera- 
tions in  the  depth  or  position  of  the  fold  of  its  flexure  and  in  its  normal 
depressions  and  prominences.  The  swelling  varies  with  the  length  of 
time  that  has  elapsed  since  the  injury  was  received,  increasing  for  a  day 
or  two,  remaining  stationary  for  a  variable  time,  and  then  diminishing; 


SYMPTOMS  AND  DIAGNOSIS.  419 

in  old  cases  the  region  is  atrophied.  If  the  dislocation  has  been  caused 
by  external  violence  acting  directly  upon  the  region  of  the  joint,  the 
swelling  is  increased  by  the  effects  of  the  contusion,  and  ecchymoses 
appear  more  promptly  than  in  other  cases. 

The  position,  with  reference  to  each  other,  of  the  articular  surfaces 
or  ends  which  constitute  the  joint  can  often  be  determined  by  palpation, 
and  this  furnishes  the  most  exact  and  positive  evidence  of  the  character 
of  the  injury.  In  joints  that  are  not  thickly  overlaid  by  soft  parts  or 
masked  by  swelling  or  extravasated  blood,  this  position  can  be  readily 
made  out,  as  at  the  knee,  fingers,  elbow,  or  even  the  shoulder;  at  the 
hip  it  is  easy  in  some  dislocations — e.  g.,  suprapubic — to  recognize  the 
head  of  the  femur,  in  others  it  is  much  more  difficult. 

If  the  head  of  the  bone  cannot  be  felt,  its  position  (if  there  is  no 
fracture)  can  be  determined  from  that  of  its  shaft  and  recognizable 
prominences  or  apophyses.  Thus,  if  the  great  trochanter  can  be  recog- 
nized, the  position  of  the  head  of  the  femur  can  be  readily  inferred  by 
prolonging  from  it  in  imagination  the  neck  of  the  femur  in  the  line 
indicated  by  the  position  of  the  shaft.  In  like  manner  prolongation 
upward  of  the  line  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  humerus  indicates  the 
position  of  the  head  of  the  bone,  and  if  it  passes  to  the  inner  side  of 
the  acromion  the  shoulder  must  be  dislocated  or  the  bone  broken. 

The  continuity  of  the  supposed  head  with  the  shaft  is  determined  by 
recognizing  that  it  jmrticipates  in  slight  movements  communicated  to 
the  lower  segment  of  the  limb.  The  aid  of  needles  passed  down 
through  the  soft  parts  to  the  head  of  the  bone  is  sometimes  resorted  to 
when  the  thickness  of  the  soft  parts  makes  examination  with  the 
fingers  difficult  or  uncertain.  By  prolonged  firm  pressure  with  the 
fingers  an  inflammatory  swelling  may  sometimes  be  pushed  aside  and 
the  bone  distinctly  felt. 

Fig.  231.  Fig.  232. 

ff    


Diagram  to  show  the  effect  of  position  upon  the  appar-  Diagram  to  show  the  action  of  a  liga- 

ent  length  of  the  arm  in  dislocation  of  the  shoulder.    A,       ment  in  limiting  the  range  of  motion 
acromion ;  B,  lower  end  of  humerus ;  C,  head  of  humerus.       in  a  dislocation. 

The  limb  may  appear  to  be,  or  may  actually  be,  shortened  or  length- 
ened, but  this  sign  is  not  of  so  much  value  as  it  is  in  cases  of  fracture, 
both  because  it  varies  greatly  with  varying  positions  of  the  limbs  and 
because  the  limbs  cannot  always  be  placed  symmetrically.  The  reason 
why  the  length  of  the  measured  distance  varies  in  different  positions 
of  the  limb  can  be  made  clear  by  taking  an  example,  as  the  shoulder. 


1^0  DISLOCATIONS. 

Here  the  distance  usually  measured  is  that  from  the  edge  of  the  acro- 
mion to  the  external  epicondyle  of  the  humerus.  Now,  this  distance 
diminishes  as  the  arm  is  abducted,  for  (Fig.  231)  when  the  arm  hangs 
by  the  side,  the  line  A  B  \s  almost  exactly  equal  to  C  B  plus  the  dis- 
tance that  C  lies  below  the  level  of  A  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  when 
the  arm  is  abducted  the  distance  A  B'  is  equal  to  C  B  minus  the  dis- 
tance of  C  beyond  the  line  of  A. 

The  methods  of  measuring  and  the  precautions  to  be  taken  are  the 
same  as  in  the  case  of  fracture  and  have  been  elsewhere  considered; 
and  the  possibility  of  the  previous  existence  of  asymmetry  of  the  limbs, 
of  a  difference  in  their  length,  has  also  been  described.     (Fractures, 

Loss  of  Mobility.  In  almost  every  dislocation  there  is  a  position 
which  is  characteristic  of  it  and  which  the  limb  tends  spontaneously  to 
assume  and  retain,  even  under  anaesthesia.  This  position  depends 
rather  upon  the  tenseness  of  ligaments  and  untorn  portions  of  the  cap- 
sule than  upon  the  muscles,  although  the  latter  by  being  already  over- 
stretched may  aid  in  limiting  motion  or  change  of  position  in  certain 
directions.  The  head  of  the  bone  takes  up  a  new  position  at  some 
distance  from  its  normal  one  and  there  establishes  a  new  centre  of 
motion  for  the  limb;  consequently  the  ligaments  on  the  side  opposite 
that  toward  which  the  head  has  been  displaced  are  put  upon  the  stretch 
if  the  attempt  is  made  to  move  the  lower  part  of  the  bone  in  the 
same  direction,  and,  unless  torn,  fix  it  at  an  angle  with  the  other 
bone  to  which  they  are  attached.  (Fig.  232.)  The  bone  can  be  moved 
toward  the  attachment  of  the  untorn  ligament  but  not  further  away 
from  it. 

Since  the  limitation  of  motion  has  its  principal  cause  in  the  non- 
muscular  structures,  it  cannot  be  entirely  removed  by  ansesthesia,  but 
such  additional  limitation  as  may  be  due  to  contraction  of  the  muscles 
excited  by  the  fear  of  pain  can  be  thus  removed,  and  whenever  the 
fixity  of  a  limb  is  used  as  an  element  in  making  the  diagnosis  the  part 
taken  by  the  muscles  in  its  production  should  be  determined.  The 
diagnostic  formula  sometimes  given  that  abnormal  fixation  is  charac- 
teristic of  dislocations,  and  abnormal  mobility  of  fractures,  is  a  partial 
statement  that  may  be  misleading,  for  in  fracture,  or  even  in  contusion, 
near  a  joint  complete  fixation  may  be  effected  by  the  muscles,  and  in 
dislocation  with  extensive  laceration  of  tiie  capsule  and  ligaments  the 
range  of  motion  may  be  very  wide,  and  in  all  it  is  generally  free  in 
some  direction. 

A  therapeutical  fact  that  may  often  be  of  importance  is  to  be  deduced 
from  the  fact  that  the  dislocation  must,  in  most  cases,  have  taken  place 
when  the  limb  was  in  one  of  the  positions  in  which,  while  still  dislo- 
cated, it  is  shortened — that  is,  one  in  which  the  distance  from  its  normal 
opposing  articular  surface  to  its  lower  end  is  less  than  that  between  the 
corresponding  points  of  the  opposite  limb  in  a  similar  position;  by 
replacing  the  limb  in  the  position  it  occupied  when  the  dislocation  took 
place  the  first  step  in  reduction,  that  of  bringing  the  head  of  the  bone 
opposite  the  rent  in  the  capsule  through  which  it  has  escaped  and  relax- 
ing the  soft  parts,  is  taken. 


SYMPTOMS  AND  DIAGNOSIS.  421 

Crepitus.  A  sound  or  sensation  somewhat  resembling  the  crepitus  of 
a  fracture  is  occasionally  perceived  while  a  dislocated  limb  is  being 
handled.  It  may  be  the  real  crepitus  of  a  fracture  accompanying 
the  dislocation,  or  merely  the  grating  of  the  head  of  the  bone  against 
the  edge  of  the  periosteum  of  the  otlier,  or  against  a  fibrous  band,  or 
even  (it  is  said)  against  a  blood-clot. 

Subjective  Symptoms. 

Pain.  The  occurrence  of  the  dislocation  is  immediately  followed  by 
sharp  pain  in  the  region  of  the  joint,  which  may  gradually  diminish  or 
may  continue  for  some  time  with  unabated  severity.  In  the  former  case 
it  is  presumably  due  in  great  part  to  the  laceration  and  bruising  of  the 
tissues;  in  the  latter  to  the  tension  of  those  parts  that  have  not  yielded 
to  the  strain.  In  the  former  case  the  pain  is  not  materially  relieved 
by  reduction;  in  the  latter  it  immediately  disappears  when  the  bone  is 
restored  to  its  place.  In  addition  to  this  pain  about  the  joint,  there 
may  also  be  tingling  or  numbness  through  the  limb  in  consequence  of 
pressure  upon  the  larger  nerve  trunks. 

Loss  of  Function.  Inability  to  use  the  limb  is  ordinarily  complete, 
and  is  due  partly  to  the  fixation  created  by  the  changed  relations  of  the 
bones  and  partly  by  the  pain  which  movement  causes.  There  is  noth- 
ing characteristic  in  this  symptom,  since  it  is  present  also  after  fracture 
and  even  after  a  severe  contusion.  Furthermore,  it  is  sometimes  absent, 
or  present  in  so  slight  a  degree  that  the  patient  continues  to  use  the 
limb,  conscious  only  of  some  slight  pain  and  of  a  certain  inconven- 
ience or  lack  of  freedom  in  its  use. 

History.  The  history  of  the  case  includes  the  character  of  the  vio- 
lence, the  position  of  the  limb  at  the  moment  of  the  accident,  possibly 
the  perception  by  the  patient  at  that  moment  of  a  sound,  of  the  sensa- 
tion of  displacement,  and  the  history  of  any  previous  injury  to  or  dis- 
ease of  the  part  or  of  the  opposite  limb  so  far  as  it  may  affect  its  use 
for  the  purpose  of  comparison.  It  is  well  to  obtain  this  history  before 
proceeding  to  the  direct  examination  of  the  limb. 

There  can  be  no  uncertainty  as  to  the  main  fact  if  the  relations  to 
each  other  of  the  articular  ends  can  be  made  out,  and  the  surgeon 
should  not  rest  content  with  less  than  this  when  it  can  possibly  be 
attained.  In  every  doubtful  case  an  anaesthetic  should  be  employed, 
and  among  the  doubtful  cases  are  those  in  which  there  is  the  possible 
coexistence  of  a  fracture  either  of  a  portion  of  the  articular  surface  or 
of  the  entire  breadth  of  the  bone  near  the  joint.  The  latter  form  of 
fracture  is  itself  the  one  with  which  a  dislocation  is  most  frequently 
confounded;  either  may  be  mistaken  for  the  other;  and  in  any  such 
case  every  effort  should  be  made  to  determine  the  exact  positions  occu- 
pied by  the  ends  of  the  bones. 

In  dislocations  complicated  by  fracture  of  portions  of  the  articular 
surface  or  of  tuberosities  to  which  muscles  are  attached,  the  coexistence 
of  the  fracture  is  often  incapable  of  demonstration  and  can  only  be 
suspected  because  of  the  facility  with  which  the  dislocation  recurs  after 
reduction. 


422  DISLOCATIONS. 

Sucb  complications  as  injury  of  a  main  bloodvessel  or  nerve  will  be 
readily  recognized  by  attention  to  the  characteristic  symptoms  to  which 
they  give  rise. 

Finally,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  most  experienced  and  care- 
ful surgeons  have  sometimes  remained  in  doubt,  or  have  denied  the 
existence  of  a  dislocation  which  the  subsequent  course  of  the  case  has 
shown  to  have  been  present,  and  the  charity  which  the  critic  may  him- 
self so  soon  need  should  be  cordially  extended  to  others. 


CHAPTEK    XXXII. 

COUESE  AND  PROGNOSIS. 

If  the  dislocation  is  promptly  reduced  and  no  complications  are 
present,  the  course  is  simple  and  the  prognosis  favorable.  The  swell- 
ing and  pain  subside,  and  the  patient  is  soon  able  again  to  use  the  limb, 
although  usually  with  some  limitation  of  the  range  of  motion  and  with 
pain  when  these  limits  are  reached.  This  slight  disability  may  persist 
for  weeks,  or  even  months,  especially  in  those  who  are  constitutionally 
prone  to  arthritic  complications.  1  have  known  a  robust,  thoroughly 
healthy  man  to  dislocate  his  shoulder,  the  dislocation  being  so  slight 
that  it  was  immediately  reduced  by  accidental  traction  on  the  arm  and 
he  was  able  to  use  the  limb  without  a  day's  intermission;  and  yet, 
three  months  after  the  accident  he  was  unable  to  lift  the  elbow  in 
abduction  to  the  level  of  the  shoulder,  and  could  not  carry  his  hand  to 
his  hip-pocket  without  causing  considerable  pain. 

If  the  inflammatory  reaction  is  more  severe,  the  pain  and  swelling 
are  greater  and  more  prolonged,  and  the  limitation  of  movement  may 
become  permanent  through  the  formation  of  adhesions  or  the  conden- 
sation and  thickening  of  the  periarticular  soft  parts.  It  is  very  excep- 
tional for  this  process  to  go  on  to  suppuration. 

If  the  disarticulation  is  compound,  it  may  follow  either  one  of  two 
courses;  either  it  is  transformed  into  a  simple  one  by  the  prompt  union 
of  the  wound,  or  suppuration  ensues  and  the  patient  is  exposed  to  all 
the  accidents  of  a  deep  suppurating  wound,  rendered  all  the  more  exten- 
sive by  its  continuity  with  the  interior  of  the  joint.  In  the  latter  case 
the  result  is  certain  to  be  marked  by  much  functional  disability,  per- 
haps by  total  loss  of  mobility  in  the  joint. 

Other  complications  add  to  the  otherwise  uneventful  course  of  a 
simple  dislocation  the  features  peculiar  to  themselves;  thus,  injury  to 
a  nerve  may  be  followed  by  temporary  or  permanent  paralysis  of  the 
muscles  or  loss  of  sensation  in  the  region  supplied  by  it,  or  by  a  long 
train  of  symptoms  indicating  an  ascending  neuritis.  And  injury  to  a 
main  artery  may  be  followed  by  gangrene  of  the  limb,  or  by  the  forma- 
tion of  a  traumatic  or  encysted  aneurism.  The  coexistence  of  a  fracture 
of  the  neck  of  the  bone  creates  a  condition  which  for  a  time  predomi- 
nates over  the  dislocation;  if  the  latter  is  promptly  reduced  the  case 
follows  essentially  the  course  of  a  fracture;  if  it  cannot  be  at  once 
reduced  the  course  at  first  is  still  in  the  main  that  of  a  fracture,  and 
subsequently  that  of  an  old  dislocation. 

The  fracture  of  a  portion  of  the  articular  edge,  or  of  an  apophysis, 
is  habitually  followed  by  no  symptoms  peculiar  to  itself,  except  in  some 
cases  a  marked  tendency  to  recurrence  of  the  dislocation  after  its  reduc- 
tion, and  this  tendency  may  persist  throughout  life. 

Excluding  these  complications,  the  prognosis  in  a  simple  dislocation 


424  DISLOCATIONS. 

of  a  limb,  quoad  vitam,  is  eminently  favorable;  the  prognosis  with 
regard  to  the  restoration  of  form  and  functions  depends  upon  the 
reducibleness  of  the  dislocation,  and  this  is  affected  by  the  character 
of  the  joint  and  of  the  injury,  by  complications,  and  by  the  time  that 
has  elapsed  since  the  injury  was  received. 

The  principal  obstacle  to  the  reduction  of  a  dislocation  commonly 
lies  in  the  tension  of  the  untorn  portion  of  the  capsule  and  ligaments, 
but  special  difficulties  may  arise  from  the  relations  of  the  displaced 
bone  to  the  capsule  and  to  various  muscles  and  tendons.  The  capsule 
may  slip  in  between  the  head  of  the  bone  and  the  cavity  it  has  left, 
and  create  an  obstacle  (by  its  interposition)  that  cannot  be  removed  by 
manipulation  or  traction  of  the  limb,  or  its  torn  edge  may  be  drawn 
tightly  about  the  neck  of  the  bone,  as  is  common  at  the  metacarpo- 
phalangeal joint.  The  cases  in  which  the  former  happens  are  those 
in  which  the  capsule  is  freely  torn  at  or  near  its  attachment  to  the 
humerus  or  femur,  and  in  which  the  head  of  the  bone  is  displaced 
entirely  to  the  outside  of  the  capsule. 

The  greater  length  of  time  since  the  occurrence  of  the  dislocation, 
the  greater  will  be  the  difficulty  of  reduction;  and  after  the  lapse  of  a 
certain  length  of  time,  which  is  different  in  different  cases,  reduction 
becomes  impossible.  The  cause  of  this  difficulty  has  been  described 
in  Chapter  XXX. 

The  period  at  which  a  dislocation  is  to  be  deemed  unfit  for  reduction 
cannot  be  positively  stated;  it  varies  with  different  joints  and  different 
cases.  Speaking  generally,  it  is  about  two  months  for  the  larger  joints, 
but  it  is  not  prudent  to  assume  that  any  dislocation  which  has  remained 
unreduced  for  a  shorter  period  than  two  months  is  reducible,  or  that 
every  one  that  is  older  is,  therefore,  irreducible;  for  in  the  former  case 
we  may  be  led  to  apply  an  amount  of  force  that  will  prove  disastrous, 
and  in  the  latter  disabilities  that  are  amenable  to  treatment  may  be  left 
unrelieved  A  better  guide  is  to  be  found  in  an  examination  directed 
to  ascertaining  the  changes  produced  in  the  parts  by  the  original  injury 
or  the  disuse,  and  in  careful,  judicious  attempts  to  make  reduction. 
The  object  of  these  attempts  should  not  be  to  reduce  the  dislocation  at 
any  cost,  but  to  reduce  it  only  if  the  reduction  can  be  accomplished  by 
moderate  force  and  without  grave  lacerations.  And,  indeed,  I  am 
convinced  that  in  a  doubtful  case  it  is  better  to  expose  the  bone  by 
incision,  and  divide  the  obstructing  tissues  with  the  knife,  rather  than 
blindly  to  rupture  them  by  the  application  of  a  force  whose  action 
cannot  be  intelligently  directed,  and  whose  effects  cannot  be  certainly 
foreseen  and  controlled.  That  the  warning  is  still  needed  is  shown  by 
the  recent  (1897)  death  of  a  patient  in  the  New  York  Hospital  after 
an  attempt  to  reduce  a  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  of  six  weeks'  stand- 
ing by  traction  and  manipulation  which  ruptured  the  axillary  vein  and 
broke  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  ribs. 

Encouragement  to  attempt  reduction  even  when  the  dislocation  has 
remained  unreduced  for  a  period  much  longer  than  that  of  two  months 
above  mentioned  is  furnished  by  not  a  few  recorded  cases  in  which  it 
has  been  completely  successful;  instances  will  be  given  in  the  follow- 
ing chapter. 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

TREATMENT. 

As  a  rule,  to  which  there  can  be  very  few  exceptions,  reduction  of  a 
dislocation  should  be  attempted  at  the  earliest  opportunity.  The  pos- 
sible exceptions  are  cases  in  which  the  inflammatory  reaction  is  already 
very  great,  and  in  which  it  may  be  anticipated  that  the  additional 
violence  inflicted  during  reduction  would  dangerously  increase  it.  But 
even  in  such  cases  it  would  be  well  to  make  gentle  efforts  to  reduce 
under  ether,  and  to  postpone  the  reduction  only  if  these  efforts  proved 
unavailing. 

Spontaneous  reduction  is  the  terra  applied  to  that  which  takes  place 
without  the  intentional  intervention  of  any  external  force.  It  may 
take  place  while  the  patient  is  asleep,  through  the  action  of  the  attached 
muscles  or  through  some  chance  violence,  or  by  a  fall  or  a  sudden  move- 
ment. 

Spontaneous  reduction,  without  the  aid  of  external  force,  has  followed 
shortly  after  attempts  to  reduce  which  have  been  unsuccessful  but  which 
may  be  thought  to  have  made  spontaneous  reduction  possible  by  rup- 
ture of  adhesions,  or  laceration  of  the  tissues,  or  fatigue  of  the  muscles. 
This  variety  was  termed  consecutive  reduction  by  L^veille,  and  the  term 
was  adopted  by  Malgaigne,  who  applies  it  both  to  cases  in  which  spon- 
taneous reduction  takes  place  after  complete  failure  of  the  efforts  to 
reduce  and  also  to  those  in  which  an  incomplete  reduction  sponta- 
neously becomes  complete  or  is  gradually  made  complete  by  prolonged 
action  of  some  force  applied  by  the  surgeon — such  as  pressure. 

The  obstacles  to  the  reduction  of  recent  uncomplicated  dislocations 
arise  from  inflammatory  swelling  of  the  soft  parts,  muscular  contraction 
excited  by  pain  or  the  fear  of  pain,  the  inextensibility  of  untorn  por- 
tions of  the  capsule  or  ligaments  of  the  joints,  the  interposition  of 
portions  of  the  capsule  between  the  head  of  the  bone  and  its  cavity, 
and  the  size  and  position  of  the  rent  in  the  capsule.  Not  all  of  these 
are  present  in  every  case,  and  they  vary  in  importance.  For  a  long 
time  the  muscles  were  deemed  the  most  important,  but  observations 
and  experiments  upon  the  cadaver  carried  on  at  about  the  same  time 
by  several  different  persons — Gunn^  in  1851,  Gelle^  and  Bigelow^  in 
1861,  StreubeP  in  1862,  and  Busch^  in  1863— fixed  the  attention  of 
surgeons  upon  the  relations  between  the  bone  and  the  capsule,  showed 
the  nature  and  importance  of  the  opposition  commonly  offered  by  the 
latter,  and  established  the  basis  of  treatment  by  systematic  manipu- 
lation. 

An  account  has  already  been  given  of  the  part  played  by  the  untorn 

1  Gunn  :  Peninsular  Journal  of  Medicine,  July,  1855,  p.  27. 

2  Gell6  :  Archives  g(5nerales  de  M6d.,  April  and  May,  1861. 

3  Bigelow:  The  Hip. 

*  Streubel :  Vierteljahreschrift  fiir  praljt.  Heilkuade,  1862,  vol.  ii.  p.  59. 
<>  Busch  :  Arch,  fiir  kiln.  Chirurgie,  1863,  p.  1. 


426  DISLOCATIONS. 

portion  of  the  capsule  ia  determining  the  position  assumed  by  the  limb, 
a  part  so  important  that  in  '^  regular"  dislocations  (the  term  given  by 
Bigelow  to  those  in  which  the  rent  in  the  capsule  is  only  partial 
and  occupies  a  certain  definite  place  in  it)  the  muscles  surrounding  the 
joint  may  all  be  divided  without  thereby  modifying  the  position  of  the 
limb  or  increasing  its  range  of  motion.  At  the  hip  the  portion  which 
remains  untorn  in  all  the  typical  forms  is  the  anterior  portion  or 
Y-ligament;  at  the  shoulder  it  is  the  thicker  anterior  portion  forming 
the  so-called  coraco-humeral  ligament.  It  is  more  correct  to  speak  of 
the  obstacle  offered  to  reduction  by  this  untorn  portion  of  the  capsule 
as  an  obstacle  not  to  reduction  in  general,  but  only  to  reduction  by 
certain  methods,  for  when  properly  managed  it  offers  no  opposition, 
and  may  possibly  even  be  of  assistance.  It  may  be  compared  to  the 
link  of  a  sleeve-button,  which  in  some  positions  absolutely  prevents  the 
button  from  passing  back  through  the  button-hole,  while  in  other  posi- 
tions the  passage  is  easy.  Thus,  if  the  head  of  the  bone  is  lodged 
behind  a  projecting  portion  of  the  rim  of  the  articulation,  the  ligament 
(Fig.  233)  is  tense,  and  traction  in  any  direction  which  tends  to  sepa- 
rate its  points  of  attachment  is  effectually 
^i<5-  233.  opposed  by  it;  but  if  these  points  are  brought 

nearer  together  by  moving  the  shaft  of  the 
bone  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow, 
the  ligament  is  thereby  relaxed  and  its  op- 
position to  the  movement  of  the  head  of  the 
bone  toward  its  cavity  annulled.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  untorn  portion  of  the  capsule  or 
ligament  must  be  inferred  from  the  posture 
of  the  limb  and  the  directions  in  which  mo- 
tion is  strongly  opposed. 

In  'irregular"  dislocations,  those  in  which 
,  .„    ,   ,  ,^      ^.        a  characteristic  attitude  is  not  taken  by  the 

Diagram  to  illustrate  the  action      t      ,  -,    .  i  •    i       i  i  •!•        ■  it 

ofan  untorn  ligament  or  portion     limb  and  m  which  the  mobihty  IS  marked, 
ofcapsuie  in  opposing  reduction,     thesc  differences  are  due  to  extensive  rupture 

of  the  capsule;  and  this,  by  removing  the 
restraint  imposed  in  other  cases  by  the  untorn  portion  of  the  capsule, 
makes  reduction  remarkably  easy  without  much  attention  to  the  posi- 
tion in  which  the  limb  is  held  during  the  attempt. 

In  addition  to  this  opposition  to  movement  or  traction  in  certain 
directions,  the  capsule  may  offer  other  obstacles  arising  from  the  form 
and  position  of  its  rent  and  from  its  own  interposition  between  the  head 
of  the  bone  and  the  cavity  in  which  the  latter  is  to  be  replaced.  The 
tearing  of  the  capsule  is  caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  head  upon  it, 
consequently  the  rent  is  on  the  side  toward  which  the  head  is  displaced, 
and  it  may  be  longitudinal  or  transverse  at  either  attachment,  or  present 
a  combination  of  the  two  forms.  In  order  that  either  of  these  obstacles 
should  be  present,  it  is  necessary  that  the  head  of  the  bone  should  have 
passed  entirely  through  the  rent — that,  in  other  words,  its  displacement 
should  be  marked.  As  the  rent,  under  these  circumstances,  is  large 
enough  to  allow  the  head  to  pass  out  through  it,  it  is  large  enough 
to  allow  it  to  be  brought  back  through  it  if   it  is  not  made  too 


TREATMENT.  4,2'J 

narrow  and  its  sides  too  tense  by  traction  upon  them.  The  effect  of 
traction  to  narrow  the  opening  can  be  demonstrated  on  the  cadaver 
(StreubeP)  by  producing  a  subcoracoid  dislocation  of  the  humerus  or 
an  obturator  or  ischiatic  dislocation  of  the  femur,  exposing  the  region 
by  removal  of  the  muscles,  and  then  making  traction  in  the  extended 
position.  As  the  capsule  is  made  tense  the  sides  of  the  longitudinal 
part  of  the  rent  are  drawn  together,  and  their  lateral  separation,  which 
alone  would  allow  the  globular  head  of  the  bone  to  pass  back,  is  pre- 
vented. The  narrowness  of  the  gap  is  at  once  relieved  by  changing 
the  position  of  the  limb  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  the  points  of 
attachment  of  the  capsule  nearer  together,  and  the  transverse  portion 
of  the  rent  can  be  lengthened  by  rotating  the  limb. 

Interposition  of  the  capsule  between  the  head  and  its  cavity  may 
exist  whenever  a  secondary  displacement  has  succeeded  the  primary 
one  and  the  head  has  moved  from  the  point  at  which  it  escaped  along 
the  outside  of  the  capsule,  but  unless  the  capsule  has  been  so  torn  as 
to  form  a  flap  adherent  by  its  base  to  the  edge  of  the  articular  cavity, 
this  interposition  can  be  readily  avoided  by  moving  the  head  of  the 
bone  back  to  the  position  of  primary  displacement.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  such  a  flap  has  formed  and  has  fallen  between  the  articular  sur- 
faces, there  is  no  means,  short  of  an  operation  that  directly  exposes  it, 
of  certainly  getting  it  out  of  the  way;  it  is  attached  to  only  one  bone, 
and  consequently  cannot  be  acted  upon  by  moving  the  other  or  changing 
the  relations  to  each  other  of  the  two. 

Swelling  of  the  soft  parts  interferes  with  reduction  by  increasing  the 
bulk  of  the  limb  within  the  fascia  and  thereby  mechanically  opposing 
changes  in  position.  If  it  is  very  great  it  may  be  proper  to  defer 
reduction  and  combat  the  swelling  by  rest,  cooling  lotions,  and  pres- 
sure; it  will  usually  subside  so  promptly  that  the  loss  of  time  thus 
incurred  will  not  add  appreciably  to  the  difficulty  of  reduction  when 
it  is  undertaken. 

Contraction  of  the  muscles,  provoked  by  the  traumatism  or  the  fear 
of  pain,  opposes  reduction  by  preventing  the  preliminary  changes  of 
position  and  neutralizing  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  the  traction  that  is 
made  upon  the  limb.  It  may  be  overcome  by  gentle  and  long-continued 
traction,  or  forcibly,  or  by  anaesthesia,  or  it  may  be  avoided  by  taking 
the  patient  unawares  or  distracting  his  attention  at  the  critical  moment. 

Anaesthesia  is  far  from  being  needed  in  all  cases,  and  as  there  are 
certain  discomforts  and  even  dangers  in  its  use  an  attempt  to  reduce 
without  its  aid  should  usually  be  made.  In  New  York,  and,  I  think, 
in  most  of  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States,  ether  is  habitually  used 
in  preference  to  chloroform,  and  although  chloroform  is  still  used  in 
Europe,  the  greater  safety  of  ether  is  almost  universally  admitted. 
The  collected  cases  of  death  under  chloroform  apparently  proved  the 
correctness  of  an  opinion  quite  generally  held  that  its  use  in  disloca- 
tions is  especially  dangerous,  although  no  satisfactory  explanation  of 
the  fact  has  yet  been  given.  Of  101  fatal  cases  collected  by  Kappeler^ 
between  1865  and  1876,  11  were  dislocations,  20  amputations,  and  11 

1  Streubel :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  70.  2  Kronlein  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  66. 


428  DISLOCATIONS. 

operations  upon  the  eyes;  of  134  cases  collected  by  Marchand/  17  were 
dislocations,  and  15  extractions  of  teeth.  It  is  not  always  necessary 
to  push  the  use  of  ether  to  complete  anyesthetization,  for  the  relaxation 
is  sometimes  sufficient  during  the  stage  of  primary  anaesthesia  if  care 
is  taken  not  to  excite  the  patient  unduly.  Gentle  traction  may  be  made 
upon  the  limb  as  the  aasesthetization  is  begun,  and  its  direction  gradu- 
ally changed  or  merged  into  the  desired  manoeuvres  as  the  muscles  are 
felt  to  yield. 

Since  the  nature  of  the  obstacles  to  reduction  has  been  more  correctly 
understood  the  methods  by  forcible  traction  have  been  so  far  superseded 
by  the  methods  of  manipulation  that  they  now  possess  only  an  histor- 
ical interest.  They  consisted  essentially  in  extension  (traction),  usually 
in  the  line  of  the  dislocated  limb,  and  counter-extension  to  bring  the 
head  of  the  bone  down  to  the  level  of  its  cavity,  followed  then  by 
measures  of  ''coaptation"  to  force  it  into  place.  The  traction  was 
made  through  bands  attached  to  the  lower  segment  of  the  limb,  and 
the  force  was  exerted  either  directly  by  the  hands  of  several  assistants 
or  indirectly  through  pulleys  or  screws.  The  amount  of  force  some- 
times exerted  by  these  means  can  be  inferred  from  the  disastrous  and 
even  fatal  consequences  that  occasionally  ensued,  including  rupture  not 
only  of  muscles  and  ligaments  but  also  of  the  principal  nerves  and 
bloodvessels,  and  even  complete  avulsion  of  the  limb.  Suppuration 
of  the  joint,  followed  by  the  death  of  the  patient,  an  accident  which  is 
now  very  rare,  was  formerly  quite  common,  and  in  very  many  of  the 
cases  which  recovered  the  record  plainly  shows  the  violence  of  the 
reaction  and  how  narrowly  the  patients  escaped  with  their  lives.  The 
occasion  for  the  exertion  of  so  much  force  arose  from  the  faulty  direc- 
tion in  which  it  was  frequently  applied,  one  in  which  the  head  of  the 
bone  could  not  be  brought  down  to  the  level  of  the  cavity  without 
preliminary  rupture  of  the  opposing  soft  parts.  The  laceration  caused 
by  the  dislocation  was  increased  by  the  treatment,  in  order  to  enable 
the  bone  to  follow  a  course  which  the  ligaments,  if  untorn,  would 
effectually  bar.  Tiie  method  was  directed  against  an  obstacle,  the 
resistance  of  the  muscles,  which  was  only  one,  and  that  not  the  chief,  of 
those  which  opposed  reduction,  and  was  pursued  in  ignorance  of  the 
principal  one;  violence  was  used  to  overcome  an  obstacle  which  correct 
anatomical  knowledge  would  have  enabled  the  surgeon  to  avoid. 

It  musb  not  be  understood  that  this  extreme  violence  was  exerted  in 
every  case.  In  many  the  traction  was  made  in  a  proper  direction,  or 
at  least  in  one  in  which  the  already  existing  laceration  of  the  capsule 
allowed  the  bone  to  be  moved;  hence,  many  dislocations  were  reduced 
with  comparative  facility,  especially  those  of  the  shoulder  and  those  of 
the  hip  in  which  consecutive  displacement  had  not  materially  changed 
the  posture  of  the  limb,  and  in  such  cases  traction  was  a  proper  means 
to  overcome  the  opposition  of  the  muscles.  It  was  in  such  cases,  too, 
that  the  methods  of  continuous  moderate  traction  by  India-rubber, 
weight  and  pulley,  and  suspension  by  the  limb  (''  pendel-methode  " ) 

1  Marchand  :  Des  Accidents  qui  peuvent  compliquer  la  Il(5duction  des  Luxations  traumatiques, 
1875,  p.  134. 


TREATMENT.  429 

were  successfully  employed,  and  will  still  be  when  it  is  desired  to  avoid 
recourse  to  the  aid  of  anaesthesia. 

As  long  ago  as  in  the  time  of  Hippocrates  (fifth  century  B.  C.)  it 
had  been  known  that  some  dislocations  of  the  hip  could  be  readily 
reduced  by  manipulation  without  the  aid  of  violent  traction,  and  Galen 
(second  century  A.  D.)  had  pointed  out  that  the  head  of  tlie  bone 
should  be  returned  to  its  cavity  along  the  route  by  which  it  had  escaped, 
yet  these  suggestions  remained  unknown  or  unheeded  and  the  practice 
of  surgery,  as  regards  dislocations,  appears  to  have  been  not  only  inef- 
fectual to  relieve  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases,  but  also  characterized 
by  dense  ignorance  of  their  pathology  and  by  the  crudest  notions  of 
the  mechanical  effects  of  the  means  by  which  their  reduction  was 
attempted.  Thus,  among  the  methods  in  vogue,  according  to  Petit, 
for  the  reduction  of  dislocations  of  the  shoulder,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  were  those  of  the  door  or  ladder,  the  bar,  and 
the  ambi.  In  the  former  the  patient  was  made  to  stand  upon  a 
stool,  and  the  dislocated  arm  was  brought  over  the  top  of  a  door 
or  a  rung  of  a  ladder  so  that  the  latter  occupied  the  axilla;  then, 
while  an  assistant  grasped  the  wrist  and  drew  it  directly  downward, 
the  stool  was  taken  away  and  the  patient  left  suspended  until  the  sur- 
geon pronounced  the  dislocation  reduced  or  abandoned  the  attempt.  In 
other  cases  the  patient  was  lifted  from  the  ground  upon  a  bar  supported 
on  the  shoulders  of  two  men  and  passing  under  his  axilla;  or  a  large, 
strong  man  seized  the  patient's  wrist,  placed  his  own  shoulder  under 
the  axilla,  and  then  suddenly  straightening  himself  raised  the  patient 
from  the  ground,  at  the  same  time  drawing  the  arm  down  forcibly  in 
front  of  himself.  The  method  of  the  heel,  so  strongly  recommended  by 
Sir  Astley  Cooper,  was  also  employed  by  them,  and  sometimes  with 
success. 

The  ambi,  an  instrument  invented  by  Hippocrates,  was  also  in  favor; 
it  consisted  of  two  oblong  pieces  of  wood  joined  together  at  the  end  by 
a  hinge,  of  which  one  was  placed  vertically  against  the  side  of  the 
patient,  the  hinge  pressed  well  into  the  axilla,  and  the  other  under  the 
arm  in  the  position  of  horizontal  abduction.  The  arm  was  then  firmly 
secured  to  the  latter  piece  and  forcibly  depressed. 

As  the  defective  mode  of  action  of  these  methods  became  more  ffen- 
erally  recognized,  traction  by  the  hands  of  assistants  or  by  pulleys 
or  by  other  apparatus  was  substituted,  but  although  this  was  an  im- 
provement upon  its  barbarous  predecessors  it  was  still  employed 
blindly,  and  evidently  was  often  ineffectual.  There  are  indications  in 
the  older  writings  that  the  practice  was  not  so  wholly  bad  as  the  teach- 
ing, that  here  and  there  men  were  found  who  not  only  appreciated  the 
importance  of  the  direction  in  which  traction  should  be  made,  but  even 
occasionally  reduced  dislocations  by  manipulation  alone,  but  the  writer 
who  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  recognize  the  importance  of  the 
principle  enunciated  so  long  before  by  Galen  of  bringing  back  the  head  of 
the  bone  by  the  route  along  which  it  had  escaped,  and  of  the  position  to  be 
given  to  the  limb  during  the  attempt,  was  Jean  Louis  Petit.  His  Traite 
des  Maladies  des  Os  was  published  in  1705;  a  second  edition  followed 
in  1723,  and  a  third  in  1741.      He  clearly  pointed  out  the  mechanical 


430  DISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

defects  of  the  methods  then  in  use,  and  the  necessity  of  first  bringing 
the  head  of  the  bone  back  to  the  opening  in  the  capsule  through  which 
it  had  escaped  before  attempting  to  replace  it  in  its  cavity ;  and  he  drew 
from  observation  of  the  different  degrees  of  tension  of  the  different 
muscles  inferences  as  to  the  position  in  which  the  limb  should  be  placed 
and  the  direction  in  which  traction  should  be  made,  which  were  of 
great  practical  value,  although  based  upon  notions  concerning  the 
obstacles  that  opposed  reduction  which  were  incomplete  in  that  they 
took  no  account  of  the  untorn  ligaments  and  capsule.  Thus,  in  dislo- 
cation forward  or  downward  of  the  shoulder  he  abducted  the  elbow 
widely,  and  in  those  of  the  thigh  backward  he  flexed  the  limb  and 
then  changed  its  position  when  the  head  of  the  bone  had  been  brought 
down  to  the  proper  level. 

Petit,  in  thus  departing  from  the  practice  of  his  predecessors  and 
contemporaries,  had  entered  upon  the  right  path;  he  erred  in  not  fol- 
lowing it  far  enough,  and  his  error  arose  from  a  too  limited  notion  of 
the  obstacles  to  be  overcome.  He  noticed  that  some  muscles  were  tense 
and  others  were  relaxed,  and  he  sought  to  place  the  limb  in  a  posture 
that  would  remove  these  differences,  while  at  the  same  time  traction 
made  in  the  direction  of  its  long  axis  would  bring  the  head  of  the  bone 
to  the  point  at  which  it  had  escaped  from  its  cavity.  His  improve- 
ments were  appreciated,  and  his  practice  was  essentially  followed  by 
most  surgeons  until  within  the  last  few  years.  Yet  one  of  his  early 
successors,  Pouteau,^  in  a  paper  embodying  ideas  conceived  in  1749 
(see  loc.  cit.,  vol.  ii.  p.  237),  pointed  out  the  defects  of  the  method  as 
applied  to  dislocations  of  the  hip,  and  supported  his  own  arguments 
and  modifications  by  the  record  of  several  successes.  He  says  (p.  222) 
that  in  the  first  case  of  dislocation  of  the  hip  upward  and  outward  (on 
the  dorsum  of  the  ilium)  which  he  was  called  upon  to  treat  he  em- 
ployed Petit' s  method  and  failed.  That  is,  he  made  traction  with 
the  limb  somewhat  flexed,  counter-extension  being  furnished  by  the 
canvas  band  of  Petit' s  machine,  the  centre  of  which  pressed  against 
the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium,  while  its  ends  lay,  one  in  front  of  the 
abdomen,  the  other  behind  the  buttock.  The  reflections  excited  by 
this  failure  led  him,  when  the  next  case  presented  itself,  a  few  months 
later,  to  make  traction  with  the  thigh  flexed  at  a  right  angle,  and  the 
effort  was  promptly  successful.  He  placed  the  patient  on  his  back  on 
the  floor,  laid  the  canvas  band  along  the  groin,  with  one  end  between 
the  thighs  and  the  other  on  the  outer  side  of  the  injured  hip,  flexed  the 
thigh  to  a  right  angle,  engaged  the  ends  of  the  bars  in  the  pockets  of 
the  counter-extending  band,  and  made  traction;  when  he  deemed  the 
traction  sufficient,  he  gently  rotated  the  thigh  outward,  and  reduction 
at  once  took  place.  Furthermore,  he  showed  that  the  resistance  of  the 
muscles  was  due  to  their  involuntary  contraction  and  was  to  be  more 
readily  and  safely  overcome  by  prolonged  moderate  traction  than  by 
more  violent  but  briefer  efforts.  He  says  (loc.  cit.,  p.  226):  "  I  have 
several  times  observed  that  it  is  easier  to  temporize  than  immediately 
to  overcome  the  resistance  of  these  muscles;  so,  when  the  extension 

1  Pouteau :  CEuvres  posthumes,  Paris,  1783.    Pouteau  died  in  1775. 


TREATMENT.  431 

seems  to  be  sufficient  1  maintain  it  at  the  same  point  for  some  time  and 
wait  for  the  relaxation  which  fatigue  must  bring  about.  It  is  then  only 
necessary  to  profit  by  this  moment  of  inaction  to  effect  the  reduction." 

Pouteau's  practice  closely  resembled  that  which  represents  the  appli- 
cation of  the  principles  of  the  modern  method  by  manipulation,  and  is 
identical  with  that  of  moderate  traction  upon  the  flexed  limb  which  is 
now  in  common  use  and  is,  I  think,  generally  preferred  to  that  of  pure 
manipulation.  He  flexed  the  limb  to  bring  the  head  of  the  bone  nearer 
the  opening  in  the  capsule,  made  traction  to  lift  it  to  the  level  of  the 
cotyloid  cavity,  and  then  turned  it  in  by  outward  rotation  or  abduction, 
or  both.  He  knew  even  that  the  traction  could  sometimes  be  dispensed 
with  and  the  reduction  effected  by  manipulation  alone,  and,  in  quoting 
successes  thus  obtained  by  Maison-neuve,  he  predicts  that  a  simpler 
method  than  his  own  will  be  found.  The  failure  of  his  practice  to 
become  generalized  is  probably  due  to  the  influence  of  tradition  and  of 
the  authority  of  Petit,  reinforced  as  the  latter  was  by  the  great  advance 
he  had  made  over  the  practice  of  his  predecessors,  and  perhaps  to  the 
insufficient  publication  of  Pouteau's  views.  The  paper  from  which 
the  above  quotations  are  made  appears  to  have  been  written  in  1749, 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  published  elsewhere  than  in  the 
posthumous  collection  of  1783,  which,  consisting  of  disconnected  essays 
upon  various  subjects,  probably  had  only  limited  circulation.  What- 
ever the  cause  may  have  been,  the  result  is  beyond  question;  surgeons 
continued  to  reduce  dislocations  of  the  hip  by  traction  with  the  pulleys, 
the  limb  being  only  slightly  flexed,  and  by  pressure  applied  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  thigh  to  move  the  head  laterally  into  the  cavity.  Sir 
Astley  Cooper  habitually  used  only  traction,  followed  by  rotation  of 
the  thigh  inward. 

Prof.  Nathan  Smith,  of  New  Haven,  taught  and  practised  a  method 
of  reduction  by  manipulation  Avhich  was  published  in  1831  after  his 
death,  in  his  Medical  and  Surgical  Memoirs,  edited  by  his  son,  Nathan 
R.  Smith,  and  this,  Prof.  Bigelow  says,  '^  covers  the  ground  of  priority 
of  invention."     See  Chapter  LL,  Treatment. 

The  next  published  recognition  of  the  possibility  of  reducing  a  dis- 
location of  the  hip  by  manipulation  alone  was  by  Despres,  who,  in  1835, 
communicated  to  the  Soci^te  Anatomique  of  Paris^  *^  a  new  method  of 
reducing  dislocations  of  the  femur"  by  flexion  and  rotation  outward. 
The  only  comment  it  excited  at  the  time,  according  to  the  records  of 
the  society,  was  the  mention  a  few  months  later  by  Pigne  of  the  fact 
that  the  same  method  was  described  by  Beach  in  a  Treatise  on  Medi- 
cine, published  in  New  York  in  1833,  and  was  there  said,  on  the 
authority  of  Sweet,  the  "  natural  bone-setter,"  to  have  been  practised 
by  the  savages  of  North  America.^  The  Despres  incident  is  mainly 
noteworthy  as  showing  how  completely  the  previous  suggestions  had 
been  forgotten  or  overlooked,  even  by  Pouteau's  own  countrymen.  It 
is  now  used  by  the  French  as  a  justification  for  speaking  of  the  method 
by  manipulation  (at  the  hip)  as  the  "Methode  de  Despres." 

1  Desprfes:  Bull.  delaSoc.  Anatomique,  September,  1835,  p.  4. 

2  Beach,  like  Sweet,  appears  to  have  been  an  irregular  practitioner,  and  it  is  likely  that  his  asser- 
tions, even  when  known,  were  not  deemed  worthy  of  serious  consideration. 


432  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  like  manner,  other  surgeons  sought  to  modify  the  practice  as 
regarded  the  shoulder-joint,  by  advising  that  the  traction  should  be 
made  in  different  directions  aud  combined  with  rotation  of  the  limb. 
Of  these  the  most  noteworthy  are  Mothe  and  Lacour,  since  it  is  with 
their  practice  that  the  manipulative  methods  are  generally  thought  to 
have  begun. 

The  earlier  manipulative  methods  were  either  empirical  or  based 
upon  more  or  less  incorrect  notions  of  the  nature  of  the  obstacles  to  be 
overcome  and  of  the  mechanism  by  which  the  result  was  to  be  obtained, 
aud  it  is  only  since  the  pathology  of  the  different  dislocations  has  been 
better  understood,  with  refereuce  especially  to  the  position  of  the  rent 
in  the  capsule  and  the  influence  of  the  portions  which  remain  untorn, 
that  the  different  procedures  embraced  under  this  method  have  been 
intelligently  devised  and  executed.  They  differ  so  widely  in  their 
details  that  only  the  most  general  description  can  be  given  here;  they 
consist  in  giving  to  the  limb  successive  positions,  by  which  the  head  of 
the  bone  is  first  brought  opposite  the  opening  in  the  capsule  and  then 
into  its  cavity,  and  by  which  the  opening  in  the  capsule  is  made  to 
gape  widely,  or  is  actually  enlarged  if  necessary.  For  the  accomplish- 
ment of  these  ends  the  limb  is  used  as  a  means  of  acting  upon  the  cap- 
sule so  far  as  it  remains  attached  to  the  bone,  and  the  head  of  the  bone 
is  made  to  take  its  successive  positions  by  rotation  of  its  shaft,  or  by 
using  it  as  a  lever  which  finds  its  fixed  point  either  upon  some  adjoin- 
ing prominence  of  bone  or  in  the  capsule,  or  by  moving  the  entire  limb 
in  the  direction  of  its  long  axis.  Combined  with  these  manipulations 
it  is  commonly  necessary  to  employ  a  certain  amount  of  traction  to  over- 
come gravity  or  such  resistance  as  is  offered  by  the  muscles. 

It  rests  essentially  upon  an  anatomical  and  pathological  basis  con- 
sisting of  two  parts,  the  position  of  the  rent  in  the  capsule  and  the 
resistance  of  the  untorn  portion,  and  depends  for  its  knowledge  of  these 
two  factors,  in  any  given  case,  mainly  upon  the  position  occupied  by 
the  limb  and  the  limitations  of  the  movements.  Resistance  of  the 
muscles,  when  present,  is  overcome  by  anaesthesia  or  by  traction. 

Such  traction  as  is  required  is  made  by  the  hands  of  the  surgeon  or 
of  an  assistant,  or  by  the  weight  of  the  dependent  limb,  or  by  the  pro- 
longed action  of  an  elastic  band  or  of  a  weight  suspended  over  a  pulley. 

Continuous  traction  by  India-rubber  bands  was  introduced  by  Legros 
and  Onimus  while  internes  in  the  Paris  hospitals,  1863  to  1866,  and 
advocated  by  them  in  a  paper  published  in  1868.'  They  recognized 
that  their  object,  the  fatigue  of  the  opposing  muscles,  could  be  equally 
well  accomplished  by  weight  and  pidley  or  a  steel  spring,  but  they  gave 
the  preference  to  India-rubber  because  of  the  ease  with  which  it  could 
be  used.  Their  reported  cases  are  dislocations  of  the  shoulder  and 
elbow. 

The  method  of  application  in  dislocations  forward  of  the  shoulder, 
for  example,  is  as  follows:  A  loop  is  made  fast  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
arm  by  turns  of  a  roller  bandage  or  by  strips  of  adhesive  plaster  as  in 
Buck's  extension;  then  the  patient  is  seated  iu  a  chair,  counter-exten- 

1  Legros  and  Onimus :   Des  Tractions  continues,  et  de  leur  Application  en  Chirurgie.    Arch. 
G6n6rales  de  M6d.,  January,  1868. 


TREATMENT.  433 

sion  provided  by  a  band  passing  around  the  chest  under  the  axilla  and 
over  the  opposite  shoulder  and  made  fast  to  some  neighboring  fixed 
point,  the  elbow  gently  raised  to  or  nearly  to  the  position  of  horizontal 
abduction,  and  traction  made  in  the  direction  of  its  long  axis  by  a 
rubber  cord  passed  through  the  loop  attached  to  the  arm  and  around  a 
fixed  point  established  in  an  appropriate  position.  The  traction  should 
be  about  twenty  or  twenty-five  pounds,  and  needs  to  be  continued  for 
from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes;  under  its  influence  the  muscles  become 
relaxed  and  the  patient  experiences  the  sensation  of  great  fatigue,  the 
head  of  the  bone  gradually  approaches  the  glenoid  cavity,  and  either 
enters  it  spontaneously  or  is  replaced  by  the  pressure  of  the  surgeon's 
fingers,  or  by  a  sudden  pull  upon  the  arm, 

Arthrotomy.  Occasionally  a  fresh  dislocation  is  irreducible  because 
of  an  exceptional  position  of  the  bones  or  of  interposition  of  the  soft 
parts.  I  have  seen  this  once  each  at  the  shoulder,  elbow,  and  temporo- 
maxillary  joints,  and  a  number  of  times  at  the  metacarpo-phalangeal 
joints  and  in  dislocations  with  fracture.  At  the  shoulder  the  head  of 
the  humerus  had  passed  below  and  then  so  far  to  the  inner  side  of  the 
subscapularis  that  its  tendon  was  closely  wrapped  about  the  outer  side 
of  the  neck  of  the  bone  and  had  to  be  divided;  at  the  elbow,  apparently 
in  consequence  of  repeated  attempts  to  reduce,  the  denuded  end  of  the 
humerus  had  been  forced  through  the  fascia  in  the  flexure  of  the  joint, 
and  the  tendon  of  the  biceps  was  lodged  behind  the  external  condyle; 
at  the  jaw,  the  meniscus  had  been  torn  away  from  the  condyle  and  was 
lodged  behind  it. 

If  such  an  operation  is  done  within  a  day  or  two  after  the  accident 
the  risk  is  no  more  than  that  of  a  similar  opening  of  the  unlacerated 
joint;  but  while  inflammatory  reaction  is  active  and  oedema  is  marked 
the  chance  of  suppuration  is  greater,  and  it  is  then  well,  I  think,  to 
await  their  subsidence  before  operating. 

Old  Unreduced  Dislocations.  The  changes,  above  described,  which 
take  place  about  a  dislocated  bone  gradually  increase  the  difficulty  of  re- 
duction by  the  means  that  are  sufficient  while  the  dislocation  is  fresh, 
and  ultimately  make  it  impossible.  The  conditions  vary  so  greatly  with 
individual  cases  and  with  the  different  joints,  and  their  extent  and 
detail  are  so  unrecognizable  clinically  and  so  largely  a  matter  of  infer- 
ence that  the  difficulty  cannot  be  measured  simply  by  the  length  of 
time  that  has  elapsed,  and  too  often  not  even  by  anything  short  of 
an  actual  trial. 

The  common  practice,  until  within  quite  recent  times,  was  simply  to 
employ  the  usual  forcible  means  more  forcibly,  to  rupture  adhesions  by 
forcing  the  limb  in  various  directions,  and  then  to  drag  it  into  place  by 
pulleys  or  specially  devised  apparatus.  While  this  succeeded  in  many 
cases,  and  even  occasionally  in  some  at  the  shoulder  and  hip  which  had 
existed  for  months,  yet  the  record  is  full  of  accidents  and  disasters, 
and  many  a  grave  warning  has  been  uttered  against  the  dangers  of  the 
attempt  even  in  apparently  suitable  cases  and  against  the  temptation  to 
subordinate  the  patient's  welfare  to  a  desire  to  obtain  an  unusual  success. 

The  dangers  of  forcible  reduction  in  cases  of  long  standing,  and  the 
superiority  of  operative  methods  to  meet  the  special  indications  that 

28 


434  DISLOCATIONS. 

may  exist  in  them,  are  now  so  well  understood  that  the  warning  is  not 
much  needed  in  such  cases;  it  is  in  the  more  recent  cases,  those  of  a 
few  weeks,  that  it  is  now  specially  necessary  to  be  on  guard  against 
being  unwittingly  led  to  strive  too  long,  to  make  a  stronger  and  still  a 
stronger  pull  after  less  force  has  failed.  The  danger  is  specially  great 
in  the  old,  whose  diseased  arteries  may  so  easily  be  bruised  or  torn, 
and  whose  thinned  bones  may  so  easily  be  broken.  The  following 
two  cases  which  recently  occurred  in  the  service  of  a  surgeon  in  a 
prominent  New  York  hospital,  within  a  year  of  each  other  (1896-97), 
illustrate  the  temptation  and  the  risk. 

A  woman  sixty-seven  years  old;  subcoracoid  dislocation  two  weeks 
old.  Ether;  traction  by  pulleys,  estimated  at  300  pounds;  reduction 
on  second  attempt.  The  following  day  the  radial  pulse  could  not  be 
felt,  and  gangrene  seemed  imminent;  seven  weeks  later  amputation  of 
the  arm;  death.  The  autopsy  showed  a  thrombus  in  the  brachial 
artery. 

Man  sixty-eight  years  old;  subcoracoid  dislocation  six  weeks  old. 
Ether;  manipulation  to  rupture  adhesions;  Kocher's  method  tried 
twice,  then  heel  in  the  axilla.  Then  arm  carried  forcibly  across  the 
body,  the  head  slipping  to  the  outer  side  of  the  glenoid  fossa;  finally 
traction  in  abduction  succeeded.  Died  five  hours  later.  Autopsy 
showed  rupture  of  the  axillary  vein  and  of  the  short  head  of  the 
biceps;  capsule  entirely  torn  from  the  humerus;  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  ribs  fractured  in  the  axillary  line. 

The  alternative  measures — reduction  by  operation,  excision,  and 
osteotomy — have  been  made  so  much  safer  than  formerly  by  improved 
surgical  technique  that  they  are  now  resorted  to  with  increasing  fre- 
quency, and  the  resulting  experience  has  been  such  that  rules  of  treat- 
ment can  be  formulated  for  some  of  the  joints.  In  backward  dislocation 
of  the  elbow  formal  exposure  by  two  lateral  incisions  and  removal  of 
the  cicatricial  tissue  permit  complete  reduction  and  usually  a  notable 
improvement  of  function.  At  the  shoulder  the  range  of  motion  after 
reduction  by  operation  has  generally  been  small,  and  the  operative 
difficulties  are  often  great;  excision  of  the  head  gives  greater  mobility 
and  meets  the  frequent  special  indication  of  relief  of  pain  due  to  press- 
ure, but  the  result  is  marred  by  the  diminution  of  active  control.  At 
the  hip  reduction  by  operation  has  proved  dangerous  and  has  failed  in 
more  than  half  the  trials;  even  when  it  has  succeeded  the  functional 
gain  has  not  often  been  notable.     See  Chapter  LIII, 

The  facts  and  general  principles  to  be  considered  in  determining  upon 
resort  to  operative  interference  and  in  making  a  choice  of  methods  are 
as  follows  : 

1.  At  the  present  time  wound  infection  is  of  more  frequent  occur- 
rence after  operative  reduction  of  old  dislocations  of  the  large  joints 
than  in  other  primarily  clean  operations,  and  an  almost  inevitable 
result  of  such  infection  is  anchylosis  of  the  joint;  and  even  in  cases 
which  escape  infection  the  restoration  of  function  is  usually  quite 
incomplete.  Consequently  the  usefulness  of  the  limb  in  the  existing 
conditions  and  the  probable  gain  by  interference  should  be  carefully 
considered,  and  in  doing  this  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  a  limitation 


TREATMENT.  435 

of  motion  already  such  as  greatly  to  restrict  the  use  of  a  limb  is  likely 
to  increase  merely  by  tliat  lack  of  use. 

2.  A  faulty  fixed  position  may  be  so  improved  by  an  ojieration  that 
the  usefulness  will  be  increased  even  if  anchylosis  follows. 

3.  On  the  other  hand,  and  this  is  specially  true  of  the  hip,  the  im- 
provement to  be  got  by  a  change  of  position  may  be  far  too  slight  to 
justify  the  risks  of  an  operation  so  extensive  as  would  be  required  for 
reduction,  and  an  almost  equal  improvement  might  be  had  by  an  oste- 
otomy. 

4.  Pain  and  trophic  changes  in  the  limb  due  to  pressure  upon  nerves 
are  good  reasons  for  interference;  the  relief  would  probably  be  more 
surely  and  easily  obtained  by  an  excision  of  the  head  of  the  bone. 

5.  Excision,  when  undertaken  only  to  improve  function,  is  suitable 
at  the  shoulder  and  elbow,  but  must  be  sparingly  employed  at  the  hip 
where  solidity  of  support  is  more  important  than  mobility.^ 

After-treatment.  After  a  dislocation  has  been  reduced,  there  is 
needed,  in  most  cases,  only  a  simple  retention  bandage  to  confine  the 
limb  in  an  easy  position,  but  in  some  cases,  dislocation  of  either  end 
of  the  clavicle,  of  the  head  of  the  radius,  and  sometimes  of  the  shoul- 
der backward  under  the  spine  of  the  scapula  (Busch  and  Kronlein), 
the  tendency  to  recurrence  is  so  great  that  special  dressings  are  required. 
The  joint  should  be  kept  quiet,  certainly  any  movement  that  causes 
pain  should  be  avoided,  and  if  the  inflammatory  reaction  threatens  to 
be  severe  it  must  be  opposed  by  the  application  of  cold,  or  uniform 
gentle  pressure  if  it  can  be  borne.  After  a  week  or  two  the  use  of  the 
limb  may  be  gradually  resumed.  In  making  passive  motion  or  this 
use  of  the  limb,  those  positions  must  be  avoided  in  which  the  head  of 
the  bone  would  press  upon  the  torn  part  of  the  capsule,  or  in  which 
the  sides  of  the  rent  would  be  again  separated  from  each  other. 

If,  as  sometimes  happens,  the  joint  remains  stiff,  weak,  and  sensitive, 
but  is  cold  rather  than  warm,  and  aches,  and  perhaps  becomes  puffy 
after  use,  it  needs  massage  and  rubbing,  and  to  be  actively  moved, 
either  by  the  patient  or  by  the  physician.  Its  sensitiveness  and  immo- 
bility under  such  circumstances  are  due  to  the  prolonged  disuse,  to 
retraction  and  loss  of  pliability  in  the  periarticular  tissues,  and  possibly 
to  the  presence  of  adhesions  within  the  cavity  itself. 

Habitual  Dislocation.  A  marked  tendency  to  recurrence  may  be  com- 
bated by  prolonged  immobilization  of  the  joint  if  the  injury  is  com- 
paratively recent,  or  by  special  treatment  designed  to  thicken  and 
shorten  the  capsular  and  periarticular  tissues.  Genzmer^  successfully 
employed  in  two  cases  of  recurrent  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  repeated 
injections  into  the  joint  of  the  pure  tincture  of  iodine.  The  needle 
was  introduced  a  finger-breadth  below  the  coracoid  process,  and  seven 
to  ten  minims  were  injected.  The  arm  was  then  immobilized,  and 
the  injections  repeated  from  five  to  seven  times  at  intervals  of  three  or 
four  days.  He  recommended  the  same  treatment  for  habitual  disloca- 
tion of  the  lower  jaw. 

1  For  many  cases  of  various  forms  of  operation  see  Engel,  in  Arch,  flir  kliu.  Chir.,  1897,  vol.  Iv. 
p,  603. 

2  Genzmer :  Centralblatt  fur  Chirurgie,  1883,  p.  563. 


436  DISLOCATIONS. 

DabreaiP  reports  a  cure  at  the  shoulder  by  six  injections,  during  a 
fortnight,  of  two  drops  each  of  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  chloride  of 
zinc  into  the  periarticular  tissues.  At  the  sternal  end  of  the  clavicle 
1  have  twice  obtained  a  good  result  by  injecting  a  few  drops  of  alcohol 
into  the  periarticular  tissues  and  immobilizing  for  a  fortnight. 

The  operative  method  which  seems  safest  and  most  efficient  at  the 
shoulder  is  one  introduced  by  Eicard,^  the  formation  of  a  permanent 
fold  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule  by  three  vertical  silk  sutures. 
A  similar  method  has  been  used  in  habitual  outward  dislocation  of  the 
patella. 

1  Dubreuil :  La  Semaine  Med.,  February  27, 1892. 

2  Ricard  :  Acad,  de  M6d.,  October  31, 1892. 


CHAPTEK    XXXIV. 

ACCIDENTS  THAT  MAY  BE  CAUSED  BY  ATTEMPTS  TO  REDUCE 

A   DISLOCATION. 

The  complications  or  accidents  that  may  be  caused  by  the  attempt 
to  reduce  a  dislocation  may  appear  during  the  attempt,  as  the  imme- 
diate consequence  of  the  manoeuvres  employed,  or  subsequently  as  a 
more  or  less  remote  consequence  of  the  changed  conditions,  the  local 
injuries,  or  the  inflammation  produced  by  those  manoeuvres;  and  they 
may  be  localized  at  or  near  the  dislocated  joint,  or  may  be  the  result  of 
a  local  distant  change  or  of  a  more  diffused  impression  upon  the  organ- 
ism. They  may,  therefore,  be  grouped  as  :  1st,  primary  local  accidents; 
2d,  consecutive  local  accidents;  3d,  cases  of  hemiplegia,  syncope,  and 
sudden  death.  The  first  group  comprises  injuries  of  the  skin,  cellular 
tissues,  muscles,  vessels,  nerves,  and  bones;  the  second  group  includes 
suppuration  in  or  about  the  joint,  and  oedema,  gangrene,  and  paralysis 
consequent  to  injury  to  vessels  or  nerves.  The  third  group  includes 
those  cases  of  shock  or  exhaustion,  sometimes  proving  fatal,  which 
have  become  exceedingly  rare  since  the  introduction  of  anaesthetics, 
and  those  others,  that  have  come  in  their  place,  of  death  due  to  the 
anaesthetic  itself. 

It  is  noticeable,  on  comparison  of  the  cases  that  have  occurred  at 
different  periods,  that  while  some  varieties  of  the  lesions  are  common 
to  all  times,  with  their  varying  methods  of  treatment,  others  are  in  a 
manner  dependent  upon  the  means  by  which  the  reduction  has  been 
attempted.  Thus,  violent  traction  is  the  sole  cause  of  some;  manoeu- 
vres, such  as  abduction  and  rotation  of  the  arm,  the  principal  cause  of 
others;  violent  pressure  at  or  near  the  head  of  the  bone,  prolongation 
of  the  effort,  and  anaesthetics,  each  of  its  own  peculiar  varieties.  Not- 
withstanding these  differences,  certain  points  may  be  recognized  as 
common  to  the  greater  number,  such  as  the  age  of  the  patient  and  the 
length  of  time  during  which  the  dislocation  has  remained  unreduced. 
Injuries  of  the  vessels  have  been  most  frequent  in  the  old  and  in  dis- 
locations of  long  standing,  and  all  the  other  accidents  have,  in  recent 
times  at  least,  been  rarely  seen  except  in  connection  with  dislocations 
that  have  long  remained  unreduced  or  that  have  been  complicated  by 
much  inflammatory  reaction.  The  reasons  for  the  greater  liability  to 
rupture  of  the  arteries  under  these  conditions  are  not  obscure;  the  loss 
of  elasticity  because  of  atheromatous  change  in  the  vessels  in  the  old, 
and  the  adhesion  of  the  vessels  to  adjoining  parts  as  a  sequence  of 
inflammation  are  a  sufficient  explanation,  and  the  mechanical  difficul- 
ties created  by  the  contraction  and  readjustment  of  the  torn  tissues  in 
old  dislocations  explain  the  others  by  the  force  that  is  required  to  over- 
come them. 


438  DISLOCATIONS. 

Integument.  The  skin  may  be  bruised  or  lacerated  at  a  distance  from 
the  joint  by  the  pressure  of  the  cords  through  which  traction  is  made, 
or  near  the  joint  by  the  pressure  of  the  hands  or  instruments  acting 
upon  the  dislocated  end  of  the  bone,  or  it  may  be  torn  across  if  the 
traction  is  exerted  upon  it  rather  than  upon  the  bone.  These  lesions 
are  seldom  serious,  and  the  former  may  usually  be  avoided  by  protect- 
ing the  surface  with  thick  layers  of  cotton  or  flannel.  Transverse 
rupture  of  the  skin  between  the  points  of  extension  and  counter-exten- 
sion is  due  to  a  faulty  application  of  the  force,  by  Avhich  it  is  exerted 
upon  the  skin  alone  and  not  upon  the  underlying  bone.  The  skin  is 
elastic  and  tough,  and  when  unaltered  by  disease  will  support  a  very 
considerable  strain,  one  far  in  excess  of  that  commonly  needed  to  over- 
come the  contraction  of  a  muscle,  but  the  traction  may  be  so  applied 
that  it  will  act  only  upon  the  skin.  Thus,  if  a  broad  band  is  strapped 
snugly  about  the  middle  of  the  arm  and  traction  is  made  by  a  cord 
attached  to  it,  it  will  draw  the  skin  downward  toward  the  elbow;  and 
if  at  the  same  time  the  skin  of  the  axilla  and  chest-wall  is  prevented 
by  counter-extension  from  sharing  in  the  movement,  the  intermediate 
portion  is  put  upon  the  stretch  and  may  tear. 

To  guard  against  the  occurrence  of  this  accident  the  limb  should  be 
firmly  grasped,  if  traction  by  the  hands  is  used,  at  the  enlarged  distal 
end  of  the  bone,  so  that  the  skin  should  not  be  drawn  downward  by 
the  slipping  of  the  hands,  and  the  additional  precaution  may  be  taken 
to  press  the  skin  of  the  forearm  (in  the  case  of  a  shoulder  dislocation) 
upward  before  the  limb  is  grasped,  and  similar  precautions  suitable  to 
the  region  should  be  taken  at  the  point  of  counter-extension.  If  trac- 
tion is  made  by  a  cord  or  band,  it  should  be  attached  to  the  limb  just 
above  a  bony  prominence  or  enlargement  which  will  prevent  its  slip- 
ping; it  should  not  be  made  fast  simply  by  enclosing  its  loop  in  circular 
turns  of  a  bandage  which  maintain  their  hold  upon  the  skin  by  friction. 

Sloughing  of  the  skin,  due  to  its  compression  against  an  underlying 
bone  by  direct  pressure  exerted  to  force  the  latter  back  into  place,  has 
been  occasionally  observed,  in  a  dislocation  of  the  astragalus,^  and  over 
the  olecranon  in  an  attempt  made  by  a  bonesetter  to  reduce  a  backward 
dislocation  of  the  elbow. 

Emphysema  of  the  Cellular  Tissue.  This  has  been  noted  in  one  case. 
Flaubert^  reduced  a  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  of  five  weeks'  standing 
in  a  woman  seventy  years  old;  the  first  attempt  was  unsuccessful;  in 
the  second  traction  was  made  by  eight  students,  and  the  patient,  who 
at  first  uttered  vehement  cries,  seemed  afterward  to  be  upon  the  point 
of  suffocating,  and  her  face  became  purple  and  injected.  An  emphy- 
sema immediately  appeared  above  the  clavicle  and  spread  over  the 
shoulder  to  the  middle  of  the  back.  She  died  on  the  eighteenth  day, 
apparently  in  consequence  of  the  tearing  away  of  the  lower  four  trunks 
of  the  brachial  plexus  at  their  attachment  to  the  spinal  cord. 

Rupture  of  the  Muscles.     Under  this  head  only  those  lacerations  of 

1  Dauve  :  Rec.  de  M6in.  de  MM.  et  Chir.  Milit.,  1867,  vol.  xix.  p.  143. 
-  Flaubert:  Repertoire  d'Anat.  et  de  Phys.,  1827,  quoted  by  Malgaigne. 


ACCIDENTS  BY  ATTEMPTS  TO  REDUCE  A  DISLOCATION.     439 

the  muscles  will  be  mentioned  which  are  occasioned,  especially  in  old 
dislocations,  by  violent  traction  or  by  forcible,  exaggerated,  and  long- 
continued  manipulation  of  the  limb.  The  cases  in  which  the  injury 
has  been  confirmed  by  autopsy  are  few,  only  those  in  which  death  has 
promptly  followed  in  consequence  of  associated  lesions  or  of  the  inflam- 
mation to  which  the  violence  has  given  rise.  Yet,  in  another  of  Flau- 
bert's cases, ^  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  not  only  the  muscles  but 
also  the  ligaments  and  other  soft  parts  were  extensively  torn.  The 
case  was  one  of  dislocation  of  the  elbow  backward,  twenty-seven  days 
old,  in  which  traction  was  made  upon  the  forearm  by  seven  assistants; 
suddenly  the  parts  seemed  to  yield  and  change  their  positions  Avith  a 
sound  of  tearing,  and  at  the  same  moment  a  zone  of  narrowing  or 
depression  appeared  at  the  level  of  the  joint  with  a  bony  prominence 
above  and  below.  It  seemed  to  all  present  that  tlie  muscles  and  soft 
parts  covering  the  joint  had  been  ruptured,  leaving  a  gap  two  inches 
long.  An  enormous  fluctuating  swelling  promptly  appeared,  the  radial 
pulse  returned  the  next  day,  and  the  patient  recovered. 

In  the  cases  confirmed  by  autopsy  the  dislocation  has  always  been 
of  the  shoulder,  and  the  muscles  most  frequently  torn  have  been  the 
pectoralis  major  and  the  subscapularis. 

Avulsion  of  a  portion  of  a  limb  is  fortunately  a  very  rare  accident. 
Except  for  one  or  two  cases  of  avulsion  of  the  thumb,  known  only  by 
tradition,  the  only  instance  of  complete  avulsion  is  that  in  which 
Alphonse  Gu6rin  tore  away  the  forearm  at  the  elbow  in  an  attempt  to 
reduce  a  subcoracoid  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  of  six  weeks'  standing.^ 

The  rupture  took  place  mainly  through  the  joint,  a  small  portion  of 
each  condyle  remaining  attached  to  the  muscles  of  the  forearm,  and  a 
portion  of  the  olecranon  to  the  triceps.  The  muscles  were  softened 
and  brown;  the  nerves  were  injected,  with  nodes  at  intervals;  the  veins 
were  dilated.  The  ends  of  the  long  bones  were  profoundly  disorgan- 
ized, with  thinning  of  the  compact  shell  and  rarefaction  of  the  spongy 
part;  they  broke  under  slight  pressure  and  could  be  easily  perforated 
with  the  scalpel.  Microscopical  examination  showed  degeneration  of 
the  nerves,  muscles,  and  bones. 

The  patient  died  on  the  thirteenth  day,  and  the  autopsy  showed  no 
change  in  the  tissues  of  the  other  limbs;  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder 
were  normal,  except  the  deltoid,  the  fibres  of  which  were  pale  and 
degenerated.  The  nerves  were  matted  together  in  the  axilla  and  firmly 
pressed  against  the  head  of  the  humerus;  above  the  point  of  compres- 
sion they  were  normal,  contrasting  strongly  with  the  parts  below. 

It  is  evident  that  the  accident  was  favored  by  great  trophic  changes 
in  the  limb,  probably  due  to  pressure  upon  the  nerves  in  the  axilla. 

Injuries  of  the  Main  Bloodvessels.  Although  the  earliest  recorded 
cases  of  accidents  of  this  class  occurred  at  about  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  subject  did  not  receive  the  attention  of  sys- 
tematic writers  on  surgery  until  after  the  publication,  in  1827,  of  an 

1  Mala;aigne:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  149. 

2  Gu6rin  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1864,  pp.  121  and  131. 


440  DISLOCATIONS. 

article  by  Flaubert/  Malgaigne,  in  1855,  discussed  the  subject  at 
length  in  his  work  on  dislocations,  mentioning  sixteen  cases  of  all 
kinds,  certain  and  uncertain.  Callender,^  taking  as  a  text  his  own 
fatal  case,  again  collected  and  collated  the  known  cases;  and  similar 
use  was  made  of  the  material  and  other  cases  added  to  the  list  by  Le 
Fort,^  Willard,*  and  Marchand.^  In  1882  Korte^  reported  three  per- 
sonal cases,  and  wrote  a  very  full  and  valuable  paper  on  the  subject, 
containing  forty-four  supposed  (actually  thirty-eight;  see  first  edition, 
p.  79)  cases  of  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  in  which  the  vessels  had  been 
seriously  injured  during  the  act  of  dislocation  or  of  reduction;  and  in 
1884  Cras^  reported  a  personal  case  of  injury  of  the  axillary  artery, 
and  added  a  few  others  to  K5rte's  list.  Strictly  speaking,  several  of 
these  cases  should  not  be  here  considered,  since  in  them  the  vessel  was 
injured  at  the  moment  of  dislocation  and  not  during  reduction,  and  in 
many  others  it  remains  uncertain  whether  the  same  objection  might  not 
be  made  to  them.  They  are  retained  because  they  serve  equally  well 
with  the  others  to  further  the  study  of  most  features  of  the  subject. 

I  have  met  with  only  two  recorded  cases  in  which  a  large  bloodvessel 
has  been  injured  in  the  reduction  of  any  dislocation  except  of  the 
shoulder.  These  were  both  of  the  elbow,  the  cases  of  Flaubert  and 
Michaux,  quoted  by  Marchand  and  Malgaigne.  The  former  has  been 
already  quoted  under  rupture  of  the  muscles;  in  the  latter  the  patient 
was  ten  years  old,  and  the  dislocation  was  of  the  elbow  backward  and 
outward,  the  swelling  was  considerable,  the  radial  pulse  was  present. 
Reduction  was  attempted  on  the  day  after  the  accident,  and  on  the 
next  following  day,  but  without  success.  The  last  attempt  was  imme- 
diately followed  by  swelling  of  the  elbow  and  by  arrest  of  pulsation  in 
the  radial  and  ulnar  arteries;  gangrene  set  in,  and  six  days  after  the 
attempt  the  limb  was  amputated.  The  tendons  of  the  biceps  and 
brachialis  anticus  were  found  to  have  been  forced  by  the  manipulation 
around  the  external  condyle  to  the  posterior  aspect  of  the  humerus, 
accompanied  by  the  ruptured  brachial  artery  and  median  nerve. 

In  1885  P  found  forty-seven  trustworthy  accounts  of  injury  to  the 
larger  vessels  of  the  axilla  in  dislocation  or  reduction  of  dislocation  of 
the  shoulder.  Since  then  CaldwelP  lias  reported  a  case  thought  to  be 
rupture  of  the  anterior  circumflex  artery,  and  I  have  learned  of  one  of 
rupture  of  the  axillary  vein  (Weir).  The  latter  has  been  quoted  above 
(p.  435).  Caldwell's  patient  was  fifty-eight  years  old,  and  the  disloca- 
tion had  been  promptly  reduced.  Six  weeks  later  "  there  was  a  large 
fluctuating  swelling  in  the  outer  aspect  of  the  shoulder,  over  the  area 
covered  by  the  deltoid;"  pulsation  at  wrist  and  in  axillary  artery;  no 
swelling  in  axilla.  Under  the  impression  that  the  swelling  was  due  to 
an  abscess  an  incision  was  made  and  about  a  pint  of  clotted  blood  evacu- 

1  Flaubert :  M6m.  sur  plusieurs  cas  de  luxations  dans  lesquels  les  efforts  pour  la  reduction  ont  6t6 
suivis  d'accidents  graves,  Repertoire  d'anat.  et  de  phys.,  1827. 
"  Callender :  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Reports,  1866,  vol.  ii.  p.  96. 

3  Le  Fort:  Diet.  encyclopiJdique  des  sci.  mijd.,  article  Axillaires. 

4  Willard :  Philadelphia  Medical  Times,  1873,  vol.  iii.  p.  721. 

s  Marchand :  Des  accidents  qui  peuvent  compliquer  la  reduction  des  luxations  traumatiques, 
These  de  concours,  Paris,  1875. 
6  Korte  :  Arch,  fiir  klinische  Chirurgie,  vol.  xsvii.  p.  631. 
1  eras:  Bull,  de  la  Soci<5t(3  de  Chirurgie,  1884,  p.  739. 
8  Stimson :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  June  13, 1885,  and  first  edition. 
8  Caldwell :  Cincinnati  Lancet-Clinic,  May  3, 1890. 


ACCIDENTS  BY  ATTEMPTS  TO  REDUCE  A  DISLOCATION.     441 

ated;  this  was  followed  by  arterial  hemorrhage,  arrested  by  pressure  of 
the  thumbs  in  the  wound.  The  wound  was  enlarged,  but  the  source  of 
the  bleeding  was  not  found.  The  wound  was  packed  with  gauze,  and 
the  patient  recovered.  Of  these,  the  axillary  vein  alone  was  ruptured 
in  four  (Froriep,  Price,  Weir,  Hailey),  although  I  think  the  last  one 
doubtful,  and  the  artery  and  vein  together  in  two  (Platner,  Baum).' 
In  most  of  the  others  the  axillary  artery  or  one  of  its  branches  was 
injured,  but  in  some  the  source  of  the  hemorrhage  remains  uncertain. 
In  thirty-three  cases  death  or  amputation  of  the  arm  furnished  the 
opportunity  to  examine  the  region  and  determine  the  character  of  the 
lesion;  this,  in  some  cases,  was  a  complete  or  partial  rupture  of  all  the 
coats  of  the  artery  or  of  the  inner  and  middle  coats  alone,  with  subse- 
quent formation  of  a  circumscribed  aneurism.  In  other  cases  the 
vitality  of  the  wall  appears  to  have  been  diminished  or  destroyed  by 
direct  pressure,  and  this  to  have  been  followed,  after  the  lapse  of  a 
few  days,  by  rupture,  or,  still  later,  by  the  formation  of  an  aneurism. 
In  Gibson's  second  case  an  aneurism  appears  to  have  formed  in  conse- 
quence of  the  earlier  attempts  to  reduce,  and  then  itself  to  have  been 
ruptured  when  Gibson  effected  reduction.  Rupture  always  appears  to 
have  taken  place  quite  high  up,  and  usually  at  the  point  pressed  upon 
by  the  head  of  the  humerus.  Callender  found  it  necessary  to  divide 
the  pectoralis  minor  to  reach  it.  In  the  fatal  cases  of  injury  of  the 
vein  alone  the  vessel  was  torn  completely,  or  almost  completely,  across. 

In  five  cases  only  a  small  (one-sixth  of  an  inch)  oval  opening  was 
found  on  the  anterior  wall  of  the  artery,  and  was  thought  to  have  been 
produced  by  the  tearing  off  of  a  branch,  the  subscapular  or  circumflex. 

In  other  cases  the  subscapular  or  the  circumflex  artery  was  torn 
across  at  or  near  its  origin.  The  cases  of  this  kind  form  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  the  whole  number,  and  are  of  great  importance 
because  they  explain  the  persistence  of  the  radial  pulse  noted  in  several 
of  the  histories.  In  Parker's  the  swelling  was  at  the  axillary  border 
of  the  scapula  behind,  "  near  the  situation  of  the  dorsal  scapular  artery 
or  the  subscapular  at  the  junction  of  the  two;"  in  Caldwell's  under  the 
deltoid. 

Of  thirty-one  cases  in  which  the  age  of  the  patients  is  given,  in 
twenty  they  were  more  than  forty  years  old.  The  youngest  was  twenty, 
the  oldest  eighty-six.  In  very  few  of  the  cases  it  is  noted  that  the 
arteries  were  atheromatous,  although  the  advanced  age  of  many  of  the 
patients  makes  it  probable  that  the  elasticity  of  the  vessels  was  dimin- 
ished. 

In  more  than  half  the  cases  the  dislocation  was  recent — less  than 
three  weeks.  In  not  more  than  one-third  of  them  is  it  reasonably 
certain  that  the  lesion  was  caused  during  reduction;  in  three  cases  it 
was  certainly  caused  by  the  dislocation;  in  the  remainder  the  cause  is 
obscure.  To  these  latter  belong  those  cases  in  which  the  reduction 
was  promptly  effected,  and  without  the  use  of  much  force  or  of  exag- 
gerated positions  of  the  arm. 

1  Possibly  to  these  may  be  added  Volkmann's  case  of  wound  of  the  axillary  vein,  thought  to 
have  been  caused  by  a  splinter  of  bone.  The  wound  was  discovered  during  an  operation  to  excise 
the  head. 


442  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  many  of  the  others  the  attempt  to  make  reduction  was  greatly- 
prolonged  or  several  times  repeated,  and  the  force  used  was  very  great 
or  improperly  applied.  This  last  criticism  is  probably  applicable  to 
the  earliest  four  cases  (Verduc,  Petit,  Platner,  and  Bell),  about  which 
nothing  is  known  except  that  death  was  caused  by  hemorrhage.  In 
one  of  them  (Bell)  the  use  of  the  ambi  is  mentioned,  and  it  is  probable 
that  it  or  the  method  of  the  door  or  ladder  was  employed  in  all. 

In  some  the  injury  was  evidently  caused  by  excessive  traction;  in 
others  by  faulty  manoeuvres,  such  as  extreme  abduction  or  elevation  of 
the  arm,  rotation,  and  circumduction;  in  others  again  apparently  by 
direct  compression  of  the  vessel  against  the  underlying  bone,  as  by  the 
booted  heel  in  the  axilla,  or  possibly  by  the  thumbs. 

Leaving  aside  the  earlier  cases  in  which  faulty  methods  no  longer  in 
use  were  employed,  and  those  old  dislocations  in  which  the  relations 
and  connections  had  been  permanently  changed  by  fibrous  or  bony 
tissue  of  new  formation,  it  becomes  evident  that  in  dislocation  of  the 
shoulder  the  accident  is  most  to  be  apprehended  when  the  elbow  is 
raised  in  abduction  to  the  height  of  the  shoulder,  or  is  carried,  as  in  Cal- 
lender's  and  Weir's  cases,  across  the  chest  and  face  in  a  wide  movement 
of  circumduction;  and  for  this  reason,  that  in  these  movements  the  dis- 
located head  of  the  bone  is  turned  downward  into  the  axilla,  and  the 
vessels  which  lie  upon  its  inner  side  are  pressed  down  before  it  and 
forcibly  put  upon  the  stretch,  while  those  branches  which  run  almost 
directly  outward,  the  subscapular  and  circumflex,  and  are  fixed  to  the 
tissues  amid  which  they  branch,  are  directly  and  forcibly  elongated. 
Although  in  dislocation  inward  the  limb  is  shortened  by  being  ab- 
ducted, yet  the  artery  is  not  thereby  relaxed,  but,  on  the  contrary,  is 
still  further  stretched  around  the  head  of  the  bone.  Jossel,^  in  a  recent 
case  in  which  death  was  caused  by  associate  injuries,  found  the  "  nerves 
of  the  brachial  plexus,  especially  the  circumflex  nerve  and  the  sub- 
scapular artery,  greatly  stretched  by  the  head  of  the  humerus;"  and, 
according  to  Korte,^  he  found  in  another  case  of  recent  dislocation  the 
subscapular  artery  torn. 

In  some  of  the  cases  in  which  it  is  certain  or  probable  that  the  injury 
to  the  vessels  was  inflicted  at  the  moment  of  dislocation,  it  is  noted  that 
the  latter  was  produced  while  the  arm  was  widely  abducted — that  is, 
under  circumstances  in  which  the  head  of  the  humerus  would  be  driven 
downward  and  inward. 

If  the  dislocation  is  an  old  one,  and  especially  if  there  has  been 
much  inflammatory  reaction,  and  the  vessels  have  become  firmly  adher^ 
ent  to  the  bone  or  embedded  in  unyielding  cicatricial  tissue,  the  lia- 
bility to  rupture  is  increased,  because  of  the  loss  of  elasticity  occasioned 
by  the  latter  condition,  and  because  of  the  limitation  of  the  strain  to 
a  shorter  segment  of  the  vessel  in  the  former.  If,  in  addition,  the 
distensibility  of  the  vessel  has  been  further  reduced  by  atheroma,  the 
danger  is  still  greater;  and  this  last  predisposing  cause  may  properly 
be  deemed  sufficient  to  lead  to  the  rupture,  even  when  the  traction  is 
slight  and  the  manoeuvres  are  confined  within  a  narrow  range. 

1  Jossel :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift,  1880,  vol.  xiLi.  p.  177. 
-  Korie:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  640. 


ACCIDENTS  BY  ATTEMPTS  TO  REDUCE  A  DISLOCATION.     443 

The  symptoms  at  the  beginning  present  two  widely  different  forms; 
in  one,  the  less  common,  a  tumor  presenting  many  of  the  signs  of  an 
encysted  aneurism  appears  in  the  axilla  a  few  days  or  weeks  after 
the  reduction,  and  increases  in  size  rather  rapidly;  if  not  successfully 
treated,  it  soon  involves  the  skin  and  ruptures  externally. 

In  the  other  form,  the  more  common,  a  diffused  fluctuating  swelling, 
without  bruit  or  pulsation,  appears  immediately,  or  within  a  few  hours, 
in  the  axilla,  raising  the  pectoral  and  deltoid  muscles,  or  is  perhaps 
most  prominent  posteriorly,  and  in  most  cases  promptly  reaches  a  large 
size,  even  that  of  the  adult  head  (Lister);  the  radial  pulse  sometimes 
persists.  The  only  exception  to  rapid  growth  among  the  recorded  fatal 
cases  is  K5rte's  third  case,^  in  which  the  extra vasated  blood  disap- 
peared slowly,  leaving  a  firm,  non-pulsating  lump,  as  large  as  a  wal- 
nut, in  the  course  of  the  axillary  artery,  which  a  surgeon  supposed  to 
be  a  lymphatic  gland,  and  undertook  to  extirpate  nearly  five  months 
after  the  accident.  It  proved  to  be  an  aneurism  containing  much  strati- 
fied clot;  the  axillary  artery  was  tied  above  and  below,  and  the  patient 
died. 

In  several  cases  the  patients  died  promptly  after  the  accident,  some- 
times after  profound  syncope,  sometimes  after  a  short  period  of  appar- 
ent well-being,  with  symptoms  of  shock  or  acute  anaemia.  In  two, 
which  finally  ended  in  recovery,  the  patients  were  at  first  greatly  pros- 
trated, and  death  by  syncope  threatened.  In  another  gangrenous 
emphysema  developed  in  the  arm,  and  the  patient  died  forty  hours 
after  the  reduction.  In  this  case  the  inner  and  middle  coats  of  the 
artery  were  torn  across  ^'  just  beyond  the  point  of  origin  of  the  dorsal 
scapular  branch."  The  radial  pulse  was  at  first  perceptible,  but  had 
ceased  the  next  morning. 

In  most  of  the  others  the  swelling  increased,  and,  in  a  longer  or 
shorter  time,  ruptured  spontaneously,  or  was  theatening  to  rupture 
when  operative  interference  (puncture,  incision,  or  ligature  of  the  sub- 
clavian) was  resorted  to.  The  longest  period  was  in  Bellamy's  case, 
six  months  after  reduction,  and  even  in  this  case  the  first  hemorrhage 
occurred  five  weeks  after  reduction. 

In  eight  cases  that  recovered  without  operation,  the  swelling  subsided, 
and  the  ecchymosis  was  slowly  absorbed.  Probably  in  some  of  them 
the  vessel  injured  was  one  of  the  branches  of  the  axillary  artery,  but 
in  at  least  one  (Sands)  the  injury  was  certainly  of  the  artery  itself. 

In  the  three  cases  in  which  rupture  of  the  vein  alone  was  demon- 
strated post  mortem  (Froriep,  Weir,  Price),  the  patients  died  promptly, 
in  an  hour  and  a  half,  five  hours,  and  on  the  following  day  respectively. 

The  histories  show  that,  although  the  diagnosis,  so  far  as  the  general 
nature  of  the  accident,  rupture  of  a  bloodvessel,  is  concerned,  does  not 
long  remain  obscure,  the  identity  of  the  injured  vessel  cannot  always 
be  determined.  If  the  tumor  pulsates,  the  diagnosis  of  rupture  of  an 
artery  may  be  made;  and  if,  in  addition,  the  radial  pulse  is  present,  it 
is  extremely  probable  that  the  injured  vessel  is  not  the  main  artery, 
but  that  one  of  its  branches,  probably  the  subscapular  or  circumflex, 

1  Korte:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  636. 


444  DISLOCATIONS. 

has  been  ruptured  or  torn  off  at  its  origin.  Beyond  this  it  does  not 
seem  at  present  possible  to  go  with  much  certainty,  although  the  great 
preponderance  of  arterial  lesions  in  the  known  cases — 26  out  of  29 — 
makes  it  highly  probable  in  any  given  case  that  an  artery  and  not  the 
axillary  vein  has  been  torn. 

The  terminations  were  as  follows:  16  recoveries,  32  deaths,  and  in  1 
(Green's)  the  result  is  unknown;  21  received  no  operative  treatment; 
of  these  6  recovered  and  15  died.^  In  16  the  subclavian  was  tied, 
with  6  recoveries,  8  deaths,  and  1  unknown  result.  In  1  a  cure  was 
effected  by  digital  pressure  on  the  subclavian,  and  in  1  by  stuffing  the 
cavity  with  gauze  (ant.  circumflex).  In  6  an  incision  was  made  in  the 
axilla,  and  the  artery  tied  above  and  below  the  point  of  rupture:  all 
died.  In  4  the  limb  was  disarticulated;  1  recovery,  3  deaths.  The 
treatment  in  the  cases  that  recovered  without  operation  was  simply 
compression  of  the  swelling  and  immobilization  of  the  arm,  with  the 
application  of  ice  in  Malgaigne's,  and  compression  of  the  subclavian 
artery  in  Agnew's. 

In  drawing  inferences  from  these  results,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  in  many  of  the  cases  in  which  operations  were  undertaken  non- 
operative  treatment  had  previously  been  employed,  and  had  resulted 
in  a  condition  that  made  an  operation  necessary.  Thus,  using  only 
those  cases  in  which  the  record  is  sufficiently  detailed,  of  the  17  cases 
of  ligature  or  compression  of  the  subclavian,  in  10  the  operation  was 
done  after  the  lapse  of  several  weeks  or  even  months,  in  1  on  the  third 
day,  in  1  on  the  tenth  day,  and  in  5  the  length  of  the  interval  is  not 
known.  Of  the  4  disarticulations,  in  1  the  operation  was  at  a  late 
date,  in  1  five  days  after  the  accident,  and  in  2  unknown.  Of  the  6 
treated  by  incision  and  double  ligature  of  the  axillary  artery,  the  opera- 
tion was  done  promptly  in  2,  and  after  a  long  interval  in  4.  Conse- 
quently, the  results  of  non-operative  treatment  may  be  tabulated  as 
follows:  Of  37  patients,  6  recovered,  15  died,  and  16  (with  10  deaths) 
subsequently  underwent  operation,  either  because  death  by  hemorrhage 
threatened  or  because  of  the  existence  of  a  growing  aneurism.^  A 
fair  inference  from  the  reported  cases  is  that  conservative  treatment 
may  properly  be  tried  at  first,  but  should  not  be  prolonged  if  the 
symptoms  do  not  promptly  yield;  and,  secondly,  that,  in  case  of  resort 
to  operation,  ligature  of  the  subclavian  artery  or  disarticulation  at 
the  shoulder  is  to  be  preferred  to  incision  of  the  sac  and  double  liga- 
ture of  the  artery.  It  is  not  easy  to  understand  why  ligature  of  the 
artery  above  and  below  has  been  so  uniformly  fatal,  and  notwith- 
standing the  record  I  should  prefer  it  to  disarticulation,  and  perhaps 
even  to  ligature  of  the  subclavian. 

Experience  with  arteries  wounded  under  other  conditions  has  shown 
that  they  will  sometimes  quite  readily  heal,  or  the  opening  made  into 
them  will  close,  under  pressure  accurately  made  at  the  point  of  injury, 
and  it  would,  therefore,  be  proper  to  attempt  to  treat  this  injury  by 

1  Possibly  Korte's  second  case  should  be  included  among  the  recoveries. 

-  Kijrte's  second  case  is  an  exception ;  an  error  in  diagnosis  led  to  an  operation  after  the  aneu- 
rism had  apparently  undergone  spontaneous  cure.  In  Caldwell's  the  swelling  was  thought  to  be 
an  abscess. 


ACCIDENTS  BY  ATTEMPTS  TO  REDUCE  A  DISLOCATION.     445 

direct,  limited  pressure.  Whether  or  not  it  would  be  possible  to  recog- 
nize the  wounded  point  and  make  efficient  pressure  directly  upon  it 
cannot  be  said,  since  the  attempt  does  not  appear  to  have  been  made. 
In  default  of  such  limited  pressure,  general  compression  of  the  swell- 
ing in  the  axilla  seems  to  be  the  only  resource  short  of  operation.  The 
common  treatment  of  ruptured  artery,  incision  and  double  ligature  of 
the  vessel,  was  immediately  resorted  to  in  only  two  of  these  cases; 
both  were  promptly  fatal. 

In  the  reduction  of  recent  dislocations,  these  accidents  show  that 
abduction  of  the  arm  especially  should  be  avoided,  as  also  circumduc- 
tion, violent  traction,  and  rough  pressure  in  the  axilla.  Kocher's 
method  by  manipulation  appears  well  adapted  to  avoid  the  danger. 
It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  the  injury  to  the  vessel  may  be  caused 
by  the  dislocation  itself,  and  its  symptoms  may  be  masked  by  the  swell- 
ing commonly  present  during  the  first  few  days. 

In  old  dislocations  the  probability  of  the  occurrence  of  the  accident 
is  increased  by  the  more  forcible  measures  usually  necessary  to  break 
up  the  adhesions  that  bind  the  bones  in  their  new  relations;  and,  while 
it  may  be  proper  in  many  cases  to  make  the  attempt  to  restore  the  limb 
to  usefulness,  the  possibility  creates  another  reason  for  abstention  when 
the  patient  is  old,  the  duration  of  the  dislocation  long,  and  the  adhe- 
sions firm.  Even  a  dislocated  arm  may  be  very  useful,  and  the  fatality 
of  this  accident,  more  than  70  per  cent,  of  deaths,  may  well  cause  the 
surgeon  to  hesitate  to  incur  the  risk  merely  for  the  sake  of  ameliorating 
a  condition  which  does  not  endanger  life  and  is  quite  compatible  with 
activity  and  usefulness. 

Injuries  to  Nerves.  These  also  have  been  far  more  frequently 
observed  at  the  shoulder  than  elsewhere,  and  there  is  the  same  diffi- 
culty in  many  of  the  recorded  cases  in  determining  whether  the  injury 
was  caused  by  the  dislocation  or  by  the  manoeuvres  employed  to  effect 
a  reduction. 

The  injury  may  consist  in  direct  compression  of  the  nerve  against 
the  bone,  as  in  attempted  reduction  by  the  method  of  the  door  or 
ladder  or  by  the  heel  in  the  axilla,  or  in  forcible  elongation  or  com- 
plete rupture  of  the  nerve  by  traction  upon  the  limb,  or  such  change 
in  its  position  that  the  nerve  is  stretched  around  the  head  of  the  bone, 
or  in  avulsion  of  the  nerve  from  the  spinal  cord.  As  the  autopsies 
are  few  in  number  our  knowledge  of  the  lesions  is  mainly  clinical.  In 
a  case  quoted  in  the  preceding  section,  one  of  rupture  of  the  brachial 
artery  near  the  elbow,  the  median  nerve  was  also  ruptured;  and  this 
double  injury  has  been  several  times  encountered  in  compound  dislo- 
cation of  the  elbow. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Flaubert,^  and  mentioned  above  in  the  section 
on  Emphysema,  a  dislocation  of  the  left  shoulder  five  weeks  old  in  a 
very  stout  woman  aged  seventy  years,  reduction  was  accomplished  with 
difficulty  after  prolonged  traction  upon  the  arm  by  eight  assistants. 
Beside  the  emphysema  extending  over  the  neck  and  back,  there  were 

1  Marchand :  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  25,  67. 


446  DISLOCATIONS. 

syncope  lasting  an  hour,  cloudiness  of  vision,  paralysis  of  the  right  arm, 
and  left  hemiplegia  with  loss  of  sensibility  in  the  left  arm  but  with 
pain  referred  to  it.  Thirty-six  hours  later  there  was  sharp  pain  in 
the  back  of  the  head  and  neck  and  in  the  ears;  pain  also  in  the  left 
thigh,  in  which  sensation  was  better  than  in  the  right;  the  left  arm 
was  insensitive,  without  pain,  and  motionless;  the  right  arm  numb  and 
somewhat  weakened;  pulse  rapid,  skin  warm.  The  next  day  the 
pupils  were  dilated  and  did  not  respond  to  light.  On  the  seventeenth 
day  the  respiration  Avas  embarrassed,  the  skin  hot,  pulse  rapid,  prostra- 
tion great;  and  on  the  nineteenth  day  death.  The  autopsy  showed  the 
lower  four  pairs  of  the  brachial  plexus  on  the  left  side  to  have  been  torn 
away  from  the  spinal  cord;  their  torn  ends  plainly  showed  the  delicate 
filaments  by  which  they  took  their  origin,  and  the  ganglions  on  the 
posterior  roots  could  be  distinguished.  The  first  pair  had  suffered  no 
injury.  The  spinal  dura  mater  was  of  a  dark  brown-red  color,  and 
the  cord,  at  the  point  where  the  nerves  had  been  torn  away,  was 
changed  into  a  reddish-brown  pulp  in  which  the  gray  and  white  sub- 
stances seemed  mingled. 

The  two  following  cases  recorded  by  Flaubert^  bear  a  close  resem- 
blance clinically  to  this  one. 

In  a  man,  fifty  years  old,  with  a  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  dating 
from  a  fortnight  before,  traction  by  three  assistants  caused  numbness 
and  pain  in  the  hand  and  wrist;  a  second  attempt,  with  six  assistants, 
instantly  caused  numbness  in  the  corresponding  leg,  and  the  reduction 
was  abandoned.  The  following  night  there  was  sharp  pain  in  the 
lower  cervical  vertebrse,  subsequently  extending  to  the  dorsal  region. 
The  arm  remained  almost  completely  paralyzed. 

A  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  seven  weeks  old  in  a  woman  sixty-four 
years  of  age  was  reduced  by  traction  made  by  five  assistants.  At  the 
moment  of  reduction  the  patient  felt  a  sort  of  rupture  at  the  wrist, 
followed  by  a  quivering  that  extended  to  the  lower  third  of  the  arm 
and  by  complete  hemiplegia  and  great  diminution  of  sensation  on  the 
same  side,  especially  in  the  arm.  The  lower  limb  regained  its  power, 
but  the  arm  remained  paralyzed  and  atrophied. 

In  other  cases  the  effects,  as  indicated  by  the  symptoms,  have  been 
limited  to  the  limb,  arm  or  leg,  or  to  portions  of  it. 

Erichsen^  quotes  from  Billroth  a  case  of  dislocation  of  the  shoulder 
of  nine  months'  standing  which  had  been  accompanied  by  partial 
paralysis  of  the  arm  and  some  atrophy.  The  reduction  was  followed 
by  total  paralysis.  Le  Bret^  reported  one  which  occupies  a  position 
intermediate  between  this  class  and  the  preceding:  a  soldier  dislocated 
his  right  shoulder;  reduction  was  immediately  made  by  traction,  and 
was  followed  by  paralysis  of  motion  in  the  entire  arm,  loss  of  sensa- 
tion below  the  elbow  and  on  the  right  side  of  the  neck,  and  by  ptosis 
and  dimness  of  vision  on  the  same  side.  In  most  of  the  more  recent 
recorded  cases  the  history  leaves  it  in  doubt  whether  the  paralysis  was 
caused  by  the  dislocation  or  by  the  reduction.     In  the  older  cases, 

1  Quoted  by  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  eit.,  pp.  158,  159. 

-  Erichsen  :  Surgery,  Am.  ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  415. 

3  Le  Bret :  Soe.  de  Biologie,  1854,  p.  119.    Quoted  by  Weir  Mitchell. 


ACCIDENTS  BY  ATTEMPTS  TO  REDUCE  A  DISLOCATION.    447 

in  which  the  rough  method  of  the  door,  ladder,  or  ambi  was  employed 
for  reduction,  there  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  the  paralysis  was  com- 
monly caused  by  the  reduction.  At  the  shoulder  the  nerve  most 
frequently  affected  is  the  circumflex;  Marchand  thinks  this  nerve  is 
commonly  injured  by  the  dislocation,  the  others  by  the  reduction. 
Instances  of  injury  in  other  dislocations  than  those  of  the  shoulder  are 
rare.  Hutchinson^  describes  a  case  of  ischiatic  dislocation  of  the 
femur  reduced  by  manipulation  under  ether,  followed  by  complete 
anaesthesia  of  the  limb  below  the  knee  except  on  the  inner  side  of  it 
and  of  the  foot. 

Maclise^  gives  a  plate  of  dislocation  of  the  femur  backward  in  which 
the  sciatic  nerve  is  stretched  over  the  neck  of  the  bone;  and  he  says: 
"  In  general  (in  dislocations  into  the  sciatic  notch)  the  great  sciatic 
nerve  is  bent  over  the  femur  and  put  on  the  stretch.^'  .  .  .  "I 
have  seen  it  so  situated  in  regard  to  the  head  of  the  femur  that  the 
reduction  could  not  possibly  (?)  have  been  effected  with  safety  to  that 
nerve.''  The  plate  apparently  represents  a  dislocation  produced  upon 
the  cadaver,  and  it  seems  probable  that  the  text  refers  to  dislocations 
similarly  produced.  I  have  known  of  only  one  clinical  case  in  which 
such  relations  of  the  parts  have  been  observed  (Quain's). 

Fracture.  Fracture  of  the  dislocated  bone  during  reduction  has 
occurred  in  dislocations  of  the  shoulder,  elbow,  and  hip,  and  not  only 
when  great  force  has  been  employed,  but  also  during  comparatively 
gentle  manipulations  to  flex,  abduct,  or  rotate  the  limb. 

At  the  shoulder  the  recorded  cases  appear  all  to  have  been  disloca- 
tions of  long  standing  in  elderly  people,  and  in  most  the  accident  was 
caused  by  forcible  rotation  during  traction.  Of  late  years  I  have 
heard  of  several  cases  of  fracture  in  comparatively  recent  dislocations 
caused  by  attempts  to  reduce  by  Kocher's  method.  The  fracture  is 
usually  at  or  just  below  the  surgical  neck. 

Several  authors  assert  that  the  ribs  have  been  broken  during  reduc- 
tion by  the  pressure  of  a  firm  axillary  pad  used  as  a  fulcrum,  and  also 
say  that  the  lip  of  the  glenoid  cavity  may  be  broken  during  reduction. 
In  Weir's  case,  quoted  on  page  435,  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  ribs 
were  broken  in  the  axillary  line,  apparently  by  pressure  of  the  heel. 

At  the  elbow  fracture  of  the  olecranon  has  been  frequently  caused, 
either  intentionally  or  by  accident,  in  the  reduction  of  old  dislocations. 
There  is  but  one  recorded  case  of  its  fracture  in  a  recent  dislocation, 
and  even  in  this  there  is  some  doubt  whether  the  fracture  had  not  taken 
place  before  the  reduction  was  attempted.^ 

Markoe*  mentions  a  case,  apparently  unique,  of  fracture  of  the 
humerus  in  an  attempt  to  reduce  an  old  dislocation  of  the  elbow. 
^'  While  making  extension,  and  at  the  same  time  trying  to  flex  the 
forearm  on  the  arm,  the  humerus  gave  way,  and  a  very  oblique  frac- 
ture was  found  to  have  occurred  about  a  hand's  breadth  above  the 
joint." 

1  Hutchinson  :  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1866,  i.  p.  194. 
-  Maclise  :  Dislocations  and  Fractures,  Plate  xxy.  Fig.  2. 
3  Daugier,  in  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  146. 
*  Markoe :  Diseases  of  the  Bones,  p.  18. 


448  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  dislocations  of  the  hip  the  femur  has  been  broken,  usually  at  the 
neck,  but  once  at  least  at  the  lower  end  of  the  shaft;  and  it  is  asserted 
by  some  that  the  rim  of  the  acetabulum  also  has  been  broken.  The 
accident  appears  to  have  been  due  not  to  traction,  but  to  efforts  made 
by  the  hands  of  the  surgeon  to  change  the  position  of  the  limb,  rota- 
tion or  abduction.  Although  the  force  thus  applied  is  slight  compared 
with  that  developed  by  the  use  of  pulleys,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
its  effect  is  greatly  increased  by  the  leverage  of  the  limb. 

Inflammation,  Suppuration,  Gangrene.  The  inflammatory  reaction 
induced  by  a  dislocation  is  usually  moderate,  and  rarely  terminates  in 
suppuration;  and  when  excessive  reaction  does  follow  the  reduction  of 
a  recent  dislocation,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  determine  whether  the 
original  traumatism  or  the  reduction  is  responsible  for  it.  In  disloca- 
tions of  long  standing  this  difficulty  does  not  exist,  for  the  primary 
reaction  has  completely  subsided,  or,  if  persistent,  has  become  moderate 
and  chronic  before  the  reduction  is  attempted,  and  its  renewal  or  exacer- 
bation is  plainly  due  to  the  interference. 

.  The  inflammation  may  be  due  to  the  direct  pressure  of  the  apparatus 
used  for  making  traction,  or  to  laceration  of  the  parts  about  the  affected 
joint;  the  latter  is  the  more  dangerous  because  of  the  probability  that 
the  inflammation  and  suppuration  may  extend  to  the  cavity  of  the 
joint,  but  the  former  also  has  proved  fatal. 

Of  the  other  form,  laceration  of  the  parts  about  the  affected  joint, 
the  following  case  is  an  example.  It  was  under  the  care  of  Malgaigne, 
is  briefly  referred  to  by  him,^  and  is  reported  in  full  by  Parmentier.^ 
A  man,  thirty-four  years  old,  with  an  intra coracoid  dislocation  of  six 
months'  standing.  Three  attempts  to  reduce  were  made,  the  traction 
in  the  last  amounting  to  more  than  four  hundred  pounds,  and  the  head 
of  the  bone  being  brought  almost  back  to  its  place,  but  an  attempt  to 
force  it  into  place  by  lateral  traction  with  a  bandage  failed  and  even 
lacerated  the  skin  on  the  posterior  margin  of  the  axilla.  On  the  fifth 
day  after  the  last  attempt  the  patient  complained  of  pain  in  the  axilla, 
and  the  following  day  became  delirious,  and  a  large  quantity  of  pus 
escaped  through  the  laceration  of  the  skin;  trismus  and  tetanus  fol- 
lowed, and  death  two  days  later. 

The  autopsy  showed  abscesses  under  and  behind  both  pectoral  mus- 
cles, in  the  substance  of  the  coraco-brachialis  and  along  its  under  sur- 
face, and  communicating  with  the  new  articular  cavity  through  a  rent 
in  its  capsule. 

The  following  case,  reported  by  Mr.  Jonathan  Hutchinson,^  is  even 
more  striking.  An  elderly  woman,  drunk,  was  admitted  with  a  dislo- 
cation into  the  axilla;  an  attempt  to  reduce  failed.  The  next  day  she 
said  the  shoulder  had  been  dislocated  for  several  years,  but  she  was  not 
believed,  and  reduction  was  again  attempted  with  the  aid  of  chloro- 
form by  moderate  manual  traction  directly  outward  and  the  knee  in 
the  axilla  as  a  fulcrum;  the  attempt  was  continued  for  ten  minutes. 
Great  inflammation  followed,  the  joint  suppurated,  and  the  patient 

1  Malgaigne:  Loc.  eit.,  p  168.  -  Parmentier  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1852,  p.  302, 

3  Hutchinson  :  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1866,  vol.  i.  p.  304. 


ACCIDENTS  BY  ATTEMPTS  TO  REDUCE  A  DISLOCATION.     449 

died.  The  autopsy  showed  a  new  articular  cavity  formed  below  and 
in  front  of  the  glenoid  cavity.  The  soft  tissues  of  the  joint  were 
wholly  destroyed  by  suppuration,  and  every  trace  of  cartilage  removed. 

An  experience  of  Broca's  shows  that  an  unfortunate,  even  fatal, 
result  may  follow  an  apparently  judicious  and  moderate  attempt  at 
reduction. 

The  patient,^  a  coachman,  thirty-nine  years  old,  entered  the  hospital 
for  treatment  six  months  after  he  had  dislocated  his  left  hip.  Trac- 
tion to  the  amount  of  more  than  five  hundred  pounds  was  made  with 
Mathieu's  apparatus  without  success,  and  the  attempt  was  not  repeated. 
No  ill  result  appearing,  the  patient  was  discharged  at  the  end  of  a  week. 
A  fortnight  later  he  was  admitted  to  another  hospital  with  considerable 
swelling  of  the  hip  and  peritonitis,  and  died  on  the  following  day. 
The  autopsy  showed  a  collection  of  pus  occupying  the  old  and  new 
articular  cavities,  filling  the  external  iliac  fossa,  infiltrating  the  gluteus 
raedius,  and  in  contact  with  the  entire  surface  of  the  internal  and  exter- 
nal obturators  and  with  the  obturator  foramen;  also  a  generalized  peri- 
tonitis, much  more  marked  in  the  true  pelvis  than  elsewhere.  The 
course  of  the  lesion  was  thought  to  have  been:  inflammation  of  the 
new  joint,  extension  to  the  old  one,  then  to  the  obturator  iuternus,  and 
finally  to  the  peritoneum.  It  was  thought  probable  that  the  patient 
had  resumed  work  immediately  after  leaving  the  hospital,  and  that  this 
untimely  use  of  the  limb  had  provoked  the  suppuration. 

In  a  few  recorded  cases  the  inflammatory  reaction  was  so  severe  that 
the  limb,  or  the  affected  segment  thereof,  became  gangrenous.  Dupuy- 
tren^  reported  a  case  in  which,  after  reduction  of  a  dislocation  of  the 
thumb  by  long  and  violent  efforts,  the  thumb  became  gangrenous  and 
separated  at  the  metacarpo-phalangeal  joint. 

These  cases  are  to  be  distinguished  from  those  in  which  gangrene 
has  been  caused  by  injury  to  the  vessels  or  nerves,  as  in  La  Motte's 
case,^  Weir's  first  case  quoted  in  Chapter  XXXIII.,  page  434,  and 
probably  in  Delagarde's,*  in  which,  after  reduction  of  an  old  dislocation 
of  the  shoulder,  abscesses  and  points  of  gangrene  formed  in  the  limb 
and  rendered  amputation  at  the  shoulder  necessary. 

Persistent  oedema  of  the  limb,  a  condition  resembling  elephantiasis, 
has  been  observed  in  a  few  cases  in  which  unsuccessful  attempts  had 
been  made  to  reduce  old  dislocations,  apparently  the  result  of  inter- 
ference with  the  venous  flow.  In  a  case  of  Malgaigne's,  quoted  by 
Velpeau,^  the  oedema  of  the  arm  disappeared  simultaneously  with  the 
development  of  numerous  varicose  veins  in  the  arm  and  shoulder. 

Syncope  and  Sudden  or  Early  Death ;  Fat  Embolism.  Beside  the  numer- 
ous cases  already  quoted  in  this  chapter  which  show  the  dangers  to  the 
life  of  the  patient  that  may  arise  in  the  course  of  an  attempt  to  reduce 
a  recent  or  an  old  dislocation,  there  are  still  others  which  indicate  that 

1  Reported  by  Tillaux  in  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  la  Chir.,  1868,  vol.  ix.  p.  2G6. 

-  Dupuytren:  Quoted  by  Marchand.  loc.  cit.,  p.  129. 

3  La  Motte  :  Traits  de  Chirurgie,  vol.  iv  p.  343. 

■»  Delagarde  :  St  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Reports,  vol.  iv.  p  89. 

5  Marchand  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  131. 

29 


450  ^IS^  C*  CA  TIONS. 

life  may  be  seriously  threatened,  or  even  destroyed,  by  other  accidents 
or  complications  than  the  rupture  of  important  vessels  or  nerves  or 
excessive  reaction  and  suppuration.  In  some  of  the  fatal  cases  the 
failure  to  make  an  autopsy  leaves  the  cause  of  death  obscure,  but  the 
symptoms  point  to  rupture  of  a  vessel  as  a  possible  cause. 

E.  BoeckeP  has  reported  a  case  the  autopsy  of  which  suggests  another 
explanation,  not  only  of  some  of  the  deaths  by  syncope,  but  also  of 
some  attributed  to  the  ansesthetic. 

The  patient  was  a  man  fifty  years  of  age,  with  a  recent  ilio-pubic 
dislocation,  who  was  brought  to  the  hospital  after  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  reduce.  Chloroform  was  given  and  reduction  made  in  seven 
minutes;  the  patient  grew  pale,  his  respiration  weakened  and  promptly 
stopped.  The  autopsy  showed  the  heart  to  be  atrophied,  both  pulmon- 
ary arteries  plugged  by  non-adherent  clots,  rounded  like  emboli,  in  the 
medium-sized  branches  and  those  of  the  third  and  fourth  order,  and 
also/a^  embolism  of  the  lungs  very  widespread  and  intense.  The  iliac 
and  femoral  veins  were  free,  but  there  was  a  thrombus  in  the  popliteal 
vein  from  which  it  was  thought  those  in  the  pulmonary  arteries  had 
been  broken  off. 

Before  the  use  of  ansesthetics,  in  the  times  when  muscular  resolution 
was  sought  to  be  obtained  by  measures  which  depressed  and  weakened 
the  patient,  and  when  the  efforts  to  reduce  were  made  with  great  vio- 
lence and  sometimes  prolonged  for  hours,  exhaustion  of  the  patient 
habitually  followed,  and  death  was  sometimes  the  consequence. 

Death  by  the  action  of  an  anaesthetic,  especially  chloroform,  is 
thought  to  occur  in  a  larger  proportion  of  cases  of  reduction  of  dislo- 
cation than  of  other  operations,  but  no  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
greater  risk,  if  it  actually  exists,  has  been  given.  Of  134  cases  of 
death  by  an  anaesthetic  collected  by  Marchand,  in  17  the  operation  was 
the  reduction  of  a  dislocation;  of  these  11  were  of  the  shoulder,  3  of 
the  hip,  and  1  each  of  the  knee,  elbow,  and  thumb. 

1  E.  Bceckel:  Mort  subite  par  embolies  pulmonaires,  simulant  la  mort  par  le  chloroform  apres 
reduction  d'une  luxation  de  la  cuisse.    Rev.  des  Scieiaces  Med.,  Oct.  15,  1881,  p.  637. 


CHAPTER    XXXV. 

CONGENITAL!  DISLOCATIONS. 

Under  the  term  non-traumaiic  may  be  iucluded  all  dislocations 
which  exist  at  birth  {congenital),  although  it  is  claimed  that  some  of 
them  are  due  to  violence  inflicted  upon  the  foetus  in  utero,  or  even 
during  delivery,  and  those  which  appear  subsequent  to  birth  as  the 
result  of  non-traumatic  changes  in  one  or  more  of  the  constituent  parts 
of  the  joint  ^  spontaneous,"  ''symptomatic,"  ''inflammatory," 
"paralytic,"  "myopathic,"  "chronic,"  "tardy,"  "dislocation  by 
distention,"  "  by  relaxation,"  "  by  destruction,"  "  by  deformity"), 
and  those  which  may  be  reproduced  at  will  by  the  individual,  "  vol- 
untary." 

The  existence  of  dislocations  (at  least  of  the  hip)  in  the  new-born 
child,  and  their  non-traumatic  character,  have  been  recognized  since 
the  earliest  times,  but  the  accurate  study  of  the  subject  may  be  said  to 
have  begun  in  1818,  with  Schreger,  who  examined  post  mortem  two 
specimens  in  a  girl  two  and  a  half  years  old  and  a  woman  of  forty- 
eight.  A  few  years  later,  1826,  Dupuytren  brought  the  subject  before 
the  Academic  des  Sciences,  and  called  attention  especially  to  the  facts 
that  the  affection  was  often  inherited,  and  often  bilateral.  Since  then 
the  subject  of  congenital  dislocation  of  the  hip  has  been  actively  studied 
by  many,  and  the  similar  but  much  rarer  affections  of  other  joints  have 
received  due  attention. 

Statistics.  Dislocations  have  been  observed  at  birth  in  many  joints^ 
but  not  only  do  those  of  the  hip  far  exceed  all  others  in  number,  but 
the  latter  are  actually,  as  well  as  relatively,  so  rare  that  their  statistics 
have  not  much  value.  Next  to  that  of  the  hip  the  most  common  dis- 
location is  apparently  of  the  shoulder,  and  then  that  of  the  head  of  the 
radius.  Kronlein  says  that  the  records  of  Von  Langenbeck's  Poly- 
clinic show  90  congenital  dislocations  of  the  hip,  5  of  the  shoulder,  2 
of  the  head  of  the  radius,  and  1  of  the  knee.  It  is  not  exceptional  to 
find  several  dislocations  present  in  an  individual,  or  one  or  more  dislo- 
cations associated  with  such  congenital  defects  as  spina  bifida,  club- 
foot, ventral  hernia,  encephalocele,  and  exstrophy  of  the  bladder. 

As  will  appear  in  studying  the  etiology  of  this  affection,  the  statistics 
of  congenital  dislocation  of  the  hip  include  cases  widely  different  in 
their  origin,  and  even  some  which  are  acquired  and  not  congenital, 
that  is,  some  which  have  been  produced  during  the  first  few  months  of 
life,  perhaps  before  the  patient  began  to  walk,  by  the  unopposed  action 
of  certain  groups  of  muscles  after  paralysis  of  others.      It  seems  prob- 

1  The  use  of  the  term  congenital  to  classify  certain  dislocations  is  objectionable  for  several 
reasons,  which  will  appear  in  the  course  of  the  discussion  of  the  subject.  It  includes  forms 
that  radically  differ  in  their  etiology  and  pathology,  but  as  these  forms  cannot  well  be  distin- 
guished from  one  another  during  life,  a  classification  based  upon  other  points  cannot  be  reahzed 
in  practice,  but  must  be  confined  to  the  dead-house  and  museum. 


452 


DISLOCATIONS. 


able,  however,  that  the  error  thus  arising  is  not  a  large  one,  but  still, 
for  this  and  for  other  reasons,  I  shall  here  quote  only  the  more  recent 
statistics,  believing  them  to  be  the  most  nearly  correct.  These  are 
Drachmann's,^  Pravaz's  (quoted  by  Kronleiu),  and  Kr5nlein's.^ 


Congenital  Dislocations. 


Period. 

Cases. 

Male. 

Female. 

Single. 

•> 

Left. 

Right. 

Double. 

Drachmann    .       .        . 
Pravaz    .... 
Krijnlein 

1865-1880 
1863-1878 
1875-1880 

77 
107 
90 

10 
11 
14 

67 
96 
76 

24 
27 
32 

24 
29 
22 

5 

29 
51 
31 

Total     . 

274 

35 

239 

83 

75 

5 

111 

Prahl's^  are  not  given  in  sufficient  detail  to  be  included  in  the  table; 
they  comprise  18  cases;  3  were  males,  15  females,  making  with  those 
in  the  table  a  total  of  292,  of  which  38  were  males,  13  per  cent.,  and 
254  females,  87  per  cent.  Angot*  says  that  of  about  20  cases  observed 
by  him  at  the  Hopital  des  Eufants  malades  in  1882,  all  were  girls. 
Of  11  cases  of  congenital  dislocation  of  the  knee  collected  by  Hibon,^ 
7  were  girls,  3  boys,  and  in  1  the  sex  was  not  recorded;  of  these,  3, 
1  girl  and  2  boys,  were  stillborn,  and  presented  other  very  marked 
deformities. 

Etiology.  The  discussion  of  this  branch  of  the  subject,  which  was 
taken  up  with  much  interest  after  the  publication  of  Dupuytreu's 
memoir,  was  not  fruitful  of  positive  results  because  of  the  lack  of 
anatomical  material  and  minute  examination,  and  of  failure  distinctly 
to  discriminate  between  different  forms  and  between  the  original  bony 
defects  and  the  changes  produced  by  the  long  use  of  the  deformed  limb. 
Since  the  affection  is  one  which  often  escapes  recognition  until  the  child 
begins  to  walk,  it  was  sometimes  confounded  with  dislocations  result- 
ing from  infantile  paralysis,  and  as  it  is  one  which  does  not  destroy 
life  the  opportunities  for  direct  anatomical  investigation  were  almost 
entirely  restricted  to  two  classes  of  cases,  the  stillborn  and  those  that 
died  shortly  after  birth  in  consequence  of  other  important  congenital 
defects,  and  those  in  which  the  original  changes  had  been  masked  or 
supplemented  by  subsequent  ones  produced  by  the  further  displacement 
of  the  head  of  the  femur  and  its  abnormal  relations  to  tbe  adjoining 
parts.  In  the  former,  incorrect  inferences  were  drawn  from  the  asso- 
ciated defects,  as  when  the  irritation  of  an  over-full  urinary  bladder 
or  the  separation  of  the  symphysis  pubis  was  deemed  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  arrest  of  development  of  the  acetabulum ;  and  in  the  latter 
the  attention  was  led  far  astray  by  prominent  changes  in  the  bones. 

1  Drachmann  :  Schmidt's  Jahrbuch,  1881,  vol.  clxi.  p.  170. 

-  Krijnlein:  Deutsche  Chirurgie.  Lief.  26,  p.  82. 

3  prahl:  Inaug.  Dis  Breslau.  1880.     Abst.  in  Centralblatt  fur  Chir.,  1881,  p.  57. 

*  Angot :  Luxations  congiSnitales  de  la  hanche.    Th^se  de  Paris.  1883,  p.  11. 

6  Hibon  :  Luxations  cong6nitales  du  tibia  en  avant.    These  de  Paris,  1881,  p.  7. 


CONGENITAL  DISLOCATIONS.  453 

The  history  of  the  theories  advanced  has  not  only  an  historical  value, 
but  it  serves  also  to  indicate  certain  varieties  and  prominent  features 
of  the  affection,  and  therefore  I  append  the  following  resume  made  by 
Kronlein.  It  must  be  remembered  that  most  of  the  theories  deal 
exclusively  with  dislocations  of  the  hip. 

1.  The  so-called  congenital  dislocation  is  traumatic,  and  arises  : 

a,  through  external  violence  acting  upon  the  foetus  in  utero,  or  through 

the  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  foetus  itself.  Hippocrates  and 
the  early  writers  held  that  mechanical  injuries  of  the  belly  of 
the  mother  could  produce  dislocation  in  the  foetus.  Cruveilhier 
did  not  entirely  reject  this  theory  in  some  cases.  Chatelain, 
Kleeberg,  Zielewicz,  even  specify  in  their  three  cases  the  injury, 
a  fall  in  the  seventh  month,  which,  in  their  opinion,  had  caused 
the  dislocation.  Chaussier  claims  even  that  a  dislocation  can 
be  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  foetus,  and 
narrates  in  support  the  case  of  a  young  woman  who,  during  the 
ninth  month  of  pregnancy,  felt  on  three  occasions  such  violent 
movements  of  the  child  that  she  almost  became  unconscious. 
When  delivery  took  place  at  term,  the  child  had  a  complete 
dislocation  of  the  left  forearm. 

b,  during  delivery. 

Capuron  (1834)  held  that  some  congenital  dislocations  of  the 
hip  had  been  produced  during  delivery,  by  traction  with  the 
finger  on  the  groin  in  breech-presentations. 

2.  Congenital  dislocation  {of  the  hip)  is  a  spontaneous  dislocation,  and 
is  occasioned  : 

a,  hy  softening  and  laxity  of  the  ligamentous  portion  of  the  joint 
(SMillot,  1836).  This  opinion  was  held  in  part  by  Stromeyer 
(1840). 

6,  by  foetal  hydrarthrosis  (Parise,  1842)  or  other  joint  affections,  such 
as  fungous  synovitis  with  effusion  (Yerneuil  and  Broca),  or 
caries  and  destruction  of  the  capsule  (Morel  Lavallee,  Albers, 
Von  Ammon). 

3.  Congenital  dislocation  {of  the  hip)  is  due  to  the  peculiar  position  of 
the  lower  limbs  of  the  foetus  in  utero. 

a,  it  is  possible  that  in  the  strongly  flexed  position  of  the  hip  the  press- 

ure of  the  head  of  the  femur  upon  the  posterior  or  lower  por- 
tions of  the  capsule  may,  when  the  latter  is  abnormally  weak, 
cause  dislocation  (Dupuytren,  1826). 

b,  congenital  dislocation  of  the  hip  is  due  to  abnormal  adduction  of 

the  thigh  in  utero,  to  a  compressed  position  of  the  foetus  due  to 
deficiency  in  the  amount  of  the  amniotic  liquid  (Koser,  1864). 

4.  Congenital  dislocation  of  the  hip,  like  most  congenital  deformities 
of  the  joints,  such  as  club-foot,  wry  neck,  and  spinal  curvature,  is  the 
result  of  primary  muscidar  contraction,  which  is  itself  to  be  regarded  as 
the  result  of  an  affection  of  the  central  nervous  system  (J.  Gu6rin, 
1840,  and,  following  him,  Chaussier,  Melicher,  Mercer-Adam,  Carno- 
chan,  Erichsen,  and  others). 

5.  Congenital  dislocation  of  the  hip  is  often  only  the  last  stage  of  a 
paralysis  and  consequent  atrophy  of  the  pelvi-trochanieric  muscles.    This 


454  DISLOCATIONS. 

foetal  paralysis  leads  gradually  to  relaxation  of  the  ligaments,  and  this, 
often  only  after  the  lapse  of  time,  and  especially  after  the  children  have 
begun  to  walk,  and  by  the  action  of  the  weight  of  the  body,  to  dislo- 
cation (Yerneuil,  1866).  This  theory  has  recently  (1878)  been  brought 
forward  again  by  some  of  Yerneuil' s  pupils  (Reclus,  Dalby),  and 
extended  to  congenital  dislocations  of  the  humerus  (Kirmisson). 

(Kronlein  in  this  fails  accurately  to  define  the  position  of  the  sup- 
porters of  this  theory.  Their  contention  is  not  so  much  that  congenital 
dislocations  are  thus  produced,  but  rather  that  some  so-called  congen- 
ital dislocations  originate  after  birth  in  a  paralysis,  and  are  mistakenly 
thought  to  have  been  congenital.  Reclus^  formulates  his  conckisions 
as  follows: 

a.  From  the  group  of  so-called  congenital  dislocations  paralytic  dis- 
locations must  henceforth  be  withdrawn. 

6.  These  dislocations  follow  '^  amyotrophies,"  and  may  appear  at 
any  age,  although  they  have  rarely  been  seen  except  in  infancy. 

0.  For  their  production  two  conditions  are  necessary — atrophy  of  a 
muscular  group;  integrity  of  its  antagonists, 

d.  At  the  hip  the  iliac  dislocation  is  the  most  common.  It  is  due 
to  the  contraction  of  the  adductors,  which  is  unopposed  because  of  the 
atrophy  of  the  gluteal  and  pelvi-trochanteric  muscles.) 

6.  Congenital  dislocation  of  the  hip  is  due  in  most  cases — and  these 
should  be  regarded  as  typical — to  a  defect  of  formation  or  development, 
which  prevents  the  joint  from  assuming  the  normal  shape.  This  very 
generally  held  theory  was  presented  by  Palletta,  and  then  taken  up 
and  specially  developed  by  Schreger,  Dupuytren,  Breschet,  Von  Am- 
mon,  and  others. 

Schreger  emphasizes  the  fact  that  so-called  congenital  defects  are  not 
produced  by  an  abnormal  change  in  pre-existing,  normally  formed  parts, 
but  are  due  to  defective  formation  or  arrest  of  development,  and  that 
is  especially  true  of  congenital  dislocations  of  the  hip.  Dupuytren  and 
Breschet  suggest  a  delayed  development  of  the  three  pelvic  bones  form- 
ing the  actebaulum.  Von  Ammon,^  in  his  remarkable  work,  expresses 
himself  very  clearly  concerning  congenital  dislocations,  which  he  terms 
dysarthroses  congenita;.  ''  Even  if  their  external  appearance,"  he 
says,  "  corresponds  somewhat  with  that  of  dislocations  acquired  after 
birth,  yet  in  their  method  of  formation  they  differ  essentially  from 
them,  and  they  also  have  only  the  slightest  resemblance  to  those  sec- 
ondary dislocations  that  follow  joint  disease.  .  .  .  In  many  cases 
there  is  in  part  the  greatest  certainty,  and  in  part  the  greatest  proba- 
bility, that  the  affection  depends  upon  an  arrest  of  the  constituent  parts 
of  the  joint  at  an  earlier  foetal  stage  of  development."  And  further,^ 
''  If  the  term  '  luxatio'  is  in  general  understood  to  mean  the  slipping 
of  a  movable  bone  out  of  its  natural  joint  connections,  it  is  applicable 
only  with  the  greatest  restrictions  to  the  congenital  dislocations  in  ques- 
tion. .  .  .  There  are  cases  of  so-called  congenital  dislocation  in 
which  the  head  of  the  bone  has  never  left  its  corresponding  joint  sur- 

1  Reclus :  Revue  Mensuelle  de  Med  et  Chir.,  1878,  p.  88. 

2  Von  Ammon :  Die  angeborenen  ehirurgischeii  Krankheiten  des  Menschen,  1842,  p.  9. 

3  Von  Ammon  :  Loc.  cit ,  p.  3. 


CONGENITAL  DISLOCATIONS.  455 

face — that  is,  has  never  been  dislocated,  l)ut  rather,  on  the  contrary, 
has  never  been  in  normal  and  proper  relations  with  it."  According 
to  Von  Ammon,  then,  a  congenital  dislocation  is  an  arrest  of  develop- 
ment. The  acetabulum  does  not  develop  into  the  usual,  symmetrically 
rounded,  deep  socket,  but  retains  its  earlier  saucer-shape;  while  the 
head  of  the  femur,  continuing  to  grow,  becomes  too  large  for  the  small 
acetabulum,  and  no  longer  suitable  to  lodge  in  it. 

Von  Ammon  recognized  not  only  this  typical  form  of  congenital 
dislocation  but  also  the  other  varieties  that  had  been  described  by  other 
authors,  and  quoted  cases  and  reproduced  drawings  in  illustration  of 
them.  So  far  as  tbe  typical  form  is  concerned,  bnt  little  has  been 
added  since  his  time  to  our  knowledge  of  its  pathogeny,  and  that  little 
is  contained  in  a  paper  published  by  Grawitz^  in  1878,  who,  by  micro- 
scopical examination  of  twelve  specimens  of  congenital  dislocation  in 
seven  new-born  children,  showed  that  the  arrest  of  development  con- 
sisted in  a  failure  of  the  Y-cartilage  of  the  acetabulum  to  carry  on  the 
growth  of  one  or  all  of  the  three  segments  of  the  os  innominatum. 
He  found,  in  his  first  case,  for  example,  the  acetabulum  only  as  large 
as  that  of  a  foetus  of  about  the  fifth  month,  and  the  Y-cartilage  broader 
than  usual  because  of  diminished  ossification  of  the  three  adjoining 
bones,  the  pubis,  ischium,  and  ilium.  The  cartilage  was  hyaline  and 
vascularized,  and  with  normal,  elongated  cells  containing  one,  two,  or 
three  nuclei.  On  comparison  with  sections  of  a  normal  pelvis  of  the 
same  size,  a  striking  difference  appeared  at  the  junction  of  the  bone 
and  cartilage.  The  formative  zone  in  all  three  epiphyses  was  very 
imperfect,  its  cells  scanty  and  widely  separated,  and  the  zone  of  cells 
arranged  above  one  another  in  rows  adjoining  the  line  of  ossification 
was  not  one-third  as  wide  as  it  normally  is,  and  the  arrangement  of  its 
cells  was  irregular  and  broken.  In  some  of  the  cases  the  Y-cartilage 
was  centrally  interrupted  by  an  interposed  wedge  of  embryonal  adipose 
tissue.  On  the  other  hand,  the  appearances  in  the  femur  were  those  of 
normal  growth,  except  in  one  case.  In  no  case  was  there  premature 
ossification  of  the  Y-cartilage,  such  as  had  been  alleged  shortly  before 
by  Dollinger^  in  explanation  of  the  same  affection. 

The  conclusion,  I  think,  cannot  be  avoided  that  while  in  a  limited 
number  of  cases  dislocations  existing  at  birth,  especially  in  joints  other 
than  the  hip,  may  have  been  caused  by  traumatism,  abnormal  position 
of  the  limb,  or  paralysis  in  the  manner  alleged  by  various  writers,  yet 
in  the  great  majority  of  congenital  dislocations  of  the  hip  the  cause  is 
to  be  found  exclusively  in  arrest  of  development  of  the  acetabulum  by 
deficient  action  or  vitality  of  the  cells  of  the  Y-cartilage.  And  to  the 
testimony  in  support  of  this  opinion  furnished  by  anatomical  examina- 
tion of  specimens  may  be  added  that  drawn  from  clinical  observation, 
such  as  the  coexistence  of  other  deformities  due  to  arrest  of  develop- 
ment, the  frequency  of  double  and  multiple  dislocations,  the  inherited 
tendency  to  the  affection,  and  its  great  predominance  in  females. 

Many  of  the  congenital  dislocations  of  other  joints  than  the  hip  must 
also  be  regarded  as  due  to  defective  formation  of  the  corresponding 

1  Grawitz  :  Virchow's  Archiv,  1878,  vol.  Ixxiv.  p.  1. 

2  Bollinger :  Arch,  fur  klin.  Chirurgie,  1877,  vol.  xx.  p.  622. 


456  DISLOCATIONS. 

bones,  but  the  defect  apparently  is  rather  a  malformation  than  the 
result  of  an  arrest  of  the  development  of  one  of  the  bones  constituting 
the  joint.  At  the  elbow,  in  dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  radius,  this 
bone  is  sometimes  found  relatively,  and  even  actually,  longer  than  the 
ulna.  In  a  specimen  taken  from  an  adult,  pictured  by  Humphry^ 
(Fig.  234),  of  dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  radius  forward  and 
upward,  there  was  anchylosis  of  the  joint  between  the  ulna  and 
humerus,  and  the  lower  third  of  the  ulna  of  the  other  arm  was  lacking. 

Fig.  234. 


Congenital  dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  radius  upward  and  forward,  with  exaggerated 

growth  in  length. 

In  some  dislocations  of  the  knee  characterized  by  hyper-extension  of 
the  leg  upon  the  thigh  the  cause  appears  to  have  been  muscular  con- 
traction. 

Of  the  other  etiological  varieties  that  have  been  asserted  to  exist, 
one  at  least  seems  to  have  been  proved  by  direct  examination  to  exist, 
that  in  which  the  dislocation  follows  distention  of  the  capsule  and 
ligaments  by  dropsy  of  the  joint  during  intra-uterine  life. 

Pathology.  The  opportunities  for  studying  the  pathology  of  congen- 
ital dislocations  other  than  those  of  the  hip  have  been  so  very  rare, 
and  the  study  of  those  that  exist  has  been  made  so  uncertain  by  the 
doubtfulness  of  the  diagnosis  in  some  and  the  difficulty  in  distinguish- 
ing between  primary  and  later  changes  in  others,  that  but  little  can  be 
positively  said  concerning  them.  In  studying  specimens  of  dislocation 
of  the  hip  it  is  necessary,  as  Gurlt  pointed  out,  to  distinguish  between 
those  obtained  from  very  young  children  who  have  never  walked,  those 
from  older  children  whose  growth  was  not  completed,  and  those  from 
adults. 

Hip.  The  common  form  is  dislocation  upon  the  dorsum  of  the  ilium ; 
the  only  exceptions,  and  they  are  extremely  rare,  are  upon  the  pubis 
and  into  the  obturator  foramen. 

In  the  new-born  child  with  a  dislocation  the  acetabulum  is  smaller 
and  flatter  than  normal,  and  is  continuous  by  its  flattened  posterior 
border  with  another  articular  surface  or  new  acetabulum  lying  above 
and  behind  the  original  one.  Usually,  too,  the  head  of  the  femur  is 
smaller  than  normal,  although  still  too  large  for  the  acetabulum,  and 
the  neck  short  or  almost  absent;  sometimes  the  head  and  neck  together 
have  a  conical  pointed  form.     The  ligamentum  teres  is  long  and  flat- 

1  Humphry  :  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions.,  vol.  xlv.  p.  296. 


PLATE  XIX. 


Fig.  1.  — Congenital    Dislocation  of  the  Hip;    Girl,  3  years  old. 


Fig.  2.— Dislocation   of   Semilunar   Bone. 


PATHOLOGY  OF  CONGENITAL  DISLOCATIONS. 


457 


tened,  the  capsule  is  complete,  and  embraces  both  the  old  and  the  new 
acetabulum.     The  microscopical  changes  have  been  described  above. 


Fig.  235. 


Innominate  bone  and  femur  from  a  case  of  congenital  dislocation  of  the  hip,  after  operation 
for  formation  of  a  new  acetabulum.    (Bradford.) 


The  mechanism  of  the  alteration  seems  plain;  as  the  femur  and  its 
socket  originally  are  developed  out  of  one  continuous  strip  of  tissue,  they 
are  at  first  in  normal  relations  to  each  other,  but  when  the  development 
of  the  acetabulum  goes  on  more  slowly  and  imperfectly  than  that  of 
the  head  of  the  femur  the  latter  becomes  relatively  too  large,  and  being 
no  longer  firmly  held  in  place  it  is  gradually  drawn  backward  and 
upward  by  the  continuous  action  of  the  attached  muscles,  the  corre- 


458  DISLOCATIONS. 

spending  edge  of  the  capsule  is  pressed  away  from  the  cotyloid  border, 
and  a  new  articular  surface  is  formed  at  the  point  where  the  head  of 
the  femur  comes  to  rest.  Meanwhile,  the  defective  development  of  the 
original  acetabulum  persists,  and  its  variation  from  the  normal  is  prob- 
ably still  further  increased  by  the  absence  from  it  of  the  femur.  The 
remaining  bones  and  the  muscles,  not  being  put  to  sufficient  use  to  feel 
the  effect  of  the  changed  relations  in  the  joint,  suffer  no  change  unless 
involved  in  some  associated  defect  of  development. 

But  as  soon  as  the  child  begins  to  walk  this  change  in  the  relations 
of  the  bones  and  muscles  to  each  other  makes  itself  felt,  and ,  as  the 
local  developmental  weakness  persists,  two  factors  are  now  at  work  to 
remove  the  condition  of  the  parts  still  further  from  the  normal.  The 
acetabulum  by  its  continued  failure  to  share  equally  in  the  growth  of 
the  pelvis,  becomes  relatively  smaller  and  more  deformed,  the  head  of 
the  femur  is  removed  still  further  from  it,  and  becomes  deformed  in 
consequence  of  its  irregular  bearings  upon  the  surface  of  the  ilium; 
the  ligamentum  teres  becomes  longer,  flatter,  and  thinner,  and  the  cap- 
sule thick  and  strong,  and  its  cavity  commonly  larger  than  usual.  As 
the  individual  advances  in  life,  and  after  puberty  has  been  reached,  the 
ascent  of  the  femur  is  finally  arrested,  partly  by  the  formation  of  a 
socket,  and  partly  by  the  resistance  of  the  capsule  and  the  muscles. 
The  elements  of  support  then  resemble  in  a  measure  those  sometimes 
found  with  ununited  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  and  the  pelvis, 
instead  of  resting  directly  upon  the  femur,  is  suspended  from  it  by  the 
capsule,  ligaments,  some  of  the  pelvi-trochanteric  muscles,  and  even 
by  the  psoas-iliacus,  the  tendon  of  which,  instead  of  passing  down- 
ward, curves  around  the  brim  of  the  pelvis,  and  passes  upward,  out- 
ward, and  backward  to  the  lesser  trochanter,  which  is  now  at  a  higher 
level  than  the  acetabulum. 

The  head  of  the  femur  may  be  separated  from  the  ilium  by  the  inter- 
posed capsule,  so  that  the  support  is  entirely  by  suspension,  and  there 
is  no  real  joint,  one  in  which  bony  surfaces  covered  with  cartilage  play 
upon  each  other;  or  the  upper  and  posterior  attachment  of  the  capsule 
may  still  be  found  above  the  head  of  the  femur,  upon  an  overgrowth 
of  bone  springing  from  the  ilium  and  forming  the  upper  part  of  a  new 
socket,  the  remainder  of  which  is  constituted  by  the  body  of  the  ilium. 
The  latter  bone  sometimes  shows  at  this  point  an  overgrowth  of  bone, 
and  sometimes  a  depression  with  a  corresponding  thickening  on  the 
opposite,  inner  surface.  In  the  former  of  these  two  last-named  con- 
ditions, it  seems  probable  that  the  capsule  has  been  for  a  time  inter- 
posed between  the  femur  and  the  ilium,  and  has  finally  disappeared  at 
this  point  under  pressure,  the  irritation  of  which  has  caused  the  out- 
growth of  bone  before  its  periosteum  has  in  turn  disappeared;  in  the 
latter,  it  is  probable  that  the  attachment  of  the  capsule  has  been  pushed 
back  step  by  step,  leaving  a  bare  surface  of  bone  which  has  worn 
away  under  the  pressure  of  the  femur,  or  by  absorption;  while  the  asso- 
ciated irritation  has  led  to  a  conser vati v^e  thickening  on  its  other  side. 
The  old  acetabulum  is  narrow  and  elongated,  running  upward  and 
backward;  the  ligamentum  teres  perhaps  destroyed  by  over-stretching. 

The  entire  pelvis  is  also  changed  in  shape  by  the  abnormal  direction 


SYMPTOMS  AND  DIAGNOSIS  OF  CONGENITAL  DISLOCA  TIONS.  459 

of  the  pressure  to  which  it  is  subjected  in  walking.  If  the  dislocation 
is  unilateral,  the  crest  of  the  ilium  on  the  corresponding  side  is  carried 
inward,  and  the  tuberosity  of  the;  ischium  outward,  the  horizontal 
branch  of  the  pubis  is  elongated,  and  its  direction  from  the  sym])hysis 
is  more  upward  and  backward;  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium 
is  displaced  inward  and  backward,  and,  in  short,  the  entire  bone  under- 
goes a  change  in  shape  which  carries  its  centre  upward  and  backward, 
and  makes  its  lateral  surface  more  vertical. 

If  the  dislocation  is  double,  the  same  changes  are  found  on  both 
sides,  and  the  sacrum  is  more  sharply  curved. 

Congenital  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  may  be  either  subcoracoid,  sub- 
acromial, or  subspinous.  E..  A\^.  Smith, ^  who  was  the  first  to  describe 
them,  gives  examples  and  plates  of  the  first  two  forms.  He  found  the 
original  glenoid  cavity  lacking  or  rudimentary,  and  the  new  one  well 
developed  either  immediately  under  the  coracoid  process  or  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  scapula  below  the  acromion.  Most  of  the  cases  described 
as  such  appear  to  be  traumatic  (during  delivery)  or  paralytic.  See 
Chapter  XLIV. 

At  the  elbow  the  head  of  the  radius  may  be  displaced  upward  along 
the  anterior  surface  of  the  humerus,  or  backward,  or  inward  so  as 
partly  to  overlap  the  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna. 

Symptoms  and  Diagnosis.  The  symptoms  of  congenital  dislocations 
differ  very  widely  from  those  of  the  traumatic  variety,  and  not  only  by 
the  absence  of  symptoms  peculiar  to  a  traumatism,  but  also  iu  the  signs 
recognizable  by  palpation,  and  in  the  posture  and  mobility  of  the  limb. 
In  general  terms,  the  dislocation  is  to  be  recognized  by  an  examination 
which  determines  the  abnormal  position  and  altered  shape  of  the  cor- 
responding ends  of  the  bones  and  the  range  of  motion,  and  by  consid- 
eration of  the  history  of  the  case. 

In  didocatlons  of  the  hip  the  changes  are  very  likely  to  pass  unno- 
ticed until  after  the  child  has  begun  to  walk,  because  during  this  first 
period  they  are  usually  too  slight  to  attract  attention,  and  because  an 
examination  for  their  detection  is  not  likely  to  be  made  unless  it  is 
suggested  by  some  special  reason,  such  as  coexisting  malformations, 
or  the  history  of  similar  defects  in  other  members  of  the  family.  Even 
after  the  child  has  begun  to  walk,  the  defect  may  long  remain  unrecog- 
nized if  both  hips  are  affected,  because,  the  deformity  of  the  regions 
and  the  shortening  of  the  limbs  being  symmetrical,  they  do  not  attract 
much  attention.  Nevertheless,  the  changes  are  so  characteristic  that 
when  an  examination  is  made  the  diagnosis  cannot  well  remain  in  doubt. 

When  the  dislocation  is  unilateral  and  of  the  common  dorsal  variety, 
the  patient  limps  because  of  the  shortening  of  the  affected  limb;  and 
for  the  same  reason  the  spine  shows  a  lateral  curvature,  which  can  be 
removed  by  supporting  the  foot  at  the  proper  height.  Because  of  the 
passage  of  the  head  of  the  femur  backward  and  upward  upon  the 
ilium,  the  pelvis  is  tilted  so  that  its  upper  portion  is  directed  forward, 
and  a  marked  anterior  curvature  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  spinal 
column  is  produced,  which  disappears  when  the  patient  is  recumbent. 

1  R.  W.  Smith  :  Dublin  Medical  Journal,  1839,  vol.  xv.  p.  261. 


460 


DISLOCATIONS. 


Inspection  and  manipulation  reveal  the  ascent  of  the  trochanter,  and 
the  head  of  the  femur  may  sometimes  be  distinctly  recognized.  The 
shortening  may  be  slight,  moderate,  or  very  great,  and  can  sometimes 
be  notably  increased  by  pressing  the  limb  upward.  Usually  the  glu- 
teal muscles  and  those  of  the  tiiigh  are  less  developed  than  those  of 
the  opposite  limb.  The  movements  of  the  joint  are  even  more  free 
than  normal,  except  perhaps  in  abduction,  but  when  voluntarily  per- 
formed they  are  more  or  less  lacking  in  precision  and  firmness. 


Fig.  236, 


Fig.  237. 


Double  congenital  dislocation  of  the  hip. 


When  the  dislocation  is  bilateral,  the  patient  walks,  not  with  a  limp, 
but  with  a  peculiar  characteristic  waddle,  which  sometimes  amounts  to 
a  double  limp  and  makes  progression  difficult  and  uncertain.  The 
upper  part  of  the  pelvis  is  sharply  inclined  forward,  producing  the 


TREATMENT  OF  CONGENITAL  DISLOCATIONS.  461 

same  lordosis  that  is  found  in  unilateral  dislocation,  but  without  the 
lateral  curvature  unless  there  is  a  difference  in  the  amount  of  the  defect 
on  the  two  sides.  The  arms  appear  unusually  long,  and  are  sometimes 
exceptionally  muscular.  Often  the  deformity  increases  with  time,  and 
the  patient  has  repeated  attacks  of  pain;  in  some  the  flexion  and  adduc- 
tion are  such  that  the  disability  is  great. 

At  other  joints,  such  as  the  shoulder,  elbow,  and  knee,  the  ])ositioa 
of  the  bones  and  the  changes  in  their  shape  can  usually  be  easily  made 
out. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  in  all  dislocations,  except  that  of  forward 
dislocation  (hyper-extension)  at  the  knee,  is  unfavorable,  so  far  as 
reduction  is  concerned. 

Treatment.  Until  within  a  few  years  treatment  of  congenital  dislo- 
cations of  the  hip  was  practically  limited  to  palliative  measures,  such 
as  a  thick  sole  in  unilateral  cases  and  girdles  and  corsets  which  mechan- 
ically opposed  the  tilting  of  the  pelvis  and  the  ascent  of  the  trochanter 
under  pressure,  and  to  continuous  traction  maintained  for  months  and 
followed  by  the  use  of  traction-splints  in  both  unilateral  and  bilateral 
cases.  By  these  means  the  functional  condition  in  many  cases  appears 
to  have  been  greatly  improved,  and  much  of  the  improvement  to  have 
been  maintained. 

Of  late  years  much  attention  has  been  given  to  operative  reduction, 
or  fixation,  with  the  formation  of  a  new  acetabulum  or  enlargement  of 
the  existing  one.  Although  much  experience  has  been  gained,  espe- 
cially by  Lorenz  and  Hoffa,  opinion  is  not  yet  settled  as  to  the  limita- 
tions of  the  field  and  the  choice  of  a  method.  The  literature  of  the 
subject  is  abundant;  the  reader  may  advantageously  consult  articles  by 
Dr.  E.  H.  Bradford  and  Dr.  T.  H.  Myers  in  the  Annals  of  Surgery, 
August,  1894,  and  by  AVarbasse  in  the  same,  June,  1895. 

Lannelongue^  has  sought  by  periosteal  irritation  to  create  a  buttress 
of  bone  upon  the  ilium  which  would  prevent  the  ascent  of  the  femur 
after  it  had  been  brought  down  by  traction.  He  produced  this  by 
injection  through  a  hypodermic  ueedle  of  twenty  drops  of  a  10  per 
cent,  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc  at  several  points  in  the  periosteum 
close  above  the  head  of  the  femur. 

Paci  seeks  to  bring  the  head  of  the  femur  into  the  acetabulum  after 
extensive  rupture  of  the  capsule  by  manipulation — flexion,  abduction, 
outward  rotation,  extension,  in  this  order — and  keeps  it  there  by  con- 
tinuous traction  for  some  months.  He  reports  many  successes,  and  it 
seems  to  be  beyond  question  that  he  does  bring  the  head  to  a  lower 
level  and  keep  it  there,  even  if  it  is  not  in  the  acetabulum.  At  the 
least,  the  method  takes  less  time  and  gives  a  better  result  than  prolonged 
traction,  but  it  probably  is  suitable  to  only  a  limited  number  of  cases. 

The  earlier  operative  methods  exposed  the  capsule  by  a  lateral 
(Hoffa)  or  anterior  (Lorenz)  incision;  then  the  muscles  were  separated 
from  the  great  trochanter,  the  flexors  of  the  leg  divided  subcutaueously 
near  the  tuber  ischii,  the  adductors  near  the  pubis,  the  tensor  vaginse 

1  Laiinelongue  ;  La  Semaine  Med.,  December  30,  1S91. 


462  DISLOCATIONS. 

femoris  by  open  incision,  and  the  rectus  femoris  through  the  first 
incision.  The  capsule  was  opened,  and  generally  detached  freely  from 
the  femur,  the  head  turned  out,  and  the  acetabulum  enlarged,  or  a  new 
one  made,  by  chiselling. 

The  mortality  of  the  operation  was  quite  serious,  and  Lorenz^  has 
sought  to  do  away  with  the  division  of  the  muscles.  In  children  not 
over  five  years  old,  when  the  femur  can  be  drawn  well  down,  he  makes 
a  three-inch  incision  downward  and  outward  from  the  spine  of  the 
ilium,  divides  the  fascia  lata  along  it  and  also  backward,  divides 
the  capsule  in  front,  deepens  the  acetabulum,  and  puts  the  head  of  the 
femur  in  place.  In  children  between  six  and  eight  years,  when  the 
femur  cannot  be  brought  fully  down,  he  exposes  the  capsule  in  the 
same  manner  while  strong  traction  is  made  in  slight  abduction  against 
counter-traction  by  a  perineal  band,  and  after  division  of  the  capsule 
continuous  traction  until  the  head  is  brought  down.  In  cases  over 
nine  years  of  age,  with  marked  shortening  and  slight  mobility  down- 
ward, preliminary  traction  by  about  thirty  pounds  is  made  for  a  fort- 
night; then  continuous  forcible  traction  is  made  during  the  operation, 
and  the  capsule  is  divided  along  the  long  axis  of  the  neck  and  trans- 
versely near  the  ilium.  It  is  important  to  make  a  deep  excavation 
with  a  sharp  upper  margin  for  the  new  acetabulum.  The  limb  is  fixed 
in  slight  abduction  for  a  month,  and  then  massage  and  passive  motion 
are  begun. 

Myers  recommends  for  old,  deformed,  or  painful  cases  Kirmisson's 
subtrochanteric  osteotomy,  or  Hoffa's  new  operation  of  removal  of  the 
head  and  neck  and  of  the  posterior  portion  of  the  capsule,  the  limb 
being  then  dressed  in  abduction  to  insure  close  contact  between  the 
trochanter  and  ilium. 

Congenital  dislocations  of  other  joints,  except  the  knee,  have  rarely 
received  any  treatment.  A  few  backward  dislocations  of  the  shoulder 
have  been  reduced  by  open  operation,  not  a  difficult  task  in  a  case  of 
my  own,  for  the  glenoid  fossa  was  well  formed  and  contained  within 
the  capsule  of  the  existing  joint.      See  Chapter  XLIV. 

In  dislocations  of  the  tibia  forward,  with  extreme  hyper-extension 
of  the  knee,  a  complete  cure  can  usually  be  effected  by  forcible  straight- 
ening of  the  limb  and  retention  for  a  short  time  by  splints. 

1  Lorenz  :  Volkmann's  klin.  Vorlrage,  1895,  No.  117,  and  Warbasse,  in  Annals  of  Surgery,  June, 
1895. 


CHAPTER    XXXVI. 

SPONTANEOUS  DISLOCATIONS. 

These  are  dislocations  which  have  occurred  without  the  intervention 
of  a  recognizable  traumatism.  It  is  generally  held  that  some  of  the 
constituent  parts  of  the  joint  must  have  previously  been  so  altered  by 
disease  as  to  facilitate  the  occurrence;  but  while  this  preliminary  change 
does  doubtless  occur  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  yet  there  is  reason 
to  think  that  spontaneous  dislocation  may  take  place  without  it,  through 
the  continuous  action  of  the  muscles,  when  the  limb  has  been  long  kept 
in  a  favorable  position.  Roser^  says  he  has  seen,  in  three  cases,  spon- 
taneous dislocation  of  the  hip  produced  by  the  reflex  muscular  contrac- 
tions excited  by  pressure  on  the  anterior  portion  of  the  spinal  cord  in 
patients  affected  with  kyphosis  and  consequent  paralysis.  The  dislo- 
cations occurred  slowly,  without  pain  or  swelling  of  the  region,  and 
without  a  sign  of  coxitis. 

The  term  ''  spontaneous,"  although  not  entirely  free  from  objectiou, 
is  in  general  use,  and  is  usually  preferred  to  the  others  that  have  been 
proposed,  such  as  pathological,  xym-ptomatic^  inflammatory,  and  consecu- 
tive or  secondary.  Volkmann^  has  classified  them  according  to  the 
primary  changes  which  precede  and  facilitate  their  occurrence,  as  dis- 
locations, 1st,  by  distention;  2d,  by  destruction;  3d,  by  deformity; 
including  in  the  first  those  cases  in  which  the  joint  has  become  loose 
through  distention  of  its  capsule  and  ligaments  by  an  effusion  within 
it,  as  in  the  eruptive  fevers,  rheumatic  fever,  pyemia,  and  the  puer- 
peral state;  in  the  second  those  in  which  the  shape  of  the  articular  eud 
of  the  bone  has  been  changed  by  caries,  as  in  hip-joint  disease;  and  in 
the  third  those  in  which  the  shape  has  been  changed  by  non-suppura- 
tive  disease,  as  in  arthritis  deformans.  To  these  may  be  added  a  4th 
class,  seen  mainly  in  adolescents,  in  which  the  shape  or  growth  of  the 
bone  has  been  so  modified  by  the  effects  of  pressure,  muscular  effort, 
or  gravity  that  a  permanent  displacement  takes  place;  and  a  5th, 
"  paralytic"  or  "  myopathic,"  in  which  the  dislocation  is  made  pos- 
sible by  paralysis  of  some  or  all  of  the  articular  muscles,  aud  is  some- 
times effected  by  the  contraction  of  those  which  have  not  been  paralyzed. 

Although  the  propriety  of  applying  the  term  dislocation  to  a  change 
iu  the  relations  of  two  bones  whose  corresponding  articular  portions 
have  already  been  destroyed  has  been  questioned,  and  although  the 
change  of  place  does  not  come  within  the  definition  of  dislocation  pre- 
viously given,  and  although  the  condition  has  but  little  in  common 
with  traumatic  dislocations,  either  in  symptoms  or  in  treatment,  yet 
the  term  has  been  almost  universally  accepted  and  retained  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  proposed  substitutes. 

1  Roser  :  Centralblatt  f.  Chirurgie,  1.885,  p.  569. 

•  Volkmann:  Pitha  and  Billroth's  Chirurgie,  vol.  ii.  part  ii.  p.  658. 


464  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  all  these  varieties  the  immediate  cause  of  the  dislocation  is  the 
action  of  gravity  or  muscular  contraction. 

Dislocations  by  Distention  (Vollvmann).  Concerning  the  pathology 
of  this  class  but  little  is  known  by  direct  examination,  because  of  the 
lack  of  autopsies,  but  the  clinical  history  is  well  established.  The 
joint  by  far  the  most  frequently  involved  is  the  hip;  a  few  cases  have 
been  observed  at  the  shoulder  and  knee.  In  the  most  common  form 
the  course  of  the  symptoms  is  as  follows  :'  A  patient  is  attacked  by 
febrile  articular  rheumatism  or  acute  mono-articular  arthritis;  the  pain 
is  great,  the  limb  assumes  a  faulty  position;  after  a  few  days  the  pain 
suddenly  ceases,  and  on  examination  the  region  of  the  affected  joint  is 
found  to  present  a  deformity  similar  to  that  which  characterizes  a  trau- 
matic dislocation.  If  the  condition  is  left  without  treatment,  the 
inflammation  comes  to  an  end  without  leaving  either  osteitis  or  suppu- 
ration, but  with  persisting  deformity;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  dislo- 
cation is  reduced,  the  deformity  is  thereby  entirely  removed,  and  in 
time  complete  recovery  is  obtained. 

In  other  cases  the  dislocation  takes  place  in  the  course  of  some  of 
the  eruptive  fevers  or  other  febrile  condition,  sometimes  without  pre- 
vious notable  pain  in  the  joint  and  without  the  knowledge,  at  the  time, 
of  the  patient.  William  Keen^  collected  forty-three  cases  of  arthritis 
occurring  as  a  complication  of  typhoid  fever,  in  thirty  of  which  dislo- 
cation took  place,  twenty -seven  times  at  the  hip,  twice  at  the  shoulder, 
and  once  at  the  knee. 

It  thus  appears  that  these  dislocations  resemble  those  that  are  trau- 
matic in  their  sudden  occurrence,  the  absence  of  any  lesion  of  the 
bones,  and  the  possibility  of  immediate  and  permanent  reduction  with 
complete  restoration  of  function. 

The  presence  of  a  large  effusion  in  the  joint  and  the  elongation  of 
the  ligaments  have  been  assumed  by  all  observers,  and  the  actual  pres- 
ence of  an  effusion  of  some  amount  has  been  demonstrated  in  some  of 
the  exceptional  cases,  knee  and  shoulder,  where  such  demonstration 
was  possible.  On  the  supposition  of  this  effusion  and  of  the  relaxa- 
tion of  the  ligaments  produced  by  it,  the  production  of  the  dislocation 
has  been  explained.  Verneuil  has  further  called  attention  especially 
to  the  unopposed  contraction  of  certain  muscles  as  the  immediate 
cause. 

If  it  is  remembered  that  at  the  hip  these  dislocations  are  always 
backward  upon  the  dorsum  of  the  ilium,  and  are  preceded  by  the  long 
maintenance  of  the  limb  in  the  position  of  flexion,  adduction,  and 
inward  rotation  which  so  greatly  favor  the  occurrence  of  this  disloca- 
tion, and  that  the  muscles  are  stimulated  to  contraction  by  the  pain  of 
the  arthritis,  it  does  not  appear  improbable  that  this  contraction  is  not 
only  the  immediate  but  also  the  preponderant  cause  of  the  accident, 
and  that  the  arthritis  favors  it  not  by  overstretching  the  ligaments  but 
only  by  supplying  an  amount  of  liquid  that  removes  the  obstacle  created 
by  atmospheric  pressure.  These  two  conditions,  pain  and  effusion, 
would  explain  why  the  dislocation  does  not  also  occur  in  the  course 

1  Verneuil :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgie,  1883,  p.  781. 

2  Keen :  Toner  Lectures.  Smithsonian  Institution,  April,  1875. 


SPONTANEOUS  DISLOCATIONS.  465 

of  adynamic  diseases  in  which  the  limb  often  remains  for  a  kjng  time 
in  the  flexed  position. 

Certainly  the  theory  of  the  production  of  the  dislocation  by  simple 
overdistention  is  incompatible  with  the  easy  reduction  and  maintenance 
of  the  reduction  noted  in  several  cases.  It  was  unfortunate  for  some 
of  the  patients  that  their  surgeons  held  to  this  theory,  and  were  logical 
enough  to  refrain  from  attempting  reduction  and  to  leave  the  patients 
permanently  crippled. 

A  few  cases  have  been  observed  in  which  an  acute  purulent  arthritis 
has  been  followed  by  dislocation;  but  in  such  cases  it  is  always  pos- 
sible that  the  capsule  has  been  in  part  destroyed  by  the  suppuration. 

Paralytic  or  "  myopathic  "  dislocations  are  observed  especially  at  the 
shoulder.  The  humerus  is  held  up  and  kept  in  contact  with  the  glenoid 
cavity  by  the  tonicity  of  the  attached  muscles,  and  when  this  tonicity 
fails  the  weight  of  the  limb  causes  separation  of  the  bones  and  sub- 
luxation or  complete  dislocation.  The  cavity  of  the  joint,  thus  enlarged, 
is  filled  by  an  effusion,  but  this  effusion  is  the  consequence  of  the  sepa- 
ration rather  than  a  favoring,  precedent,  and  causative  condition,  for 
it  is  presumably  drawn  from  the  surrounding  tissues  by  suction,  just  as 
oedema  appears  under  a  dry  cup. 

At  the  hip  they  are  produced  by  the  unopposed  contraction  of  those 
muscles  which  have  not  been  paralyzed.  In  Roser's  three  cases  of 
spinal  caries,  mentioned  above,  the  dislocation  was  dorsal,  and  the 
immediate  cause  was  the  contraction  of  the  adductors  no  longer  opposed 
by  the  pelvi-trochanteric  muscles.  The  opposite  form,  dislocation  upon 
the  pubis,  due  to  paralysis  of  the  adductors  and  the  consequently  unop- 
posed contraction  of  the  muscles  on  the  outer  side  and  back  of  the  hip, 
has  been  reported  by  Bradford^  and  Reclus.- 

Another  variety  may  be  mentioned,  in  which  by  the  unequal  growth 
of  parallel  bone-<,  the  tibia  and  fibula  or  the  radius  and  ulna,  one  of 
them  is  slowly  dislocated. 

Voluntary  dislocations,  those  which  the  individual  can  produce  and 
reduce  at  will,  may  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  this  class.  Those 
in  which  the  peculiarity  has  originated  in  a  previous  traumatic  dislo- 
cation are  due  to  rupture  of  some  of  the  ligaments  or  attached  muscles 
and  have  been  described  among  the  consequences  of  traumatic  disloca- 
tions; but  a  number  of  cases  have  been  recorded  in  which  this  cause 
could  not  be  invoked  in  explanation.  The  only  case  I  have  seen  was 
a  man  about  thirty  years  of  age  who,  a  few  years  ago,  frequented  the 
medical  schools  of  New  York  and  added  to  his  income  by  exhibiting 
his  peculiar  power  before  the  classes. 

Dislocations  by  destruction  and  dislocations  by  deformity  are  of  less 
practical  interest  to  the  surgeon  because  less  amenable  to  treatment, 
and  are  to  be  regarded  rather  as  incidents  in,  or  symptoms  of,  other 
diseases  than  as  morbid  entities. 

In  the  former,  dislocations  by  deslrudion,  Volkmann  included  those 
dislocations  which  occur  in  the  course  of  chronic  tubercular  disease 

1  Bradford  :  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  1883,  vol.  cviii.  p.  73. 

2  Reclus  :  Revue  de  M6d.  et  de  Chir.,  1878,  p.  176. 

30 


466  DISLOCATIONS. 

of  joints  or  as  a  consequence  of  acute  traumatic  suppurative  arthritis. 
Frequent  examples  are  seen  at  the  hip  and  knee. 

In  consequence  of  the  destruction  of  the  articular  ligaments  or  of 
the  bones  themselves  an  abnormal  mobility  is  created  which  allows  the 
bones  readily  to  be  displaced  by  the  action  of  gravity  or  by  muscular 
contraction.  At  the  hip  this  displacement  is  usually  upward  and  back- 
ward; at  the  knee  the  well-known  subluxation  of  the  tibia  backward 
or  upward  is  produced  by  the  contraction  of  the  hamstring  muscles, 
or,  if  the  patient  lies  long  upon  one  side  and  the  destruction  is  well 
advanced,  the  displacement  may  be  lateral  to  the  distance  of  an  inch 
or  even  more. 

In  the  latter,  dislocations  hy  deformity,  Volkmann  included  the  dis- 
locations which  occur  in  the  course  of  such  affections  as  the  morbus 
coxce  senilis  and  in  the  arthropathies  of  nervous  origin,  ^'Charcot's 
disease,"  in  which  the  articular  ends  of  the  bones  disappear  by  absorp- 
tion without  suppuration. 

The  remaining  form  has  been  specially  studied,  so  far  as  I  know, 
only  by  Madelung/  and  only  at  the  wrist;  the  dislocation  was  always 
of  the  carpus  forward,  and  was  accompanied  by  marked  changes  in  the 
shape  of  the  radius  and  of  the  bones  of  the  first  row  of  the  carpus.  The 
cause  appeared  to  be  overexertion,  or,  rather,  prolonged  and  frequently 
repeated  exertion  in  patients  who,  presumably,  were  predisposed  to  the 
change  by  defective  vitality  of  the  bones.  Yolkmann  includes  such 
cases  under  the  general  head  of  disturbances  of  groirth  of  joints.^ 

1  Madelung  :  Deutsche  Gesellscliaft  far  Chirurgie,  1878,  p.  259,  and  Arch.  f.  klin.  Chir.,  vol.  xxiii. 

2  Volkmann  :  Loc.  cit,  p.  692. 


CHAPTER    XXXVII. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF  THE   LOWER   JAW. 

Dislocations  of  the  lower  jaw  constitute  from  3  to  7  per  cent,  of 
all  dislocations,  according  to  the  tables  in  Chapter  XXVIl.  They 
may  be  bilateral  or  unilateral,  the  former  being  the  more  common,  in 
the  proportion  of  about  5  to  2  according  to  Malgaigne,  who  found  54 
bilateral  in  a  total  of  76  cases  which  he  collected.  Of  these  54,  31 
were  in  women,  and  this  greater  frequency  in  the  female  sex  is  univer- 
sally recognized.  The  injury  is  rare  in  infancy  and  old  age;  it  has 
been  observed  in  patients  eighteen  and  seventy-two  years  old,  and  has 
been  caused  in  the  new-born  child  by  obstetric  manipulations. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  dislocation  is  forward,  the  condyle 
of  the  jaw  passing  in  front  of  the  articular  eminence  at  the  root  of  the 
zygoma.  A  few  instances  have  been  reported  of  double  or  single  dis- 
location backward  with  fracture  of  the  wall  separating  the  articular 
cavity  from  the  external  auditory  meatus,  of  dislocation  upward  into 
the  cavity  of  the  cranium,  and  of  unilateral  dislocation  outward  with, 
or  perhaps  without,  fracture  of  the  body  of  the  jaw.  These  are,  how- 
ever, entirely  exceptional  and  may  be  briefly  described  before  proceed- 
ing to  the  consideration  of  the  common  form. 

Dislocation  Backward  with  Fracture. 

Dislocation  backward  with  fracture  of  the  posterior  wall  of  the 
articular  cavity  is  caused  by  great  violence  received  upon  the  chin  and 
acting  from  before  backward.  One  or  both  condyles  may  be  driven 
through  the  wall  into  the  external  auditory  canal,  breaking  the  bone 
and  lacerating  or  pushing  backward  the  outer  cartilaginous  portion. 
The  production  of  the  lesion  is  probably  easier  when  the  molar  teeth 
are  lacking  from  the  upper  or  lower  jaw,  or  if  the  mouth  is  partly  open 
when  the  blow  is  received.  The  symptoms  are  pain  in,  and  bleeding 
from,  the  ear,  immobility  of  the  jaw,  the  mouth  being  held  partly  open, 
and  displacement  backward,  as  shown  by  the  relations  of  the  front 
teeth  to  each  other.  The  absence  of  the  condyle  from  its  normal  posi- 
tion can  be  recognized  by  the  touch,  and  the  auditory  canal  is  seen  or 
felt  to  be  obstructed  by  the  displacement  of  its  anterior  wall. 

Dislocation  Upward. 

Le  Fevre^  reported  an  interesting  and  very  exceptional  case  in 
which  the  injury  was  caused  by  a  fall  from  the  second  story  of  a 
building,  the  blow  being  received  upon  the  chin.  The  jaw  was 
displaced  slightly  backward  and  to  the  left,  the  teeth  were  close 
together,  and  the  mouth  could  not  be  opened.  Slight  bleeding  from 
the  left  ear.     The  diagnosis  of  fracture  of  the  condyle  was  made. 

1  Le  Fevre  :  Journal  HebdomaJaire,  1834,  vol.  iii.  p.  333. 


468  DISLOCATIONS. 

The  patient  was  dismissed  in  the  fourth  week  still  experiencing  diffi- 
calty  in  mastication  and  deglutition.  Subsequently  he  suffered  from 
violent  headache,  had  several  attacks  of  convulsions,  and  died  about 
six  months  after  the  receipt  of  the  injury.  The  autopsy  showed  that 
the  roof  of  the  glenoid  cavity  had  been  fractured,  the  condyle  had 
passed  into  the  cranium  between  the  fragments,  the  neck  of  the  con- 
dyle was  in  part  destroyed,  the  dura  mater  was  extensively  inflamed  and 
thickened,  and  there  was  a  large  abscess  in  the  middle  lobe  of  the  brain. 

Dislocation  Outward. 

Robert'  received  at  the  Hopital  Beaujon  a  patient  who  had  been  in- 
jured by  the  passage  of  the  wlieel  of  a  cart  across  the  right  side  of  his 
face.  The  chin  was  deviated  to  the  right,  and  the  mouth  was  held  open. 
The  left  condyle  of  the  lower  jaw  could  be  distinctly  felt  under  the  skin 
above  the  root  of  the  zygoma.  Greatly  surprised  at  this  displacement 
Robert  sought  for  and  found  a  vertical  fracture  of  the  body  of  the  bone 
on  the  right  side  just  in  front  of  the  ramus.  The  left  coronoid  process 
remained  under  the  temporal  fossa,  the  sigmoid  notch  crossing  and  em- 
bracing the  zygoma.  Reduction  was  made  by  pressing  the  left  ramus  out- 
ward until  the  condyle  was  freed  from  its  contact  with  the  upper  surface 
of  the  zygoma,  and  then  drawing  it  downward  and  inward  to  its  place. 

Neis^  reported  a  similar  case  and  collected  others. 

Dislocation  of  the  Jaw  Forward. 

This,  the  common  form,  is  usually  caused  by  muscular  action,  as  in 
laughing,  scolding,  yawning,  or  vomiting,  or  exceptionally  by  violence 
in  widely  opening  the  mouth  to  introduce  some  large  object,  such  as  an 
apple  or  the  fist,  or  in  drawing  a  tooth,  or  by  a  blow  upon  the  jaw. 

In  order  to  understand  this  mechanism  it  is  necessary  to  recall  the 
construction  and  normal  action  of  the  joint.  The  lower  jaw  is  attached 
to  the  skull  by  a  synovial  capsule  which  is  strong  on  its  outer  side  (the 
external  lateral  ligament),  by  an  internal  lateral  ligament  not  in  imme- 
diate relations  with  the  joint  but  extending  from  the  spinous  process  of 
the  sphenoid  bone  to  the  margin  of  the  inferior  dental  foramen,  and  by 
the  stylo-maxillary  ligament,  a  strong  band  extending  from  the  styloid 
process  of  the  temporal  bone  to  the  posterior  border  of  the  ramus  of 
the  jaw.  The  joint  is  occupied  by  an  intra-articular  cartilage  or  menis- 
cus which  overlies  the  upper  surface  of  the  condyle  and  accompanies 
it  in  its  normal  movement  forward  from  the  glenoid  cavity  to  the  emi- 
nentia  articularis  when  the  mouth  is  opened.  In  front  of  the  point  to 
which  the  condyle  thus  moves  forward  the  surface  of  the  eminentia 
articularis  is  inclined  slightly  upward  to  become  continuous  with  the 
much  narrower  lower  surface  of  the  zygoma.  The  fibres  of  the  mus- 
cles attached  to  the  ramus  which  close  the  mouth  run  upward  and  for- 
ward, and  only  those  belonging  to  the  deep  posterior  portion  of  the 
masseter  are  vertical  or  inclined  backward. 

1  Robert :  Archives  gt'UiSrales  de  M6d.,  1845,  vol.  vii.  p.  44. 

2  Neis :  Luxation  du  Maxillaire  inf.  en  haut  ou  dans  la  fosse  temporale.    These  de  Paris,  1879, 
No.  252. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  LOWER  JAW.  469 

Since  the  condyle  moves  forward  when  the  chin  descends,  the  centre 
of  motion  of  the  jaw  is  not  in  the  condyle,  but  at  a  point  below  it  at 
or  near  the  dental  foramen,  and  as  the  angle  of  the  jaw  is  at  the  same 
time  moved  backward  the  axis  of  the  ramus  notably  changes  its 
relations  to  the  direction  of  the  fibres  of  the  masseter,  bringing  the  line 
of  the  posterior  ones  behind  the  centre  of  motion  where  their  contrac- 
tion tends  still  further  to  open  the  mouth  or  to  keep  it  open.  Still, 
the  cause,  when  muscular,  is  rather  to  be  found  in  the  excessive  action 
of  the  external  pterygoid,  aided  by  relaxation  of  the  external  lateral 
ligament,  which  latter  condition  is  produced  by  the  wide  opening  of 
the  mouth,  as  will  be  explained  more  fully  in  the  following  section. 

Pathology.  The  opportunities  directly  to  examine  cases  of  disloca- 
tion of  the  jaw  have  been  very  few,  and  experiments  upon  the  cadaver 
cannot  entirely  take  their  place,  but  it  appears  to  be  established  tliat 
Malgaigne's  opinion  that  the  condyle  did  not  advance  more  than  one 
or  two  millimetres  beyond  the  point  on  the  articular  eminence  which 
it  normally  reaches  is  not  correct,  but  that  the  advance  is  considerably 
greater.  In  an  autopsy  made  by  Demarquay  in  a  case  of  recurrent  dis- 
location the  condyle  was  in  front  of  the  transverse  part  of  the  zygoma; 
the  iuterarticular  disk  was  behind  it.  It  also  appears  that  the  rupture 
of  the  capsule,  when  it  occurs,  takes  place  in  front  between  the  menis- 
cus and  the  condyle,  but  sometimes  the  meniscus  accompanies  the  con- 
dyle without  rupture  of  the  capsule.  This  makes  the  persistence  of 
the  dislocation,  and  especially  the  fixation  of  the  jaw,  difficult  to 
explain.  The  earliest  theory,  that  of  Petit,  the  contraction  of  the 
posterior  fibres  of  the  masseter,  is  generally  rejected  as  inadequate. 
Another,  also  advanced  by  the  earlier  writers  and  recently  brought 
forward  again  by  ISTelatou  and  accepted  by  Malgaigne,  and  supported 
by  at  least  one  specimen  which  is  figured  in  Malgaigne^ s  Atlai^,  Plate 
XVII.,  fig.  1,  is  that  the  coronoid  process  becomes  engaged  under 
the  malar  bone.  That  this  may  be  an  occasional  adjuvant  cause  must 
be  admitted  on  the  facts  presented,  but  that  it  is  not  the  sole  cause, 
and  probably  not  even  a  frequent  one,  is  proved  by  experiments  upon 
the  cadaver  which  have  shown  the  fixation  to  persist  after  removal  of 
the  coronoid  process,  and  by  the  fact  that  in  N^laton's  specimen  the 
process  is  unusually  long. 

The  slightly  upward  inclination  of  the  anterior  surface  of  the  emi- 
nentia  articularis  against  which  the  displaced  condyle  rests  is  not  of 
itself  sufficient,  and  the  most  recent  theory,  suggested  by  Demarquay^ 
and  thoroughly  studied  by  Mathieu,^  that  the  return  of  the  condyle  is 
opposed  by  the  meniscus  beyond  which  it  has  passed,  seems  to  be  open 
to  the  objections  that  the  meniscus  is  so  freely  movable  backward  that 
it  would  be  readily  pushed  back  into  the  glenoid  cavity  by  the  return- 
ing condyle,  and  that  in  some  cases  it  accompanies  the  condyle  in  its 
excursion.  In  a  case  in  which  I  was  unable  to  reduce  P  found  on 
exposing  the  joint  that  the  meniscus  had  been  torn  from  the  condyle 
and  was  so  lodged  in  the  glenoid  cavity  that  the  condyle  could  not 

1  Demarquay  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgie,  1863,  vol.  iv.  p.  119. 

■-  Mathieu :  Arch.  g6n.  de  M4d.,  1868,  vol.  li.  p.  129. 

3  Stlmson  :  Trans.  N.  Y.  Surg.  Soc,  Annals  of  Surgery,  March,  1898. 


470  DISLOCATIONS. 

enter  it.  After  removal  of  the  meniscus  the  dislocation  was  easily 
reduced.  An  autopsy  reported  by  Perier^  of  a  case  of  recurrent  dislo- 
cation showed  absence  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  meniscus  and 
lodgement  of  the  remainder  behind  the  condyle  after  reduction.  These 
prove  not  that  the  meniscus  is  the  cause  of  the  fixation,  but  that  it  may 
prevent  complete  reduction. 

The  cause  must  be  found,  I  think,  in  the  ligaments,  the  external 
lateral  and  perhaps  the  posterior  portion  of  the  capsule,  and  this  opin- 
ion is  supported  by  the  tenseness  of  the  lateral  ligament  observed  by 
Weber^  and  Maisonneuve'^  upon  the  cadaver,  and  by  the  anatomical 
relations  of  the  parts.  The  mechanism  of  its  action  I  conceive  to  be 
as  follows  :  The  external  lateral  ligament,  forming  the  anterior  part  of 
the  outer  portion  of  the  capsule,  extends  from  the  articular  eminence 
downward  and  backward  to  the  neck  of  the  condyle,  its  attachment  to 
the  eminence  being  posterior  to  the  point  at  which  the  lower  surface  of 
the  latter  begins  to  incline  upward.     This  ligament  (Fig.  238)  is  too 

Fig.  238. 


Diagrammatic  of  the  external  lateral  ligament  of  the  lower  jaw.    A,  when  the  mouth 
is  open  ;  B,  when  the  condyle  is  dislocated  forward. 

short  to  allow  the  jaw  to  take  such  a  position  when  the  condyle  is 
dislocated  forward  that  the  long  axis  of  the  neck  shall  coincide  with 
that  of  the  ligament.  When  the  mouth  is  widely  opened  the  liga- 
ment is  relaxed  by  the  approximation  of  its  points  of  attachment,  and 
the  condyle  passes  forward;  then,  as  the  mouth  is  partly  closed,  the 
ligament  becomes  tense  before  the  condyle  has  moved  back  past  it,  and 
thus  its  further  movement  backward  is  prevented,  and  while  it  remains 
thus  displaced  any  force  that  tends  to  close  the  mouth  increases  the 
obstacle  to  replacement  by  making  the  ligament  more  tense  and  press- 
ing the  bones  more  firmly  together.  Such  a  force  is  naturally  and  con- 
stantly exerted  by  the  powerful  muscles  of  mastication,  stimulated  to 
contraction  as  they  are  by  their  forcible  elongation  and  the  pain  and 
anxiety  of  the  patient.  The  practical  inference  to  be  drawn  from  this 
explanation,  if  it  is  correct,  is  that  reduction  should  be  sought,  not  by 
crowding  the  body  of  the  jaw  downward  and  backward  by  pressure 
upon  the  molar  teeth,  but  by  first  depressing  the  chin  if  possible, 
opening  the  mouth  wider,  so  as  to  relax  the  ligament,  and  then  press- 
ing the  condyle  backward  and  closing  the  mouth  as  it  passes  the  artic- 
ular eminence  on  its  way  back. 

5  Perier:  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgie,  1878,  p.  222. 

2  Weber  :  Handbuch  der  alig.  und  spec.  Chir.,  vol.  iii.,  Abt.  1,  p.  288. 

3  Maisonneuve  :  Comptes-rendus,  Acad,  des  Sciences,  1862,  p.  654. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  LOWER  JAW. 


471 


Symptoms.  The  symptoms  of  bilateral  dislocation  forward  are  that 
the  mouth  is  held  open,  the  lower  jaw  immovable  and  projected  some- 
what forward;  exceptionally,  only  the  projection  is  present,  and  the 
mouth  can  be  closed.  Speech  is  indistinct,  swalh)wing  difficult,  and 
chewing  impossible.  The  condyle  can  be  felt  in  advance  of  its  usual 
position,  and  a  depression  marking  the  empty  glenoid  cavity  can  be 
felt  in  front  of  the  ear.  The  cheeks  are  flattened,  and  the  saliva 
escapes  from  the  mouth.  The  masseter  and  temjioral  muscles  are 
usually  tense,  and  the  upper  anterior  portion  of  the  former  is  raised 
by  the  coronoid  process. 


Fig.  239. 


Bilateral  dislocation  of  the  lower  ja^v.    (R.  W.  Smith.) 


If  the  dislocation  is  unilateral  the  physical  signs  are  found  upon 
only  one  side,  the  chin  is  turned  to  the  opposite  side,  and  the  func- 
tional disability  is  less. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  is  favorable  both  as  regards  the  reduction 
of  the  dislocation  and  the  degree  of  disability  if  it  remains  unreduced, 
but  somewhat  unfavorable  in  that  recurrence  is  quite  probable.  If  it 
remains  unreduced  the  parts  appear  slowly  to  adjust  themselves  to  their 
new  relations  and  finally  to  permit  more  or  less  satisfactory  approxi- 
mation of  the  jaws  and  restoration  of  the  functions. 

Treatment.  The  dislocation  is  one  which,  as  a  rule,  can  be  easily 
reduced,  one  indeed  in  which,  as  has  been  already  said,  reduction  has 
often  occurred  spontaneously.  The  methods  employed  have,  perhaps 
in  consequence  of  this  fact,  been  numerous,  and  have  varied  greatly  in 
the  objects  aimed  at,  if  not  in  the  actual  mechanism  by  which  they 
have  accomplished  the  reduction.  It  can  be  shown,  I  think,  that  many 
of  the  methods  and  procedures  have  been  successful  not  because  they 


472  DISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

met  the  ideas  of  their  originators  concerning  the  obstacle  to  be  over- 
come, but  because  they  overcame  or  avoided  another  obstacle  which 
had  not  been  recognized.  With  few  exceptions  the  aim  of  the  different 
methods  has  been  directly  to  depress  the  condyle  and  then  to  press  it 
backward,  and  this  aim  has  been  accomplished  by  direct  pressure  down- 
ward upon  the  molars,  or  indirectly  by  raising  the  chin  after  having 
placed  a  wedge  between  the  back  teeth.  Those  who  found  the  obstacle 
in  the  hooking  of  the  coronoid  process  under  the  malar  bone  sought  to 
disengage  the  process  by  opening  the  mouth  more  widely,  and  then 
pressed  the  jaw  backward;  while  others,  again,  pressed  the  bone  directly 
backward  by  placing  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  one  hand  against  the 
coronoid  processes  and  then  elevated  the  chin  by  a  slight  blow  upon  it 
from  beneath.  It  is  noteworthy  that  some  of  the  gentlest  methods, 
some  which  approach  most  closely  to  that  which  I  conceive  to  be  the 
rational  method,  were  employed  by  the  earliest  surgeons,  even  by  Hip- 
pocrates, and  were  again  and  again  resumed  only  to  be  as  often  neglected 
and  forgotten.  Hippocrates' s  method,  as  quoted  by  Malgaigne,  was  to 
lower  the  chin  a  little  in  order,  according  to  Galen,  to  free  the  coronoid 
process  from  the  malar  bone,  and  then  to  press  the  jaw  backward,  the 
patient  being  meanwhile  encouraged  to  relax  his  muscles  and  yield 
himself  as  completely  as  possible  to  the  effort  made  in  his  behalf. 
Although  the  intention  and  the  supposed  effect  was  to  free  the  coro- 
noid process,  yet  the  wider  opening  of  the  mouth  relaxed  the  lateral 
ligaments  and  facilitated  the  backward  propulsion. 

In  1862  Maisonneuve  again  revived  the  plan,  after  having  observed 
in  many  experiments  upon  the  cadaver  that  the  external  lateral,  spheno- 
maxillary, and  stylo-maxillary  ligaments  were  tense  and  that  after  their 
division  the  dislocation  could  be  reduced  with  great  ease.  He  ascribed 
the  fixation  to  the  pressure  of  the  condyle  against  the  zygoma,  a  press- 
ure "  maintained  by  the  combination  of  the  passive  resistance  of  the 
ligaments  and  the  energetic  contraction  of  the  elevator  muscles,"  and 
proposed  to  reduce  by  direct  backward  propulsion  after  diminishing 
the  pressure  by  opening  the  mouth  more  widely. 

It  is  unquestionable  that  in  this,  as  in  most  other  dislocations,  the 
obstacles  to  reduction  are  multiple,  and  that  contraction  of  the  muscles 
is  one  of  them,  and  that  it  especially  opposes  reduction  because  it 
directly  resists  the  attempt  to  place  the  bones  in  the  most  favorable 
position.  It  is  also  true  that  methods  of  reduction  are  habitually 
successful  which  are  not  based  upon  correct  anatomical  principles,  but 
nevertheless  those  principles  exist  and  are  the  same  as  in  other  dislo- 
cations; the  opposing  ligaments  must  be  relaxed,  and  the  bone  should 
follow  in  returning  to  its  socket  the  route  by  which  it  escaped  from  it. 
In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  as  has  been  said,  dislocation  takes  place 
while  the  mouth  is  widely  open  and  the  ramus  is  inclined  upward  and 
forward.  Theoretically,  then,  the  same  position  should  be  given  to  it 
as  a  preliminary  to  reduction,  and  although  the  opposition  of  the  mus- 
cles may  create  practical  difficulties  in  the  way  of  accomplishing  this 
which  will  prevent  its  universal  use  and  cause  other  methods  to  be 
preferred  in  the  simple  cases,  yet  in  all  difficult  cases  and  whenever 
this  opposition  has  been  annulled  by  ansestheisa  this  method  should  be 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  LOWER  JAW.  473 

employed:  the  mouth  should  be  widely  opened  and  the  jaw  should  be 
pressed  backward,  or  backward  and  slightly  downward.  This  press- 
ure may  be  conveniently  made  by  the  thumbs  placed  inside  or  outside 
the  mouth  against  the  anterior  edges  of  the  ascending  rami,  the  head 
of  the  patient  being  solidly  supported  behind,  or  by  pressing  with  the 
forefingers  against  the  front  of  the  ramus,  outside  the  mouth,  and  the 
middle  fingers  against  the  side  near  the  angle,  while  the  thumbs  and 
other  fingers  grasp  the  body  near  the  symphysis. 

In  the  method  by  forcible  depression  of  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
jaw  the  thumbs  may  be  used  alone  by  placing  them  upon  the  lower 
molar  teeth  and  pressing  downward  and  backward.  It  is  well  to  guard 
them  against  bruising  by  covering  them  with  cloths  or  leather,  and 
when  the  reduction  is  accomplished  they  should  be  rapidly  withdrawn 
or  slipped  to  the  outer  side  of  the  teeth  to  escape  being  bitten,  an  acci- 
dent that  has  happened  to  several  surgeons  and  has  indeed  been  the 
cause  which  led  to  the  invention  of  other  procedures. 

Instead  of  direct  pressure  with  the  thumbs,  hinged  instruments  have 
been  nsed,  taking  their  bearings  upon  both  sets  of  molars. 

In  cases  of  long  standing  in  which  adhesions  have  formed  and  must 
be  ruptured  before  reduction  can  be  made,  these  forcible  measures  are 
necessary,  for  the  jaw  cannot  otherwise  be  moved  through  a  range  suffi- 
cient to  accomplish  the  object.  Eeduction  has  been  obtained  as  late  as 
the  ninety-eighth  day  after  the  occurrence  of  the  dislocation.  Reference 
has  been  above  made  to  the  personal  case  in  which  reduction  was  pos- 
sible only  after  the  detached  meniscus  had  been  removed  by  operation. 

Mazzoni  treated  an  irreducible  bilateral  dislocation  of  eight  months' 
standing  in  a  woman  twenty-seven  years  old  by  excision  of  both  con- 
dyles, with  an  excellent  functional  result. 

After  reduction  the  mouth  should  be  kept  closed  by  a  bandage  and 
the  patient  fed  on  soft  food  for  two  or  three  weeks.  It  is  not  unlikely 
that  the  marked  tendency  to  recurrence  so  commonly  observed  is  the 
result  of  inopportune  use  of  the  jaw,  perhaps  also,  in  part,  of  the 
favorite  method  of  reduction  which  tends  to  elongate  or  rupture  the 
lateral  ligaments. 

Annandale^  successfully  treated  two  cases  of  recurrent  dislocation 
by  opening  the  joint  and  suturing  the  meniscus  to  the  periosteum. 
''An  incision,  slightly  curved,  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
length,  is  made  over  the  posterior  margin  of  the  external  lateral  liga- 
ments of  the  joint,  and  is  carried  down  to  its  capsule.  Any  small 
bleeding  vessels  having  been  secured,  the  capsule  is  divided,  and  the 
interarticular  cartilage  is  seized,  drawn  into  position,  and  secured  to  the 
periosteum  and  other  tissues  at  the  outer  margin  of  the  articulation  by 
a  catgut  suture."  Irritating  injections  into  the  periarticular  tissues 
have  also  been  employed. 

Pathological  or  Consecutive  Dislocations. 

_  Pathological  or  consecutive  dislocations  are  uncommon,  and  only  in 
a  few  cases^  has  the  condyle,  eroded  and  deformed  by  antecedent  inflam- 

1  Annandale:  Lancet.  1887,  i.  p.  411. 

2  Gurlt :  Path.  Anat.  der  Gelenkrankheiten,  p.  109,  Cases  5, 11, 15. 


474  DISLO  CA  TIONS. 

mation,  been  found  outside  its  cavity  and  sometimes  united  by  bony 
union  to  the  skull. 

Congenital  Dislocations. 

The  only  example  of  this  condition  of  which  I  have  found  mention, 
if  a  foetal  monster  reported  by  Guerin  be  excepted,  is  one  described  by 
K.  W.  Smith. ^  The  patient  was  a  congenital  idiot  who  died  at  the  age 
of  thirty-eight  years.  The  dislocation  existed  upon  the  right  side  and 
was  the  result  of  defective  development  of  the  constituent  parts  of  the 
joint. 

•  R.  W.  Smith  :  Fractures  and  Dislocations,  p.  273. 


CHAPTER    XXXVIII. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE  VERTEBUiE   AND   OF   THE   OCCIPUT 
FROM   THE   ATLAS. 

The  study  of  dislocations  of  the  vertebrae  is  closely  associated  with 
that  of  fractures  of  the  same  bones,  because  in  many  cases  the  differ- 
ential diagnosis  between  a  fracture  and  a  dislocation  cannot  be  made 
with  certainty,  and  because  the  associated  lesions  and  consequences  are 
the  same.  For  some  of  the  latter,  therefore,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  chapter  on  Fractures  of  the  Vertebrae. 

Concerning  the  frequency  of  dislocations  of  the  vertebrfe  widely 
different  opinions  have  been  held;  some  (Delpech)  denying  even  the 
possibility  of  dislocation  without  fracture,  others  thinking  them  ex- 
tremely rare,  and  others,  again,  claiming  that  they  are  quite  common. 
The  most  notable  member  of  the  last  group  is  Porta,  who,  according 
to  Biasing,  observed  no  less  than  twenty-seven  cases  in  thirty  years. 
By  far  the  most  valuable  contribution  to  the  settlement  of  this  question, 
and  indeed  to  the  whole  subject,  is  the  monograph  of  Blasius,^  who 
collected  294  reported  cases,  of  which  185  were  dislocations,  37  dias- 
tases, and  in  72  it  remained  undetermined  to  which  of  these  two  classes 
the  lesion  belonged.  Although  an  autopsical  examination  was  made 
in  174,  yet  in  38  of  these  the  account  is  so  defective  that  the  variety 
and  seat  of  the  injury  cannot  be  determined;  and  in  only  172  of  the 
294  cases  can  these  details  be  said  to  have  been  established.  By  far 
the  most  common  seat  is  the  cervical  region,  then  the  dorsal,  and  last 
the  lumbar  region,  in  which  only  a  very  few  cases  have  been  observed. 
The  certain  cases  were  divided  among  the  decades  of  life  as  follows: 
first,  7;  second,  17;  third,  25;  fourth,  15;  fifth,  14;  sixth,  6. 

Of  40  cases  collected  by  Pichet,^  the  age  in  only  11  w^as  more  than 
forty  years,  and  in  only  3  more  than  fifty  years.  This  greater  fre- 
quency in  those  of  middle  life  must  be  referred  to  the  greater  exposure 
to  the  accidents  that  are  apt  to  produce  the  lesion  incident  to  their 
occupation,  an  explanation  which  is  corroborated  by  the  much  greater 
frequency  of  the  injury  in  males  than  in  females  :  according  to  Blasius, 
4  to  1  in  the  cervical  region,  and  12  to  1  in  the  dorsal. 

The  difference  of  opinion  above  mentioned  regarding  the  frequency 
of  the  occurrence  of  the  injury  in  general,  doubtless  depends  in  part 
upon  the  definitions  which  the  different  authors  have  adopted,  since 
some  accept  as  dislocations  only  those  cases  which  are  not  complicated 
by  fracture,  while  others  accept  also  those  in  which  an  associated  frac- 
ture can  be  rightly  deemed  unessential  to  the  production  of  the  dislo- 
cation.    The  latter  view  is  in  harmony  with  the  classification  of  other 

1  Blasius :  Die  traumatische  Wirbelverrenkungen,  in  Vierteljahrschrift  flir  prakt.  Heilkunde, 
1869,  vols.  cii.  ciii. 
-  Richet :  Anatomie  Medico-Chirurg.,  p.  247. 


476  DISLOCATIONS. 

dislocations,  and  will  be  adopted  here;  a  dislocation  of  a  vertebra  being^ 
defined  as  an  injury  in  which  the  adjoining  articular  processes  on  one 
or  both  sides  have  been  partly  or  completely  separated  from  each  other^ 
with  or  without  avulsion  of  portions  of  the  body  of  either  vertebra  or 
fracture  of  one  or  more  processes.  The  term  dia4ads  is  applied  to 
those  dislocations  in  which,  the  intervertebral  disks  and  other  ligaments 
having  been  torn,  the  vertebrae  are  longitudinally  separated  from  each 
other  in  front  or  behind,  but  have  not  also  been  so  horizontally  dis- 
placed that  the  articular  surfaces  on  either  side  have  been  put  out  of 
line  with  each  other. 

The  terminology  employed  to  indicate  the  seat  and  variety  of  the 
displacement  has  also  varied  \vith  the  different  writers,  some  speaking 
of  the  upper,  others  of  the  lower,  vertebra  as  the  one  that  is  dislocated, 
while  others  have  sought  to  avoid  misunderstanding  by  using  such  a 
phrase  as  '^  dislocation  of  the  fifth  upon  the  sixth."  The  latter  form 
can  be  advantageously  employed  in  the  report  of  cases,  or  whenever 
any  doubt  might  arise  as  to  the  meaning,  but  it  will  be  convenient 
here  to  follow  the  more  general  practice,  and  speak  of  the  upper  ver- 
tebra as  the  one  that  is  dislocated,  and  of  the  direction  and  character 
of  its  displacement  as  those  of  the  dislocation. 

Classification  and  Pathology.  The  relations  of  the  vertebrae  to  each 
other  are  so  complex,  and  the  combinations  of  different  directions 
which  the  displacements  may  present  are  so  variable  and  numerous, 
that  a  classification  of  the  varieties  based  upon  these  directions  is  not 
only  very  complicated,  but  it  also  fails  to  offer  comparative  adv^antages 
sufficient  to  compensate  for  its  complexity.  The  classification  made 
by  Hueter,  according  to  the  character  of  the  movement  or  the  direction 
of  the  force  which  produces  the  dislocation,  is  simple,  and  at  the  same 
time  indicates  the  main  features  of  the  displacement  and  suggests  the 
proper  method  of  reduction.  It  fails,  however,  to  distinguish  between 
the  varieties;  and,  therefore,  while  adopting  it,  it  has  appeared  desir- 
able also  to  use  in  connection  with  it  other  terms  indicative  of  special 
features. 

The  provisions  for  normal  motion  between  adjoining  vertebrae  consist 
in  the  elasticity  and  compressibility  of  the  intervertebral  disks  between 
the  bodies  and  in  the  articulations  placed  just  behind  them  upon  the 
arches.  The  normal  range  of  motion,  though  varying  in  the  different 
portions  of  the  column,  is  at  best  slight,  and  can  be  referred  in  the 
main  to  two  axes  for  each  pair,  one  of  which  lies  in  the  median  plane 
and  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  disk  from  behind  forward,  with 
an  inclination  downward  of  its  anterior  end  which  is  slight  in  the 
lumbar  and  lower  dorsal  regions,  more  marked  in  the  upper  dorsal, 
and  greatest  in  the  cervical  regions  (Fig.  240).  The  other  axis  is  a 
horizontal  transverse  one,  passing  through  the  posterior  part  of  the 
disk.  Motion  about  the  first  axis  produces  a  lateral  bending  of  the 
column,  and,  in  the  cases  in  which  the  axis  is  inclined  downward  and 
forward,  with  this  motion  must  be  associated  a  rotation  of  the  upper 
vertebra  by  which  the  anterior  surface  of  its  body  is  turned  to  the  side 
toward  which  the  column  is  inclined;  and  the  greater  the  inclination 
of  the  axis,  the  more  marked  is  this  associated  rotation.     The  move- 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  VEBTEBBJE. 


477 


Flo.  240. 


merit  is  arrested  by  the  contact  of  tlie  margins  of  the  adjoining  articular 
surfaces  with  their  bases  on  the  concave  side,  and  if  it  persists  beyond 
this  point  dislocation  is  produced,  the  opposite  inferior  articular  surface 
of  the  upper  vertebra  being  raised  above  the  one 
with  which  it  articulates  by  the  lateral   bending, 
and  being  carried  forward  by  the  rotation.     To 
these  dislocations  Hueter  gives  the  name  disloca- 
tions by  abduction  or  roiation. 

Motion  about  the  other,  transverse,  axis  pro- 
duces a  bending  forward  (or,  to  a  less  degree, 
backward)  of  the  column,  during  which  the  ante- 
rior portion  of  the  disk  is  compressed,  the  pos- 
terior portion  stretched,  and  both  inferior  articular 
surfaces  of  the  upper  vertebra  moved  upward  and 
forward  along  the  superior  articidar  surfaces  of  the 
underlying  vertebra.  The  movement  is  checked, 
when  its  normal  limit  is  reached,  by  the  ligaments 
of  the  joints  and  arches,  and,  if  these  yield,  a  dis- 
location is  produced,  in  which  the  inferior  articu- 
lar processes  of  the  upper  vertebra  pass  forward 
and  in  front  of  those  with  which  they  articulate 
— dislocation  by  flexion . 

Under  the  first  head,  dislocations  by  abduction, 
are  to  be  included  the  complete  or  incomplete  uni- 
lateral dislocations  forward  or  backward,  and  the 
bilateral  dislocations  in  opposite  directions,  de- 
scribed as  distinct  forms  under  these  names  by 
Blasius,  all  of  which,  with  one  exception  (the 
unilateral  dislocation  backward)  represent  only 
different  degrees  of  the  same  displacement.  In- 
stead of  being  entirely  separated  from  each  other, 
the  articular  surfaces  may  remain  in  contact  at 
their  edges.  If  the  displacement  is  somewhat 
greater,  the  inferior  process  of  the  upper  vertebra 
passes  further  forward,  and  sinks  into  the  notch  betw^een  the  body  and 
the  superior  articular  process  of  the  lower  vertebra  (complete  unilat- 
eral dislocation)  (Fig.  241),  and  at  the  same  time  the  inferior  process  on 
the  opposite  side  may  be  carried  backward  by  the  movement  of  rotation 
(bilateral  dislocation  in  opposite  directions).  Blasius  quotes  four  cases 
in  which  the  latter  variety  was  observed  and  verified  by  post-mortem 
examination;  the  dislocated  vertebrae  were  the  second,  fourth,  and  fifth 
cervical,  and  the  eleventh  dorsal,  and  the  dislocation  was  forward  on 
the  left  side  in  the  first  three,  and  forward  on  the  right  side  in  the  last 
one.  The  unilateral  dislocation  backward,  of  which  Blasius  refers  to  a 
few  examples  exclusive  of  those  of  the  occiput  upon  the  atlas,  may,  I 
think,  be  attributed  to  the  same  mechanism,  the  displacement  being 
effected  in  consequence  of  the  yielding  of  the  ligaments  of  the  joint  on 
the  side  toward  which  the  body  is  bent,  instead  of  on  the  opposite  side 
as  in  the  other  cases.  In  a  case  observed  by  Cloquet,  and  briefly  men- 
tioned by  Blasius,  the  second  lumbar  vertebra  was  dislocated  in  this 


Direction  of  the  median 
axis  in  the  different  sec- 
tions of  the  spinal  col- 
umn.   (Henke.) 


478  DISLOCATIONS. 

manner,  the  dislocation  being  complicated,  but  unessentially,  by  fracture 
of  the  body  and  arch  of  the  vertebra;  all  the  processes  were  uninjured. 
The  patient  survived  several  years,  and  the  condition  of  the  parts  was 
determined  by  autopsical  examination.  Under  the  second  head,  disloca- 
tions by  flexion,  are  included  bilateral  dislocations  forward  or  backward. 
The  force  continuing  to  act  after  the  normal  limit  of  forward  flexion  of 
the  column  has  been  reached,  the  ligamenta  subflava  are  ruptured,  and 
the  posterior  portion  of  the  intervertebral  disk  is  torn  or  separated  from 

Fig.  241. 


Complete  unilateral  dislocation  by  rotation  or  abduction  ;  cervical  vertebra.    (Konig.) 

the  vertebra  with  or  without  avulsion  of  a  portion  of  the  bone;  the 
articular  processes  of  the  upper  vertebra  lodge  in  front  of  those  of  the 
lower  in  the  notches.  Sometimes  the  processes  do  not  pass  entirely 
beyond  each  other,  but  remain  in  contact  at  their  extremities;  and 
sometimes,  the  movement  being  accompanied  by  slight  rotation  of  the 
vertebrae  upon  each  other,  one  articular  process  is  displaced  further 
forward  than  the  other.  The  lumen  of  the  vertebral  canal  may  be 
seriously  encroached  upon  in  this  dislocation,  and  its  contents  injured 
by  compression  against  the  upper  edge  of  the  body  of  the  lower  ver- 
tebra. 

The  mechanism  of  the  double  dislocation  backward,  of  which  a  few 
cases  have  been  accurately  observed,  has  not  been  demonstrated,  but 
the  possibility  of  its  production  by  extreme  dorsal  flexion  of  the  column 
is  such  that  it  may,  provisionally  at  least,  be  placed  in  this  class.  The 
motion  is  arrested  by  bony  contact  at  the  arches,  and  by  the  interver- 
tebral disks,  the  efficiency  of  whose  resistance  is  increased  by  their 
greater  distance  from  the  fulcrum  about  which  the  rupturing  move- 
ment must  turn.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  a  case  reported  by 
Stanley,^  dislocation  backward  of  the  fifth  cervical  vertebra,  the  upper 
five  vertebrae  were  firmly  united  together  by  bony  fusion.  The  dis- 
placement was  so  great  that  the  body  of  the  fifth  rested  upon  the 
laminae  and  spinous  process  of  the  sixth.  The  additional  leverage 
created  by  this  anchylosis  may  be  invoked  as  an  argument  in  favor  of 
the  theory  of  production  by  dorsal  flexion. 

Transverse  dislocation  has  been  diagnosticated  in  several  cases,  but 
the  only  one  in  which  sufficient  anatomical  proof  has  been  obtained  is 
one  mentioned  by  Charles  Bell.^     A  child  was  run  over  by  a  stage- 

1  Stanley  :  Edinburgh  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  October,  1S41,  p.  404. 

2  Bell :  Injuries  to  the  Spine  and  Thigh-bone,  1824,  p  25. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  VERTEBRJE.  479 

coach  and  died  of  croup  thirteen  months  later.  The  last  dorsal  ver- 
tebra was  found  completely  displaced  to  the  left  side  of  the  first  lum- 
bar with  slight  chipping  of  the  bone.  The  articulation  between  these 
vertebrae  is  of  such  a  character  that  this  form  of  dislocation  would 
seem  impossible  without  a  fracture  of  the  articular  processes,  and  prob- 
ably it  may  still  properly  be  deemed  so  except  in  a  child.  The  same 
anatomical  conditions  exist  in  the  lumbar  vertebrae,  but  in  the  dorsal 
and  cervical  regions  the  articular  surfaces  look  backward  and  forward 
or  are  only  slightly  inclined  to  one  side,  consequently  this  form  of  dis- 
location must  there  be  regarded  as  possible. 

In  the  greater  part  of  the  dorsal  region  it  w^ould  necessarily  be  asso- 
ciated with  dislocation  of  the  vertebral  end  of  the  corresponding  rib. 

In  all  the  clinical  cases  quoted  by  Blasius,  with  one  exception,  the 
cervical  vertebrae  were  concerned,  and  he  says  that  the  correctness  of 
the  diagnosis  is  very  doubtful  in  all. 

The  main  groups  and  varieties,  then,  are  as  follows  : 

Dislocations  by  flexion,  ventral  or  dorsal. 

Bilateral  forward. 

Bilateral  backward. 

Dislocations  by  abduction  or  rotation. 

Unilateral  forward     1  i  ,  .   ^^„,   i  ,„ 

T-T  -1  .      11      1         J  >  complete  or  incomplete. 
Unilateral  backward  j         ^  ^ 

Bilateral  in  opposite  directions. 

Transverse.  (?) 

The  associated  lesions  comprise  rupture  of  the  various  ligaments, 
muscles,  bloodvessels,  and  nerves,  fracture  of  the  bones,  and  injuries 
of  the  spinal  cord  and  its  membranes,  and  those  later  changes  which 
may  be  induced  by  the  primary  ones. 

The  intervertebral  disk  is  always  ruptured  or  torn  aw^ay  from  one  or 
the  other  vertebra,  and  this  rupture  or  separation  is  almost  invariably 
complete,  and  is  accompanied  by  the  avulsion  of  larger  or  smaller 
fragments  of  the  bone.  In  one  or  two  cases  the  disk  appears  to  have 
been  crushed. 

The  capsular  ligament,  on  one  or  both  sides  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  displacement,  is  always  torn.  The  anterior  and  posterior 
ligaments  are  either  torn,  wholly  or  in  part,  or  stripped  from  their 
attachments  to  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  sometimes  bringing  with 
them  in  the  latter  case  portions  of  the  bone.  The  ligaments  between 
the  lamince  and  the  spinous  processes  are  either  torn  or  put  upon  the 
stretch,  and  those  between  the  transverse  processes  w^ere  torn  in  the  only 
reported  case  found  by  Blasius  in  which  their  condition  was  mentioned. 
Instead  of  rupture  of  the  ligaments /rac/itre  of  the  processes  to  which 
they  are  attached  may  occur,  and  various  other  fractures  of  the  adjoin- 
ing processes  or  of  more  distant  parts  are  frequently  observed. 

The  surrounding  and  the  attached  muscles  may  be  torn  by  the  dis- 
placement or  by  the  direct  action  upon  them  of  the  dislocating  violence. 

The  veins  coming  from  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  and  those  of  the 
meninges  of  the  cord  are  so  large  and  their  relations  with  the  bones 
and  ligaments  are  so  close  that  hemorrhage  is  always  free  and  some- 
times very  profuse. 


480  I>ISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

In  dislocations  of  the  cervical  vertebrae  the  vertebral  arteries  so  com- 
monly escape  injury  that  the  possibility  of  their  rupture  has  been 
denied,  but  in  a  case  received  into  St.  Thomas's  HospitaP  the  verte- 
bral artery  was  found  to  have  been  torn  and  a  large  amount  of  blood 
to  have  escaped  into  the  vertebral  canal  and  among  the  muscles.  Bla- 
sius  admits  this  case  into  his  list,  although  all  the  processes  of  the  fourth 
vertebra  were  broken. 

The  nerve  trunks  at  their  point  of  emergence  through  the  interver- 
tebral foramina  may  be  compressed  or  torn  on  one  or  both  sides  between 
the  articular  process  of  one  vertebra  and  the  body  or  pedicle  of  the 
other;  and  in  the  lumbar  or  lower  dorsal  regions  the  nerves  constituting 
the  Cauda  equina  have  repeatedly  been  found  torn  across  or  compressed 
between  the  body  and  laminse  of  the  adjoining  vertebree. 

The  spinal  cord  and  its  membranes  may  entirely  escape  injury,  and 
if  injured,  the  lesion  may  present  any  grade  between  simple  compres- 
sion and  complete  rupture.  The  injury  may  be  caused  by  pressure  of 
the  bone  against  the  cord  or  by  the  direct  elongation  of  the  latter. 
All  the  lining  membranes  may  be  torn,  entirely  across  or  only  in  part, 
or  one  of  them  alone  may  be  ruptured.  Their  rupture  is  necessarily 
accompanied  by  the  extravasation  of  blood,  usually  profuse,  between 
the  dura  and  the  bone  and  amid  the  meninges.  Occasionally  an  extra- 
vasation of  blood  has  been  found  within  the  cord  itself;  thus,  in  a 
case  reported  by  Martini,^  one  of  diastasis  between  the  fourth  and 
fifth  cervical  vertebrae,  in  which  there  was  complete  rupture  of  all  the 
ligaments  and  separation  to  such  an  extent  that  the  finger  could  be 
passed  between  the  bones,  the  meninges  were  not  torn,  and  the  only 
lesion  found  in  the  cord  was  a  clot  three  centimetres  long  in  its  centre 
and  involving  also  the  cortical  substance.  A  similar  case  has  recently 
been  reported  by  Quenu.''  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  three  reported 
cases^  in  which  extensive  paralysis  was  present  the  autopsy  failed  to 
show  any  lesion  of  the  cord,  and  that  in  others  there  has  appeared  to 
be  no  fixed  relation  between  the  extent  of  the  paraylsis  and  the  ana- 
tomical lesions  found  in  the  cord.  In  other  cases  the  cord  has  been 
found  torn  while  the  ligaments  have  been  only  slightly  injured. 

The  analysis  made  by  Blasius  to  determine  the  relative  frequency  and 
severity  of  injury  to  the  cord  in  the  different  forms  and  at  the  different 
seats  of  dislocation  shows  that  the  danger  is  greatest  in  dislocation  of 
the  lower  cervical  vertebrje,  the  fifth  and  especially  the  sixth,  although 
even  there  the  cord  may  entirely  escape  injury.  In  the  variety  which 
he  terms  ''unilateral  forward"  (dislocation  by  abduction  or  rotation) 
the  danger  is  less  than  in  the  "  bilateral  forward"  or  "  backward" 
(dislocation  by  flexion);  in  7  autopsies  the  cord  was  found  injured  in  6, 
and  of  45  cases  observed  clinically,  all  of  the  neck,  in  9  there  was 
evidence  of  injury  or  compression  of  the  cord,  which  disappeared  in 
5  and  was  followed  in  4  by  inflammatory  and  softening  processes  in 

1  Medieo-Chirurgical  Review.  1831,  vol.  xiv.  (18  of  analyt.  series),  p.  227. 

■^  Martini :  Schmidt's  Jahrbiicher,  1861,  vol.  ex.  p.  195. 

i*  Qu6nu:  Le  Progres  MtSdical,  February  27,  1887. 

"^  Colborne :  Provincial  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  vol.  ii.  p.  50 ;  Hafner  :  Zeitschrift  fiir 
Wundarzte  und  Geburtshelfer,  1856,  vol.  ix.  p.  249  ;  and  Porta  :  Delia  lussazioni  delle  vertebre,  1864, 
quoted  by  Blasius. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  VERTEBRA.  481 

the  cord.  The  variety  which  he  terms  ^'bilateral  in  opposite  direc- 
tions" appears  particularly  free  from  this  danger;  in  the  few  cases  he 
collected  paralysis  was  exceptional  and  temporary.  Of  8  cases  of  bilat- 
eral dislocation  backward  examined  post  mortem,  the  cord  was  unin- 
jured in  2,  and  more  or  less  severely  injured  in  6;  of  6  clinical  cases, 
in  3  there  was  no  paralysis,  and  in  3  the  paralysis  was  temporary.  Of 
52  cases  of  bilateral  dislocation  forward,  the  cord  was  uninjured  in  17, 
and  was  injured  seriously  and  irreparably  in  11;  in  the  remaining  24, 
either  recovery  followed  or  a  distinction  cannot  be  made  between  the 
effects  of  the  mechanical  violence  inflicted  upon  the  cord  by  the  dislo- 
cation and  those  of  the  later  inflammatory  and  nutritive  changes.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  in  most  of  the  clinical  cases  our  knowledge 
of  the  exact  character  of  the  lesion  of  the  skeleton  is  defective 

Blasius^  summarizes  the  analysis  as  follows  :  in  no  form  of  disloca- 
tion is  injury  of  the  spinal  cord  a  necessary  consequence;  such  injury 
is  less  to  be  expected  in  unilateral  dislocation,  and  in  unilateral  dislo- 
cation forward  of  the  cervical  vertebrae  it  is  always,  or  almost  always, 
only  a  simple  compression  without  crushing;  in  bilateral  dislocation 
backward  or  forward,  either  of  the  dorsal  or  cervical  vertebrae,  the 
cord  is  exposed  to  more  serious  lesions  and  seldom  escapes  entirely 
uninjured,  and  when  the  displacement  is  forward  the  cord  is  mechan- 
ically affected  in  most  cases,  but  the  cases  of  severe  injury  are  fewer 
than  those  in  which  all  injury  is  escaped;  finally,  the  danger  is  least 
in  bilateral  dislocation  in  opposite  directions. 

Secondary  Changes.  When  the  patients  survive  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  the  signs  of  a  more  or  less  acute  inflammatory  reaction  appear. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  this  reaction  in  the  meninges  and  cord 
is  not  so  frequent  or  severe  as  that  which  follows  injury  to  the  skull, 
but  yet  in  a  number  of  cases  pus  has  been  found  in  the  meninges  and 
even  in  the  centre  of  the  cord  itself.  The  cord  may  be  slightly  soft- 
ened and  changed  in  color,  or  it  may  be  reduced  to  pulp,  and  this 
change  may  involve  only  the  portion  corresponding  to  the  dislocated 
vertebra  or  it  may  extend  to  a  greater  or  less  distance  above  and  below. 
It  is  probable  also  that  other  changes  observed  after  fracture  of  the 
vertebrae,  such  as  extensive  suppuration  within  the  pia  and  the  substi- 
tution of  fibrous  tissue  for  the  nervous  elements  of  the  cord,  may  take 
place,  for  the  conditions  are  practically  the  same. 

The  intervertebral  disk  seems  habitually  to  disappear  by  softening 
and  absorption;  and  the  ligaments  undergo  changes  similar  to  those 
-observed  in  other  ligaments — that  is,  their  torn  portions  reunite  by 
cicatricial  tissue  or  they  contract  new  attachments  in  the  evolution 
of  the  process  of  repair,  and  they  may  even  become  ossified.  The 
tendency  of  the  reparative  process  to  end  in  suppuration,  which  has 
been  observed  to  be  exceptionally  marked  after  fracture  of  the  verte- 
brae, has  been  manifested  also  after  dislocation,  although  possibly  only 
in  cases  complicated  by  fracture. 

Etiology.  The  causes  have  been  habitually  described  as  direct  and 
indirect  violence  and  muscular  action.    The  distinction  between  direct 

1  Blasius  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  130. 
31 


4:82  DISLOCATIONS. 

and  indirect  violence  is  made  by  classifying  under  the  latter  those  cases 
in  which  the  force  has  acted  upon  the  column  at  some  distance  from 
the  point  of  dislocation  to  bend  it  in  one  or  another  direction,  and 
under  the  former  those  in  which  the  force  has  acted  directly  upon  the 
dislocated  vertebra.  But  the  mechanism — in  most,  if  not  in  all  cases 
— is  certainly  the  same;  the  column  is  forcibly  bent,  and  the  dislocation 
is  produced  by  this  forcible  bending,  just  as  a  rod  may  be  bent  or  broken 
by  grasping  and  approximating  its  two  ends  with  or  without  the  aid  of 
direct  pressure  against  its  centre.  In  the  cases  of  dislocation  by  mus- 
cular action  the  cervical  vertebrae  alone  have  been  involved,  and  the 
movement  has  been  that  of  xaaggerated  rotation  or  dorsal  flexion. 

Symptoms  and  Diagnosis.  Most  of  the  symptoms  of  dislocation  are 
the  same  as  those  of  fracture  of  the  vertebrae.  There  is  usually  the 
same  history  of  violence  acting  upon  the  spinal  column,  either  directly 
or  indirectly,  to  bend  it  beyond  the  limit  of  its  normal  range  of  motion, 
localized  pain  increased  by  movement  or  manipulation,  inability  to 
stand,  partial  or  complete  paralysis  below  the  point  of  injury,  diminu- 
tion or  exaggeration  of  the  normal  mobility  of  the  affected  part,  with 
or  without  reflex  muscular  rigidity  of  the  upper  segment  of  the  column, 
and  deformity  recognizable  by  sight  or  touch.  The  symptoms  which 
are  thought  to  be  of  most  service  in  establishing  the  differential  diag- 
nosis between  these  two  injuries  are  crepitus  and  abnormal  mobility 
at  the  point  of  injury  in  fracture,  and  their  absence  in  dislocation. 
Unfortunately,  crepitus  is  not  always  obtainable  in  fracture  by  such 
manipulations  as  are  permissible,  and  it  may  be  present  in  dislocation 
accompanied  by  fracture — that  is,  in  a  condition  in  which  the  disloca- 
tion is  the  important  injury,  and  the  fracture  a  comparatively  unim- 
portant addition.  Rigidity  of  the  column  at  the  injured  point  is 
common  but  not  constant  in  dislocation,  and  it  may  be  caused  in  frac- 
ture, or  even  in  contusion  or  sprain,  by  muscular  contraction.  But 
while  a  positive  differential  diagnosis  may  not  often  be  possible,  a  prob- 
able diagnosis  may  frequently  be  made,  at  least  when  the  injury  is  in 
the  cervical  region,  by  attention  to  the  attitude  and  rigidity  of  the 
neck,  by  recognition  of  the  change  in  the  relations  of  the  transverse 
processes,  or  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  so  far  as  they  are  accessible 
to  examination  in  the  pharynx,  or  of  the  lower  spinous  processes,  and 
by  the  impossibility  of  correcting  the  displacement  by  pressure. 

On  the  other  baud,  muscular  contraction  and  pain  due  simply  to 
bruising  of  muscles  or  nerves  or  to  inflammation  of  the  vertebral  joints 
may  produce  an  attitude  and  rigidity  closely  resembling  those  of  dis- 
location. 

Deformity.  The  deformity  consists  in  displacement  of  the  spinous 
or  transverse  processes  forward  or  backward  or  to  one  side,  and  is  to  be 
recognized  by  palpation.  The  displacement  of  the  transverse  processes 
can  be  recognized  by  touch  only  in  the  neck,  that  of  the  spinous  pro- 
cesses everywhere  except  in  the  upper  cervical  region  unless  the  patient 
is  very  fat.  The  body  of  the  displaced  vertebra  is  accessible  to  exami- 
nation only  in  the  pharynx  and  occasionally,  as  in  a  case  reported  by 
Dupuytren,  by  deep  pressure  through  the  anterior  abdominal  wall. 

Pain,  although  sometimes  absent,  is  commonly  present,  and  is  pro- 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  VERTEBRJE.  483 

voked  or  increased  by  movements  of  the  body  or  by  direct  pressure 
upon  the  injured  region.  It  has  its  origin  in  the  bruising  or  laceration 
of  the  adjoining  soft  parts  and  in  pressure  upon  the  nerves  within  the 
canal  or  at  their  points  of  exit  through  the  intervertebral  foramina.  In 
some  cases  it  is  referred  only  to  the  point  of  injury,  in  others  it  is  radi- 
ated along  the  course  and  over  the  region  of  distribution  of  the  affected 
nerves. 

Paralysis,  entirely  absent  in  some  eases,  may  be  partial  or  com- 
plete within  the  affected  region;  usually  the  two  sides  of  the  body  are 
similarly  affected  (paraplegia),  and  limitation  to  a  lateral  half  of  the 
body  (hemiplegia)  is  unknown  except  where  the  paralysis  has  been  only 
partial.  Motor  paralysis  is,  as  a  rule,  more  marked  and  extensive  than 
sensory  paralysis. 

Paralysis  has  been  observed  in  the  muscles  of  the  column  adjoining 
the  point  of  injury,  in  some  or  all  of  the  parts  of  the  body  below  the 
point  of  injury,  and  occasionally  in  those  lying  above  it.  The  last- 
mentioned  extension  is  to  be  explained  by  mechanical  injury  to  the 
cord  at  a  higher  point  than  the  dislocation,  as  by  overstretching  in 
diastasis,  or  by  extravasation  of  blood,  or  by  the  extension  of  inflam- 
matory processes  set  up  by  the  injury. 

Instead  of  paralysis,  or  in  association  with  it,  may  be  observed  mus- 
cular contractions,  neuralgic  pains,  and  hyperaesthesia,  presumably  de- 
pendent upon  inflammatory  changes  in  the  cord  and  meninges.  In  a 
few  cases  there  have  been  general  convulsions,  promptly  followed  by 
death. 

In  addition  to  these  symptoms  of  injury  of  the  cerebro-spinal  nerves 
and  centres  are  others  of  widely  different  character  and  involving  many 
different  tissues  and  organs,  which,  as  Hutchinson^  has  pointed  out  in 
a  valuable  and  very  interesting  paper,  may  be  referred  to  changes  in 
the  sympathetic,  especially  the  vasomotor  system.  Thus,  sudden  rises 
of  temperature,  general  or  local  and  of  longer  or  shorter  duration,  may 
be  observed,  sometimes  associated  with  pallor  of  the  surface  or  with 
marked  pulsation  in  the  arteries.  If  the  injury  is  in  the  cervical  region 
the  heart-beat  becomes  slow  but  does  not  also  show  the  intermissions 
that  commonly  accompany  the  slow  pulse  of  injury  to  the  brain. 

Immobility  of  one  or  iDoth  pupils,  with  a  slight  degree  of  contrac- 
tion, has  been  noted;  in  other  cases  immobility  with  dilatation. 

Priapism  may  accompany  injury  of  the  lower  cervical  and  upper 
and  middle  dorsal  regions  when  it  is  sufficient  to  cause  paraplegia. 
Its  frequency,  compared  with  all  cases  in  males,  was  found  by  Blasius 
to  be  1  to  5  at  the  fourth  cervical,  1  to  3.6  at  the  fifth,  1  to  2.7  at  the 
sixth,  and  1  to  2.5  at  the  seventh.  He  adds  that  it  was  present  in 
fourteen  out  of  twenty-five  cases  of  fracture  of  the  sixth  cervical  ver- 
tebra. The  condition  of  the  member  appears,  however,  not  always  to 
be  that  of  normal  physiological  erection,  but  rather  of  simple  engorge- 
ment, the  member  remaining  comparatively  flaccid  although  swollen. 
In  a  few  cases  the  priapism  has  been  provoked  only  by  the  additional 
application  of  a  local  irritant,  as  the  passage  of  a  catheter. 

1  Hutchinson  :  London  Hospital  Report,  1866,  vol.  iii.  p.  357. 


484  DISLOCATIONS. 

The  rapid  formation  of  bed-sores  has  also  been  attributed  to  vaso- 
motor or  trophic  changes,  but  while  it  is  possible  that  such  changes 
may  act  as  a  predisposing  cause,  yet  the  immediate,  determining  cause 
appears  to  be  rather  the  prolonged,  unrelieved  pressure  to  which  the 
parts  are  subjected  in  consequence  of  the  paralysis. 

The  occurrence  of  cystitis  aud  ammoniacal  decomposition  of  the 
urine  within  the  bladder  has  also  been  explained  in  the  same  manner, 
but  seems  rather  to  be  the  consequence  of  over-distention  of  the  bladder 
and  of  the  use  of  the  catheter.  The  later  consequences  of  this  cystitis 
are  extremely  serious  and  may  hasten  or  be  the  immediate  cause  of 
death . 

Injury  to  or  chauge  in  the  vasomotor  nerves  has  been  thought  to  be 
the  cause  also  of  changes  sometimes  observed  in  the  lungs.  In  two 
cases  elsewhere  mentioned  I  have  known  fracture  of  the  cervical  ver- 
tebrie  to  be  followed  by  expectoration  of  blood  coming  from  the  lungs, 
and  Blasius  (following  Moritz)  describes  a  pulmonary  congestion  ap- 
pearing promptly,  marked  at  first  by  increased  secretion,  and  rapidly 
causing  death  by  oedema  of  the  lungs,  usually  on  the  second  or  third  day. 

Prognosis.  The  injury  is  commonly  deemed,  and  with  good  reason, 
one  that  places  the  life  of  the  patient  in  great  danger.  Of  the  278 
cases  he  collected  Blasius  collated  159  in  which  the  diagnosis  was  cer- 
tain; of  these  36  recovered  and  123  died,  a  proportion  of  22.6  per 
cent,  of  recoveries,  or  1  in  4.4.  It  is  well  worthy  of  note,  also,  that 
of  these  36  recoveries  the  dislocation  was  completely  reduced  in  27 
and  partly  reduced  in  2,  and  that  all  these  29  and  5  of  the  remaining 
7  were  dislocations  of  the  cervical  vertebrte. 

In  the  fatal  cases  death  usually  followed  promptly  upon  the  receipt 
of  the  injury.  Of  113  authentic  cases  more  than  half  died  within  the 
first  week,  the  others  at  varying  periods  up  to  five  months.  Death, 
especially  in  the  cases  in  which  it  occurs  promptly,  is  usually  the  con- 
sequence of  the  injury  to  the  cord  or  of  the  inflammatory  processes 
set  up  in  it  by  the  injury;  but  even  when  such  injury  exists,  especially 
if  situated  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  cord,  life  may  be  indefinitely  pro- 
longed. Simple  compression  of  the  cord  involves  less  danger  to  life 
than  its  complete  or  partial  division  or  crushing,  and  relief  of  the  com- 
pression may  be  followed  by  restoration  of  function.  If  the  compres- 
sion takes  place  gradually,  even  to  a  very  marked  degree  and  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  cord,  as  in  several  reported  cases  of  cervical  spinal 
caries,  prolongation  of  life  is  still  possible,  and  even  marked  and  per- 
manent compression  at  the  level  of  the  atlas  and  axis  has  in  two  reported 
cases  not  proved  immediately  fatal.  In  one^  of  these,  dislocation  of 
the  atlas  forward  from  both  the  occiput  and  the  axis  with  fracture  of 
the  odontoid  process,  the  canal  was  reduced  to  a  triangular  slit  two 
millimetres  wide  on  one  side  and  five  on  the  other;  the  patient  survived 
.five  months,  being  completely  paralyzed  during  most  of  the  time.  In 
the  other  case,^  incomplete  dislocation  of  the  occiput  from  the  atlas 
due  to  caries,  the  patient  survived  three  months  and  died  of  tubercle 
of  the  brain. 

1  Costes  :  Schmidt's  Jahrbiich,  vol.  Ixxix.  p.  208. 

s.Darrlste :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1838,  toI.  xiii.  p.  144. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  VERTEBRJE.  485 

If  the  dislocation  is  reduced  the  symptoms  may  disappear  promptly, 
or  the  paralysis  may  persist  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  the  case  may  even 
terminate  fatally  in  consequence  of  the  injury  done  to  the  cord  or  its 
envelopes. 

Treatment.  This  must  be  directed  to  the  reduction  of  the  disloca- 
tion, the  prevention  of  its  recurrence,  and,  if  reduction  is  impossible,  to 
the  relief  of  the  consequences  of  the  displacement.  If  reduction  is 
to  be  attempted  it  should  be  done  promptly,  and  yet  it  must  be  added 
that  it  has  been  successfully  made  in  several  cases  as  late  as  the  eighth 
or  ninth  day  after  the  accident,  and  in  one  after  the  lapse  of  two 
months,  and  was  followed  by  the  prompt  or  gradual  disappearance  of 
the  paralysis. 

The  attempt  to  discriminate,  with  reference  to  the  question  of  attempt- 
ing reduction,  between  cases  in  which  the  paralysis  is  due  to  simple 
compression  of  the  cord  and  those  in  which  it  is  due  to  its  laceration 
or  the  effusion  of  blood  within  the  canal  is  impracticable,  because  of 
the  impossibility  of  making  a  positive  differential  diagnosis  between 
those  conditions. 

The  possibility  that  the  attempt  may  cause  the  instant  death  of  the 
patient,  especially  when  the  dislocation  is  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cer- 
vical spine,  is  a  weighty  factor  in  the  problem,  but  should  not,  in  my 
judgment,  deter  the  surgeon  if  the  patient  or  his  friends  accept  the  risk. 
It  should  only  stimulate  him  to  make  the  most  accurate  possible  diag- 
nosis as  regards  the  seat,  direction,  and  mode  of  production  of  the 
dislocation,  and  most  cautiously  to  select  and  execute  the  necessary 
manoeuvres.  The  urgency  of  the  symptoms  may  leave  him  but  scant 
time  for  observation  and  reflection,  and  the  history  of  the  case  may 
throw  no  light  upon  the  mode  of  production,  so  that  the  general  rule 
to  return  the  dislocated  part  along  the  path  by  which  it  escaped  from 
its  position  cannot  be  knowingly  and  deliberately  followed.  Under 
such  circumstances  the  surgeon  must  trust  to  traction  aided  by  such 
flexion  and  rotation  of  the  column  as  his  best  scrutiny  of  the  displace- 
ment and  knowledge  of  the  relations  of  the  articular  processes  may 
suggest.      Anaesthesia  should  usually  be  employed. 

The  return  of  the  bone  to  its  place  is  usually  indicated  by  a  distinct 
sound,  and  the  rigidity  which  is  usually  present  gives  place  to  normal 
mobility. 

If  the  dislocation  is  comparatively  slight,  moderate  lateral  pressure 
may  effect  reduction,  as  in  a  remarkable  case  reported  to  Blasius^  by 
Kichter.  A  lad,  eleven  or  twelve  years  old,  consulted  Richter  because 
of  deformity  and  stiffness  of  the  neck  caused  by  a  fall.  He  found  the 
spinous  process  of  the  third  cervical  vertebra  slightly  displaced  to  one 
side,  and  that  pressure  upon  it  caused  pain.  No  paralysis.  An  attempt 
to  reduce  the  dislocation  by  traction  on  the  head  failed,  and  the  child 
was  sent  home  to  await  another  attempt.  On  the  way,  the  child,  who 
had  heard  and  comprehended  the  diagnosis,  stopped  by  a  wall,  leaned 
his  head  and  shoulder  against  it,  and  pressed  forcibly  with  the  thumb 
against  the  opposite,  convex  side  of  the  neck,  and  instantly  reduced 

1  Blasius :  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  civ.  p.  114. 


486  DISLOCATIONS. 

the  dislocation.  The  story  was  confirmed  by  the  child's  companions, 
and  the  surgeon  at  his  visit  found  the  neck  straight,  normally  movable, 
and  free  from  pain. 

After  reduction  has  been  made  no  other  retentive  measures  than  rest 
in  bed  are  ordinarily  required,  but  if  there  is  reason  to  fear  recurrence 
the  parts  may  be  immobilized  by  gypsum  bandages  or  padded  wire 
splints  that  embrace  the  entire  trunk  if  the  injury  is  situated  below 
the  shoulders,  and  the  head  and  chest  if  it  is  in  the  cervical  region. 

If  reduction  cannot  be  made  immobilization  is  still  necessary  to 
favor  the  formation  of  firm  adhesions  and  the  solidification  of  the 
bones  in  their  new  relations;  and  in  addition  measures  may  be  needed 
to  meet  the  indications  of  other  symptoms.  Of  the  latter  the  most 
urgent  is  the  acute  hypersemia  of  the  lungs  that  has  occasionally  been 
observed,  and  this  is  most  promptly  and  satisfactorily  met  by  free 
venesection.  The  need  of  regular  catheterization  in  the  paralytic  cases 
must  not  be  overlooked.  Permanent  drainage  of  the  bladder  through 
a  perineal  incision  has  been  employed,  apparently  with  advantage,  in 
some  cases.  Suprapubic  drainage  would  probably  be  preferable  on  the 
score  of  cleanliness  and  easy  attention. 

Dislocations  of  the  Occiput  and  Cervical  Vertebrae. 

Dislocations  are  far  more  frequent  in  this  region  than  in  the  others. 
The  fifth  cervical  vertebra  is  the  one  most  frequently  dislocated.  The 
anatomical  differences  between  the  articulations  of  the  atlas  with  the 
occiput  and  axis  and  those  of  the  other  vertebrae  are  such  that  a  sepa- 
rate description  of  the  injury  at  the  upper  end  of  this  region  is  necessary. 

1.  Dislocations  of  the  Occiput  (from  the  Atlas.) 

The  articulations  between  the  atlas  and  the  condyles  of  the  occip- 
ital bone  are  formed  on  each  side  by  a  long,  oval  articular  surface  on 
the  atlas,  which  is  concave  both  from  before  backward  and  from  side 
to  side;  the  long  axis  of  each  runs  from  in  front  outward  and  back- 
ward and  the  outer  margin  of  each  is  higher  than  the  inner  margin,  so 
that  each  articular  surface  looks  upward,  inward,  and  backward,  and 
together  they  constitute  a  cup-shaped  socket  into  which  the  rounded 
condyles  of  the  occipital  bone  fit,  and  upon  which  they  have  a  motion 
only  of  flexion  and  extension.  In  addition  to  the  ligaments  uniting 
the  two  bones  there  are  other  and  strong  ones  within  the  canal  which 
directly  unite  the  posterior  surface  and  apex  of  the  odontoid  process 
with  the  occipital  bone  and  thus  aid  in  opposing  the  separation  of  the 
atlas  from  the  latter. 

The  dislocation  was  formerly  deemed  quite  a  common  one,  and  to 
this  opinion  succeeded  another  more  in  harmony  with  the  anatomical 
conditions  of  the  joint  but  still  erroneous,  namely,  that  it  had  never 
occurred.  There  are,  however,  three  observations  which  positively 
demonstrate  the  occurrence  of  the  injury,  those  of   Costes,^  Bouis- 

1  Costes:  Schmidt's  Jahrbuch  vol.  Ixxix.  p.  208,  and  Malgaigne:  Des  Luxations,  p.  329.  Both 
these  accounts  are  abstracts  of  the  original  report  in  the  Journal  de  Bordeaux,  August,  1852,  and 
they  dififermaterially  from  each  other  in  some  poirtts.    In  the  account  here  given  I  have  in  the 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ATLAS.  487 

son,  ^  and  Milner.^  In  the  former  a  lad  fifteen  years  old  was  thrown  down 
and  beaten  upon  the  back  of  the  neck,  by  which  the  atlas  was  displaced 
forward  from  its  articulations  with  both  the  occipital  bone  and  the 
axis,  and  the  odontoid  process  of  the  latter  was  broken  off.  The 
patient's  head  remained  inclined  forward,  and  movements  of  the  neck 
were  difficult.  A  few  days  later  hyperesthesia  and  paralysis  of  motion 
appeared,  and  persisted,  without  treatment,  for  four  months;  then  the 
right  arm  and  leg  became  painful,  and  he  was  taken  to  the  hospital. 
The  pulse  was  feeble  and  sliglitly  quickened;  at  the  posterior  i)art  of 
the  neck  was  a  firm  swelling  projecting  a  little  on  the  right  side  which 
subsequently  proved  to  be  the  posterior  part  of  the  axis,  and  the  chin 
was  turned  to  the  left  and  so  depressed  as  almost  to  touch  the  chest. 
He  died  thirty-six  days  after  admission  to  the  hospital. 

At  the  autopsy  the  skull  was  found  dislocated  backward  from  the 
atlas,  the  articular  surfaces  being  completely  separated  on  the  right 
side,  while  on  the  left  the  anterior  and  inner  part  of  the  articular  sur- 
face of  the  condyle  was  still  in  contact  with  the  posterior  part  of  that 
of  the  atlas.  At  the  same  time  the  atlas  was  tilted  forward,  rotated 
to  the  left  in  front  and  to  the  right  behind,  and  displaced  forward  upon 
the  axis;  the  odontoid  process  Avas  broken  off  at  the  base  and  reunited 
by  fibrous  tissue  in  an  almost  horizontal  position  with  the  body  of  the 
axis.  The  posterior  arch  of  the  atlas  was  so  closely  approximated  to 
the  body  of  the  axis  that  the  interval  between  them  was  reduced  to  a 
triangular  slit  five  mm.  wide  on  the  left  side  and  two  mm.  on  the  right. 

In  the  second  and  third  cases  the  patients  were  instantly  killed. 

The  rarity  of  the  occurrence  is  readily  explained  by  the  extent  of 
the  articular  surfaces,  the  strength  of  the  ligaments,  and  the  extra- 
articular checks  to  the  movement  of  the  skull  upon  the  atlas,  the  effect 
of  which  is  to  cause  exaggerated  movements  of  lateral  or  antero- 
posterior flexion  of  the  head  to  be  transmitted  to  the  lower  vertebrae. 

Treatment.  If  treatment  is  called  for,  the  attempt  to  reduce  should 
be  made  by  steady  traction  on  the  head  combined  with  such  coaptative 
pressure  upon  it  and  the  vertebrae  as  would  be  suggested  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  displacement. 

2.  Dislocations  of  the  Atlas  (from  tlie  Axis). 

The  articulation  between  the  atlas  and  axis  is  composed  not  only  of 
the  two  lateral  articulations  as  in  the  other  vertebrse,  but  also  of  that 
between  the  odontoid  process  and  the  anterior  arch  of  the  atlas.  This 
process,  which,  genetically,  is  the  separated  body  of  the  atlas  that  has 
united  with  the  axis,  is  placed  vertically  behind  the  anterior  arch  of 
the  atlas,  and  is  firmly  held  in  place  by  the  strong  transverse  ligament 
of  the  atlas,  by  the  two  alar  or  check  ligaments  which  pass  from  the 
base  of  the  process  to  the  occipital  bone  at  the  margin  of  the  foramen 
magnum,   and  by  the  vertical  band  of   the  transverse  ligament,  the 

main  followed  the  former,  since  Malgaigne's  appears  to  have  been  taken  from  an  abstract,  not 
from  the  original  paper. 

1  Bouisson  :  Schmidt's  Jahrbuch,  vol.  Ixxxii.  p.  216,  from  Revue  Mi5d.  Chirurg.  de  Paris,  vol.  ii. 
p.  355. 

'  Milner  :  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Reports,  vol.  x.  p.  314. 


488  DISLOCATIONS. 

suspensory  ligament,  and  the  posterior  occipito-axial  ligament  which 
overlies  the  others. 

Dislocation  forward  or  backward  is  possible  only  after  fracture  of  the 
odontoid  process  or  rupture  of  the  transverse  ligament,  or  by  the  slip- 
ping of  the  process  beneath  the  ligament.  The  number  of  cases  of  the 
injury  demonstrated  by  autopsy  is  fairly  large  and  contains  examples 
of  all  three  forms.  In  most  of  the  reported  cases  the  injury  was  a 
diastasis  or  incomplete  separation  of  the  articular  surfaces,  the  atlas 
being  displaced  forward,  and  usually  so  inclined  that  its  anterior  arch 
lay  in  front  of  the  body  of  the  axis.  If,  in  this  change  of  place,  the 
odontoid  process  is  broken  off  and  accompanies  the  atlas,  the  proba- 
bility of  dangerous  compression  of  the  cord  is  somewhat  lessened. 
The  other  forms  that  have  been  demonstrated  are  dislocations  forward 
and  backward  of  both  articular  surfaces;  dislocation  forward  on  one 
side  only  (unilateral  dislocation  forward)  has  been  observed  only  clin- 
ically except  in  one  case^  in  which  there  was  also  a  similar  dislocation 
of  the  sixth  cervical .  There  is  some  reason  to  think  that  some  of  the 
obscure  reported  cases  that  ended  in  recovery  may  have  been  of  the 
kind  designated  as  "  bilateral  dislocation  in  opposite  directions,"  that 
in  which  one  articular  surface  is  displaced  forward  and  the  opposite 
one  backward,  for  experiment  shows  that  this  displacement  can  exist 
without  causing  compression  of  the  medulla.  A  case  observed  by 
Sedillot  probably  was  of  this  kind.      {Vide  infra.) 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  rarer  forms: 

Dislocation  Forward  without  Rupture  of  the  Transverse  Ligament.  A 
man^  sixty  years  old  fell  from  a  height  of  four  or  five  metres,  striking 
upon  his  head,  and  survived  ten  hours.  The  head  was  held  in  mod- 
erate dorsal  flexion,  but  was  freely  movable.  The  odontoid  process 
had  passed  under  the  transverse  ligament,  and  compressed  the  medulla. 
The  right  alar  ligament  was  torn,  the  left  untorn.  The  articular  sur- 
faces of  the  atlas  had  moved  forward  upon,  but  had  not  entirely  left, 
those  of  the  axis.     There  was  no  fracture. 

A  similar  case  is  reported  by  Orton,^  in  which  all  the  ligaments 
uniting  the  axis  to  the  atlas  and  occipital  bone  were  torn,  but  the 
transverse  ligament  was  uninjured,  and  the  odontoid  process  lay  behind 
it  compressing  the  cord.  The  injury  was  caused  by  a  blow  of  the  fist 
received  obliquely  from  behind,  on  the  angle  of  the  jaw.  Death  was 
instantaneous.    These  two  are  the  only  positive  examples  of  this  injury. 

Dislocation  Backward.  A  woman*  sixty-eight  years  of  age  fell  while 
descending  a  ladder,  struck  upon  her  forehead,  and  died  instantly.  The 
atlas  was  dislocated  backward  on  both  sides,  the  anterior  ligament 
detached,  the  capsular  ligaments  in  front  torn,  the  odontoid  process 
broken  at  its  base,  and  the  posterior  arch  of  the  atlas  broken  on  each 
side  near  the  transverse  process.  The  fracture  of  the  atlas  was  thought 
to  have  been  caused  by  its  impact  against  the  spinous  process  of  the 
axis. 

There  is  no  other  reported  case  in  which  this  variety  has  been 

1  Pranchomme  :  Journ.  des  Sc.  M6d.  de  Lille,  May  29,  1891. 

-  Journal  de  Chirurgie  de  Malgaigne,  1844,  p.  370. 

3  Orton  :  Lancet,  1876,  i.  p.  853. 

*  Melchiori,  quoted  by  Malgaigne,  loc.  cit.,  p.  333. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ATLAS.  489 

demonstrated  post-mortem,  but  Malgaigne  quotes  from  Ehrlich  a  sup- 
posed case  which  ended  in  recov^ery. 

Bilateral  Dislocation  in  Opposite  Directions.  Sedillot^  reported  the  case 
of  a  girl  who  had  suffered  for  some  time  with  stiffness  of  the  neck  and 
deviation  of  the  head  to  the  left,  although  it  could  be  turned  to  the 
right.  The  injury  had  been  caused  by  a  man  who  seized  her  by  the 
head  from  behind  and  forcibly  twisted  it  to  the  side  toward  Avhich  it 
remained  deviated.  She  died  seven  weeks  later,  with  increasing  paral- 
ysis. The  autopsy  revealed  a  ''dislocation  of  the  atlas,"  the  details 
of  which  are  not  given.  The  front  of  the  odontoid  process  was  rough, 
and  the  odontoid  ligaments  were  torn  and  partly  destroyed,  but  there 
was  no  pus.  Only  the  anterior  portion  of  the  cord  was  softened. 
Blasius  describes  this  case  as  one  of  bilateral  dislocation  in  opposite 
directions;  although  it  was  probably  such,  the  description  does  not 
prove  it. 

In  the  commoner  forms  of  diastasis  with  inclination  and  displace- 
ment of  the  atlas  forward,  and  in  complete  forward  dislocation  the  trans- 
verse ligament  is  ruptured,  or  the  odontoid  process  is  broken  off  and 
accompanies  the  atlas.  In  diastasis  all  the  ligaments  uniting  the  atlas 
to  the  axis  are  ruptured;  in  dislocation  forward  the  ligaments  of  the 
posterior  arch  are  sometimes  untorn.  In  a  case  reported  by  Phillips,^ 
the  posterior  arch  of  the  atlas  was  broken  off  on  each  side  and  remained 
in  place,  while  the  anterior  portion,  including  the  articular  surfaces  and 
carrying  with  it  the  fractured  odontoid  process,  was  displaced  so  far 
forward  and  downward  that  it  lay  entirely  in  front  of  and  became 
united  to  the  body  of  the  axis.  The  patient  survived  forty-seven 
weeks  and  died  of  hydrothorax.  The  injury  gave  rise  to  no  marked 
symptoms  except  persistent  stiffness  and  pain  in  the  neck,  which  were 
attributed  during  life  to  a  strumous  arthritis  set  up  by  the  injury. 

I  have  met  with  no  mention  of  injury  to  the  vertebral  arteries  or 
veins. 

The  spinal  cord  may  be  torn  across  in  part  or  entirely,  or  crushed, 
or  simply  compressed.  In  double  dislocation  forward,  it  is  most  likely 
to  escape  injury  if  the  odontoid  process  is  broken  off.  On  theoretical 
grounds,  it  is  also  thought  not  to  be  greatly  endangered  in  bilateral 
dislocation  in  opposite  directions. 

Cause.  The  cause  has  usually  been  a  fall  or  blow  upon  the  head. 
In  forward  dislocation,  and  in  complete  diastasis,  the  force  has  prob- 
ably always  been  so  exerted  as  to  bend  the  head  toward  the  breast;  in 
partial  diastasis,  with  rupture  of  the  ligaments  of  only  one  side,  the 
inclination  must  have  been  toward  the  opposite  side. 

Unilateral  dislocation  or  bilateral  dislocation  in  opposite  directions 
may  be  produced  by  exaggerated  rotation  of  the  head,  as  in  Sedillot's 
case. 

Symptoms.  In  simple  diastasis  without  displacement,  and  without 
injury  of  the  cord,  there  may  be  no  symptoms  except  pain  and  exag- 
gerated mobility  of  the  head,  and  even  the  latter  may  be  lacking  because 
of  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  muscles.      In  the  common  form,  dislo- 

1  S6dillot:  Gazette  M6dicale,  1842,  p.  776. 

2  Phillips  :  Med.  Chlrurg.  Trans.,  vol.  xx.  p.  78. 


490  DISLOCATIONS. 

cation  forward,  the  chin  is  depressed  upon  the  chest,,  and  a  prominence 
may  be  felt  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  below  the  occiput,  formed  by  the 
spinous  process  of  the  axis.  In  the  pharynx  may  be  felt  the  project- 
ing anterior  arch  of  the  atlas.  Pain  is  always  present,  and  usually 
severe.  Phillips's  case,  above  quoted,  is  a  marked  exception  in  respect 
of  pain,  disability,  and  deformity.  The  nervous  symptoms  vary  with 
the  degree  of  injury  to  the  cord. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis,  even  accepting  the  cases  of  doubtful  diag- 
nosis followed  by  recovery,  is  very  bad.  Death  may  be  caused  imme- 
diately, or  suddenly  at  a  later  period  by  the  shifting  of  the  loosened 
bones  and  the  consequent  compression  of  the  cord,  or  by  the  progress 
of  the  changes  induced  by  the  primary  traumatism. 

Treatment.  Immediate  reduction  of  the  displacement  and  the  pre- 
vention of  its  recurrence  are  imperative,  if  the  former  can  be  accom-^ 
plished  without  such  violence  as  would  in  itself  endanger  the  life  of 
the  patient.  Although  Phillips's  case  furnishes  proof  that  the  persist- 
ence of  the  displacement  is  not  necessarily  incompatible  with  the  pro- 
longation of  life  and  activity,  and  although  this  proof  is  supported  by 
the  survival  in  fair  condition  of  several  other  patients  who  have 
received  injuries  at  the  upper  part  of  the  cervical  spine,  the  exact 
nature  of  which  was  in  doubt,  but  which  were  followed  by  permanent 
rigidity  and  deformity  of  the  part,  yet  there  can  be  no  question,  I 
think,  of  the  propriety  of  making,  or  even  of  the  obligation  to  make, 
cautious,  well-considered  attempts  to  correct  the  displacement.  Even 
if  dangerous  pressure  upon  the  cord  has  not  at  the  time  taken  place, 
yet  it  is  certain  that  the  condition  is  full  of  the  gravest  risk.  The 
displacement  may  gradually  increase,  as  in  Dubreuil's  case,  in  which 
the  chin  did  not  touch  the  chest  until  the  tenth  or  eleventh  day,  and 
death  occurred  suddenly  on  the  seventeenth,  or  the  fatal  increment  of 
displacement  may  be  suddenly  added  by  the  relaxation  of  the  spas- 
modically contracted  muscles,  or  by  an  incautious  movement  of  the 
patient,  or  even  of  his  attendants.  This  latter  has  occurred  even  after 
complete  reduction,  as  in  the  following  case,  which  I  quote  in  some 
detail  because  it  will  illustrate  many  of  the  prominent  features  of  the 
injury. 

A  man^  fifty-eight  years  of  age  fell  down  a  hill-side  and  remained 
all  night  upon  the  ground  unconscious.  In  the  morning  he  tried  to 
walk  and  found  himself  "  unsteady."  Help  came,  and  he  was  taken 
home.  When  seen  by  the  reporter  he  was  seated  in  a  chair,  his  chin 
resting  on  his  sternum,  his  head  and  neck  rigidly  fixed.  He  was  con- 
scious, not  paralyzed,  and  complained  of  great  pain  in  the  neck.  There 
was  a  marked  prominence  at  the  back  of  the  neck  below  the  occiput. 

By  steady  traction  upon  the  sides  of  the  head  the  displacement  was 
completely  reduced  with  a  distinct  snap  and  crepitus,  and  the  pain  was 
relieved  A  week  later  he  sat  up  in  bed,  and  immediately  fell  back 
dead,  with  reproduction  of  the  original  deformity. 

The  autopsy  showed  that  the  odontoid  process  had  been  broken  off 
with  a  portion  of  the  body  of  the  axis,  and  displaced  forward  with  the 

1  Gibson :  Lancet,  1885,  ii.  p.  429. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  CERVICAL  VEBTEBRJE.  49 1 

atlas  (the  transverse  ligament  remaining  intact)  so  far  that  the  lateral 
articular  surfaces  were  almost  entirely  separated. 

As  it  seems  probable  from  the  shape  of  the  bones  that  dislocation 
forward,  except  in  cases  that  are  immediately  fatal,  is  very  rarely 
complete,  the  traction  upon  the  head  should  be  directed  somewhat 
backward,  as  well  as  upward,  so  as  to  avoid  increase  of  the  displace- 
ment, and  may  be  combined  with  counter-pressure  against  the  back 
of  the  neck. 

After  reduction  has  been  effected,  and  in  cases  of  diastasis  without 
displacement,  the  head  and  neck  must  be  made  immovable  by  suitable 
dressings. 

3.  Dislocations  of  the  Lower  Six  Cervical  Vertebrae. 

These  are  by  far  the  most  common  of  the  dislocations  of  the  spine, 
and  the  articulations  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  and  between  the  fifth 
and  sixth  are  those  most  frequently  affected.  The  varieties  that  have 
been  observed  and  verified  are  diastasis,  bilateral  dislocation  forward, 
backward,  and  in  opposite  directions,  and  unilateral  forward.  Of  these 
the  bilateral  forward  and  backward  may  be  classed  as  dislocations  by 
flexion,  and  the  bilateral  in  opposite  directions  and  the  unilateral  for- 
ward as  dislocations  by  abduction  and  rotation.  The  bilateral  forward 
and  the  unilateral  forward  are  the  most  common.  The  statistics  of 
Blasius  show  that  of  108  cases  in  which  the  exact  nature  of  the  injury 
was  ascertained  23  were  diastases,  41  bilateral  dislocations  forward,  37 
unilateral  forward,  4  bilateral  in  opposite  directions,  and  3  bilateral 
backward;  to  the  latter  may  perhaps  be  added  8  others  in  which  the 
diagnosis  was  not  entirely  beyond  question. 

The  positively  demonstrated  cases  of  bilateral  dislocation  backward 
are  two  reported  by  Porta  and  one  by  Stanley.  The  latter  of  the  fifth 
cervical,  in  which  the  upper  five  vertebrae  were  firmly  united  to  one 
another  by  bony  fusion,  has  been  quoted  above,  p.  478.  The  disloca- 
tion was  complete,  the  body  of  the  fifth  vertebra  resting  upon  the  lam- 
inae and  spinous  process  of  the  sixth.  The  injury  was  caused  by  a  fall 
backward  upon  the  head  and  back.  Theoretically,  it  may  be  assumed 
that  hyperflexion  forward  of  a  vertebra,  combined  with  direct  pressure 
backward  upon  it,  would  produce  this  form  of  dislocation,  for  by  the 
flexion  a  diastasis  would  be  effected  in  which  the  posterior  and  capsular 
ligaments  would  be  torn,  and  then  the  direct  pressure  backward  would 
rupture  the  intervertebral  disk  and  produce  the  displacement.  That 
the  injury  is  rare  notwithstanding  the  frequency  of  the  occasions  in 
which  the  head  is  bent  forcibly  forward  is  to  be  explained  by  the  nor- 
mal freedom  of  motion  in  this  direction  which  allows  the  chin  to  be 
depressed  upon  the  breast. 

Of  the  four  cases  of  bilateral  dislocation  in  opposite  directions  I  have 
been  able  to  examine  the  original  reports  in  none.  Possibly  the  one 
attributed  to  Malgaigne^  is  the  same  as  the  case  described  in  his  Luxa- 
tions, p.  371,  as  unilateral  forward;  if  so,  and  if  it  is  retained  in  the 
list,  it  would  seem  proper  also  to  add  Martelli^re's  case  mentioned  by 

1  Malgaigne:  Revue  Mi5d.  Chirurg.,'1853. 


492  DISLOCATIONS. 

Malgaigne  upon  the  following  page,  372,  as  resembling  his  own  in  the 
associated  slight  displacement  backward  of  the  opposite  inferior  articular 
process  with  rupture  of  the  capsule.  In  Malgaigne's  case  there  was 
also  chipping  of  the  lower  border  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  dislo- 
cated vertebra  on  the  side  of  the  principal  dislocation  with  the  produc- 
tion of  a  notch  in  which  the  upper  edge  of  the  underlying  process  was 
engaged.  Similar  chipping  of  the  same  border  was  found  in  Martel- 
liere's  case,  but  the  articular  process  had  passed  completely  beyond  the 
underlying  one  and  had  descended  in  front  of  it  to  a  distance  of  nearly 
one-quarter  of  an  inch.  This  form  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  unilateral 
dislocation  forward,  and  their  causes  and  mode  of  production  will, 
therefore,  be  considered  together. 

In  bilateral  dislocation  forward  both  inferior  articular  surfaces  of  the 
dislocated  vertebra  are  carried  forward  beyond  the  anterior  borders  of 
the  underlying  ones,  and  the  fixation  is  effected  either  by  the  dropping 
of  the  processes  into  the  notches  in  front  of  the  latter,  or,  if  the  move- 
ment forward  is  combined  with  anterior  flexion,  by  the  interlocking 
of  the  body  of  the  upper  vertebra  with  the  projecting  lateral  borders 
of  the  upper  surface  of  the  one  beneath.  Blasius  claims  that  this  is 
effected  almost  as  frequently  by  posterior  as  by  anterior  flexion,  an 
opinion  which  it  is  not  easy  to  accept. 

In  hyperflexion  forward  the  fulcrum  is  found  at  the  anterior  border 
of  the  body  of  the  vertebra,  and  the  first  effect  is  to  produce  diastasis 
with  rupture  of  the  posterior  and  capsular  ligaments,  and  then  as  the 
projecting  lip  on  the  inferior  anterior  border  of  the  body  of  the  upper 
vertebra  engages  in  front  of  the  upper  border  of  the  lower  one,  and 
the  force  continues  to  act,  not  simply  to  flex  but  also  to  crowd  the  head 
directly  down  toward  the  chest,  the  body  of  the  upper  vertebra  slips 
downward  and  forward,  by  which  movement  the  articular  surfaces  are 
separated  antero-posteriorly.  Then  if  the  neck  is  straightened  the 
body  of  the  vertebra  may  be  raised  to  its  original  level,  and  yet  the 
dislocation  will  be  maintained  by  the  interlocking  of  the  articular  pro- 
cesses. Under  such  circumstances  there  would  be  no  angle  in  the 
direction  of  the  neck,  but  only  a  depression  in  the  nape  and  a  projec- 
tion in  the  pharynx  corresponding  to  the  body  of  the  dislocated  vertebra. 

Occasionally  the  spinous  process  with  more  or  less  of  the  adjoining 
laminse  is  broken  off.  The  intervertebral  disk  is  always  torn,  and  so 
are  usually  the  ligamenta  flava  and  the  interspinous  ligament;  the 
longitudinal  (anterior  and  posterior)  ligaments  are  less  frequently  torn, 
often  only  stripped  off.  The  spinal  cord  may  be  compressed  or  crushed 
or  stretched,  or  may  escape  injury. 

As  the  articular  surfaces  are  in  some  cases  almost  horizontal,  it  is 
conceivable  that  the  dislocation  may  be  produced  by  direct  violence 
acting  upon  the  bone  from  behind  forward,  without  the  aid  of  either 
ventral  or  dorsal  flexion  of  the  column. 

In  unilateral  dislocation  fonvard^  (dislocation  by  abduction  and  rota- 
tion) the  articular  surface  on  one  side  of  the  upper  vertebra  is  carried 

1  Blasius  (loc.  cit.,  vol.  civ.  p.  82)  found  only  one  case  of  unilateral  dislocation  backward — of  the 
sixth  cervical — and  even  in  it  there  was  also  fracture  of  the  lamina  and  body  of  the  seventh  ver- 
tebra on  the  side  of  the  dislocation. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  CERVICAL   VERTEBRA. 


493 


upward  and  forward  until  its  posterior  edge  has  passed  the  anterior 
edge  of  the  one  with  which  it  articulates.  At  the  same  time  the  spinous 
process  moves  from  the  median  line  toward  the  side  of  the  dislocation, 
and  the  anterior  surface  of  the  body  projects  slightly  in  front  of  that 


Fig.  243. 


Dislocation  of  the  neck  by  flexion  ; 
median  section. 


Bilateral  dislocation  by  flexion  ;  fourth  cervical 
vertebra;  from  behind.    (Malgatgne.) 


of  the  underlying  one.  In  short,  the  mov^ement  is  one  of  rotation  and 
abduction  about  the  opposite  articular  surface  as  a  centre,  and  by  it  the 
vertebral  canal  is  but  slightly  narrowed,  and  but  little  or  no  violence 
is  done  to  the  cord.  The  segment  of  the  column  above  the  dislocation 
is  abducted,  and  forms  with  the  lower  part  an  angle  or  curve,  the 
convexity  of  which  is  on  the  dislocated  side. 


Complete  unilateral  dislocation  by  lotation  or  abduction. 

The  normal  motion  in  the  articulations  of  this  region  is  one  of  rota- 
tion and  abduction.  The  dislocation  is  produced  by  carrying  (he  move- 
ment beyond  its  normal  limits,  by  any  force  which  over-abducts  or 
over-rotates  the  upper .  part  of  the  column.      This  force  may  be  an 


494  DISLOCATIONS. 

external  one,  or  one  developed  by  the  muscles  attached  to  the  head. 
Of  these  dislocations  by  muscular  action,  Volker^  collected  fourteen 
more  or  less  certain  cases,  and  made  them  the  basis  of  a  careful  study 
of  the  subject.  Additional  cases  have  since  been  reported.  The  move- 
ment which  produces  the  lesions  is  a  sudden  turn  of  the  head  to  one 
side;  if  it  is  violent,  ill  regulated,  if  its  momentum  is  unchecked  by 
the  antagonistic  muscles,  it  carries  the  head  beyond  its  normal  limit, 
and  produces  the  dislocation  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  if  an  ex- 
ternal force  had  been  applied  to  the  head  to  turn  it  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. 

In  diastasis  the  lesion  consists  essentially  of  more  or  less  extensive 
rupture  of  the  ligaments.  It  is  the  same  in  its  forms,  nature,  and 
etiology  as  the  other  varieties,  with  the  exception  of  the  persistent  dis- 
placement of  the  bones  and  of  the  change  in  the  relations  of  the  artic- 
ular surfaces  to  each  other;  the  displacement  is  either  entirely  absent 
or  is  slight.  A  singular  instance  of  the  production  of  a  diastasis  by 
muscular  action  is  reported  by  Lasalle  :^  a  crazy  man,  confined  in  a 
strait-jacket  in  a  chair,  jerked  his  head  violently  backwai'd  and  for- 
Avard,  became  at  once  paralyzed,  and  died  a  few  hours  later.  The 
autopsy  disclosed  a  separation  between  the  fifth  and  sixth  cervical  ver- 
tebrae, with  rupture  of  the  posterior  ligament,  the  interspinous  muscles, 
the  ligamenta  flava,  and  the  intervertebral  disk. 

Symptoms.  Unilateral  dislocation  forward.  The  posture  of  the  head 
has  varied  so  greatly  in  the  reported  cases  that  it  is  of  no  value  as  a 
symptom.  Not  only  may  the  abduction  of  the  upper  segment  of  the 
column,  which  is  necessary  to  the  production  of  the  dislocation,  be 
almost  entirely  corrected  by  the  sinking  back  of  the  articular  process 
of  the  upper  vertebra  into  the  notch  of  the  lower  one,  but  even  if  it 
persists  it  may  be  so  far  compensated  for  or  obscured  by  flexion  in  the 
occipito-atloid  and  rotation  in  the  atlo-axoid  articulation,  that  it  will 
not  be  recognized.  The  face  is,  however,  usually  turned  away  from 
the  side  on  which  the  dislocation  has  taken  place.  A  painful  promi- 
nence, swelling,  or  rounding  can  be  recognized  on  the  dislocated  side; 
it  is  due,  according  to  Volker,  to  the  angle  created  in  the  column,  the 
slight  projection  of  the  transverse  process,  and  the  contracted  condition 
of  the  muscles.  Observers  differ  as  to  the  condition  of  the  muscles  on 
the  opposite  side,  some  reporting  them  relaxed,  others  contracted.  The 
deviation  of  the  spinous  process  of  the  dislocated  vertebra  to  the  side 
of  the  dislocation  is  a  valuable  sign  when  it  can  be  recognized,  but  the 
depth  at  which  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  spinous  processes  are  placed 
is  such  that  their  position  cannot  usually  be  determined,  and  while  that 
of  the  second  can  always  be  felt,  its  deviation  may  be  unrecognizable, 
because  the  position  of  the  underlying  ones  with  which  it  must  be  com- 
pared remains  unknown.  The  projection  of  the  body  of  the  vertebra 
in  the  pharynx  is  sometimes  recognizable  by  the  finger  introduced 
through  the  mouth. 

The  last  named  three  signs  are  diagnostic  if  fracture  can  be  excluded, 
but  as  the  last  two  are  unrecognizable  in  many  cases,  the  first,  the 

1  volker:  Deutsche  ZcitschriftflirChir.,  1876,  vol.  vi  p.  424. 
-  Lasalle  :  Gaz.  M6dicale,  1841,  p.  763. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  CERVICAL   VEBTEBRJE. 


495 


existence  of  a  painful  prominence  on  the  side  of  the  neck,  is  the  one 
upon  which  the  surgeon  will  usually  have  to  depend. 

Cases  may  occur,  as  they  have  occurred,  in  which  the  symptoms  are 
so  obscure  that  a  diagnosis  between  dislocation  by  muscular  action  and 
muscular  rheumatism  cannot  be  positively  made.  Under  such  circum- 
stances the  manipulations  that  would  reduce  a  dislocation  if  it  were  pres- 
ent should  be  carefully  made.  If  they  reduce  the  deformity  and  relieve 
the  symptoms  they  both  establish  the  diagnosis  and  cure  the  patient. 

In  bilateral  dislocation  forward  the  symptoms  vary  greatly.  The 
head  may  be  bent  far  forward  toward  the  chest  with  marked  promi- 
nence in  the  nape  of  the  neck  of  the  spinous  process  of  the  vertebra 
next  below  the  dislocated  one,  or  it  may  be  bent  backward  or  backward 
and  to  one  side,  with  marked  projection  of  the  trachea  and  perhaps 
larynx,  and  irregularity  in  the  outline  of  the  front  of  the  column  recog- 
nizable by  palpation  through  the  soft  parts.  The  head  may  be  rigidly 
fixed,  or,  more  rarely,  freely  movable.  These  differences  depend  partly 
on  the  position  of  the  dislocated 

bone,  the  presence  or  absence  of  ^^<^-  245. 

associated  fracture,  and  the  ex- 
tent of  the  injury  to  the  connect- 
ing ligaments,  partly  on  the 
direction  and  character  of  the 
dislocating  force,  and  partly  on 
the  contraction  or  relaxation  of 
the  muscles  which  control  the 
position  taken  by  the  unaffected 
joints  above  the  seat  of  injury. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  the  head 
is  bent  forward,  and  an  angle 
with  its  apex  directed  backward 
is  formed  by  the  two  segments 
above  and  below  the  dislocation. 
Attempts  to  move  the  head  and 
pressure  at  the  seat  of  injury  are 
very  painful.  In  these  patients 
the  irregularity  in  the  line  of  the 
transverse  processes  may  some- 
times be  recognized  by  the  touch; 
and  if  the  dislocation  is  not  too 
low  the  projection  of  the  body  of 
the  vertebra  may  be  felt  in  the 
pharynx. 

Of  the  symptoms  of  bilate- 
ral didoeation  backward  nothing 
positive  can  be  said.  In  most  of 
the  supposed  cases  the  head  has  been  bent  backward,  the  face  directed 
somewhat  upward,  the  tissues  of  the  front  of  the  neck  tense,  and 
respiration  and  deglutition  somewhat  interfered  with. 

In  bilateral  dinlocatiort  in  opposite  directions  it  seems  probable  that 
the  head  would  be  fixed  in  rotation,  but  possibly  not  abducted. 


Bilateral  dislocation  forward  of  the  fifth  cervical 
vertebra.     (From  a  photograph,) 


496  DISLOCATIONS. 

Paralysis,  partial  or  complete,  is  frequently  observed.  Its  immediate 
importance,  its  urgency,  as  a  symptom  varies  accordingly  as  the  dislo- 
cated joint  is  above  or  below  the  point  of  exit  of  the  phrenic  nerve. 
The  fourth  cervical  nerve,  from  which  the  phrenic  mainly  arises, 
though  it  receives  a  branch  also  from  the  third  or  fifth,  leaves  the  ver- 
tebral canal  through  the  foramen  between  the  third  and  fourth  verte- 
brae, but  leaves  the  side  of  the  cord  at  a  somewhat  higher  point.  A 
dislocation  below  the  third  cervical  vertebra  may  cause  paralysis  of  all 
the  accessory  muscles  of  respiration  that  act  by  raising  the  ribs,  but, 
the  diaphragm  continuing  to  act,  prolongation  of  life  is  possible.  If^ 
on  the  other  hand,  the  dislocation  is  at  a  higher  point,  and  the  trunks 
going  to  form  the  phrenic  nerve  are  injured  or  the  cord  is  so  compressed 
or  torn  that  the  integrity  of  the  corresponding  fibres  within  it  is  de- 
stroyed, or  they  are  all  cut  off  from  the  respiratory  centre,  then  the 
diaphragm  also,  being  no  longer  innervated  by  these  nerves,  immedi- 
ately ceases  to  act,  and  the  individual  dies  asphyxiated.  In  a  few  cases 
the  threatening  symptoms  have  been  instantly  relieved  by  changing  the 
position  of  the  patient  or  by  systematic  reduction  of  the  dislocation. 
In  all  such  threatening  cases  and  in  those  that  are  immediately  fatal 
the  injury  is,  as  a  rule,  at  one  of  the  upper  joints.  In  the  exceptions 
there  have  been  associated  injuries  to  which  the  death  is  to  be  attributed. 

If  the  paralysis  is  due  to  compression  or  laceration  of  the  cord  it 
may  be  complete  of  both  motion  and  sensation  below  the  point  of 
injury,  or  it  may  involve  only  the  motor  nerves.  It  seems  probable 
that  the  partial  paralyses  are  due  to  pressure  not  upon  the  cord  but 
upon  a  nerve  trunk  in  the  intervertebral  foramen. 

Loss  of  control  over  the  sphincters,  incontinence  of  urine,  and  the 
other  secondary  symptoms  of  injury,  to  the  cord  have  been  already 
considered. 

Prognosis.  The  mortality  of  dislocations  of  the  lower  six  cervical 
vertebrse,  excluding  cases  of  diastasis,  cannot  be  positively  determined 
because  of  the  uncertainty  of  the  diagnosis  in  cases  that  recover;  it  is 
highest,  probably  75  per  cent.,  in  bilateral  dislocation  forward,  and 
much  less  in  the  unilateral.  In  the  fatal  cases  death,  as  a  rule,  comes 
promptly,  within  the  first  week.  Suppuration  has  been  observed  about 
the  seat  of  injury  in  cases  that  remained  unreduced.  In  a  number  of 
cases  gradual  improvement  has  taken  place  iu  the  attitude  and  mobility 
of  the  neck.  In  one  reported  by  Walton^  of  supposed  dislocation  of 
the  third  cervical  forward  the  symptoms  did  not  become  marked  until 
two  months  after  the  accident  and  then  increased  to  complete  helpless- 
ness; fifteen  months  after  the  accident  they  suddenly  improved,  and  a 
month  later  recovery  was  complete. 

Treatment.  In  unilateral  dislocation  forward,  at  least  in  those  pro- 
duced by  muscular  action,  Volker  says  reduction  is  usually  easy  and 
free  from  danger.  Mention  has  been  made  above  of  the  case  in  which 
a  boy  reduced  his  own  dislocation  by  resting  his  head  and  shoulder 
against  a  wall  and  pressing  upon  the  prominence  in  the  neck  with  his 
thumb. 

1  Walton :  Boston  Medical  and  SurgicalJournal,  March  2f,  1889.  ,    "i 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  DORSAL  VERTEBRA.  497 

Simple  traction  upon  the  head,  the  counter-extension  being  made  by 
the  weight  of  the  body,  followed  by  rotation  of  the  face  toward  the 
dislocated  side  has  proved  successful,  but  it  seems  better  and  is  gener- 
ally recommended  that  the  articular  process  should  be  freed  by  still 
further  abducting  the  head  and  upper  segment  of  the  column  (away 
from  the  side  of  the  dislocation),  and  then,  when  freed,  should  be 
rotated  backward  into  place.  If  traction  is  used  it  should  be  made  in 
the  direction  of  the  long  axis  of  the  upper  segment,  not  in  that  of  the 
lower  one,  for  in  the  latter  case  the  strain  would  come  wholly  or  mainly 
upon  the  untorn  connections  on  the  nou-flislocated  side  and  rather  tend 
to  depress  the  dislocated  articular  process  still  further  in  front  of  the 
corresponding  lower  one  than  to  raise  it  above  it. 

Bilateral  dislocations  in  opposite  directions  are  to  be  classed  with  the 
preceding  as  dislocations  by  abduction  and  rotation,  and  treated  in  the 
same  manner.  Probably  the  differential  diagnosis  could  not  be  made 
clinically. 

In  bilateral  dislocations  forward  the  methods  that  have  been  employed 
with  success  have  combined  traction  upon  the  head,  either  in  the  sitting 
or  recumbent  posture,  with  pressure  upon  the  front  and  back  of  the 
neck  at  suitable  points. 

After  reduction  the  patient  should  be  kept  quiet  for  some  time,  and 
if  reproduction  of  the  dislocation  is  feared  a  retentive  dressing  should 
be  applied.  It  must  be  rigid  enough  to  prevent  any  flexion  of  the 
neck  forward  or  back,  and,  after  unilateral  dislocation,  should  include 
the  head  so  as  to  prevent  rotation.  Such  a  dressing  can  be  conveniently 
made  with  plaster  of  Paris. 

Dislocations  of  the  Dorsal  Vertebrae. 

The  cartilaginous  surfaces  of  the  articular  processes  in  the  dorsal 
region  are  placed  more  nearly  in  a  vertical  plane  than  those  of  the 
cervical  vertebrae;  the  superior  ones  look  backward  and  slightly  up- 
ward and  outward,  the  inferior  ones,  with  the  exception  of  those  of 
the  twelfth,  look  forward  and  slightly  downward  and  inward;  the  infe- 
rior ones  of  the  twelfth  are  placed  like  those  of  the  lumbar  vertebrse 
and  look  outward  and  somewhat  forward.  This  disposition  does  not 
in  itself  make  dislocation  to  either  side  by  rotation  or  direct  disloca- 
tion backward  with  fracture  difScult;  dislocation  forward  is  made  pos- 
sible by  flexion  sufficient  to  raise  the  inferior  articular  processes  of  the 
upper  vertebra?  above  the  superior  ones  of  the  lower.  Dislocation 
between  the  twelfth  dorsal  and  first  lumbar  vertebrse  seems  to  be  much 
less  favored  by  the  relations  of  the  processes,  and  yet  this  is  the  point 
in  the  combined  dorsal  and  lumbar  regions  where  dislocation  is  by  far 
most  common.  Blasius^  collected  twenty -two  cases  in  which  the  char- 
acter of  the  dislocation  was  demonstrated  by  autopsy;  of  these  one  was 
of  the  third  dorsal  vertebra,  three  of  the  fifth,  one  of  the  sixth,  one  of 
the  ninth,  three  of  the  tenth,  two  of  the  eleventh,  and  eleven  of  the 
twelfth;  of  the  doubtful  cases  ten  were  thought  to  be  of  the  twelfth, 
four  of  the  eleventh,  and  one  each  of  the  fifth,  eighth,  and  tenth. 

1  Blasius  :  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  ciii.  p.  46. 
32 


498  I>^SL  0  CA  TIONS. 

The  obser^^ed  varieties  are  the  bilateral  forward  and  backward  with 
about  equal  frequency,  the  bilateral  in  opposite  directions,  and  the 
lateral.  Of  the  latter  there  are  only  two  demonstrated  cases.  Bell  and 
Mohrenstein,  twelfth  dorsal,  and  even  in  these  Blasius  thinks  the  injury 
was  primarily  a  unilateral  dislocation  forward  or  backward,  which  was 
followed  by  bodily  lateral  displacement.  In  the  few  cases  in  which 
the  condition  of  the  adjoining  ribs  is  noted,  these  have  been  found 
sometimes  dislocated  and  sometimes  fractured  not  far  from  the  column. 
The  degree  of  injury  to  the  cord  varies  with  the  character  and  extent 
of  the  displacement.  Other  pathological  conditions  have  been  consid- 
ered above. 

Causes.  The  causes  have  been  forcible  flexion  of  the  trunk  forward 
and  the  direct  action  of  great  violence  upon  the  back  or  side  of  the 
spinal  column,  as  in  the  fall  of  a  heavy  object,  or  the  passage  of  the 
wheel  of  a  wagon  across  the  body. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  of  the  dislocation  are  found  in  recog- 
nizable changes  in  the  position  and  relations  of  the  dislocated  vertebrae, 
especially  in  the  prominence  of  its  spinous  process  or  of  the  underlying 
one,  or  in  its  lateral  displacement,  and  in  a  deviation  of  the  column 
which  creates  an  angle  at  the  seat  of  the  dislocation,  the  apex  of  which 
is  usually  directed  backward.  In  some  cases  it  is  noted  that  the  artic- 
ular processes  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  adjoining  vertebrae  form 
prominences  under  the  skin. 

Excessive  mobility  at  the  seat  of  dislocation  has  also  been  observed 
in  most  cases. 

Paralysis  appears  to  be  more  common  and  more  complete  in  the  for- 
ward than  in  the  backward  dislocations,  and  in  a  few  cases  has  disap- 
peared after  reduction. 

The  symptoms  resemble  so  closely  those  of  fracture  that  the  differ- 
ential diagnosis,  in  the  absence  of  post-mortem  examination,  can  rarely 
be  made  with  certainty.  The  failure  to  obtain  crepitus  is  no  proof  of 
the  absence  of  fracture,  and  when  present  it  may  be  due  to  the  presence 
of  an  associated  unimportant  fracture.  Reduction  and  the  absence  of 
a  tendency  to  reproduction  of  the  deformity  are  the  best  obtainable 
evidence  that  the  injury  was  a  dislocation. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis,  as  regards  either  the  preservation  of  life 
or  the  full  restoration  of  function,  is  not  favorable.  The  uncertainty 
of  the  diagnosis  in  most  cases  of  survival  and  the  comparative  few- 
ness of  the  cases  deprive  the  percentages  of  value,  and  it  can  only 
be  said  that  the  injury  seems  more  likely  to  prove  fatal  when  it  is 
situated  in  the  upper  part  of  the  region  than  when  in  the  lower,  and 
that  in  quite  a  number  of  cases  more  or  less  complete  recovery  has 
followed. 

Treatment.  Reduction,  by  extension  and  counter-extension  at  the 
hip  and  shoulders,  has  been  tried,  and  sometimes  with  success.  If  it 
is  obtained  the  patient  must  be  kept  absolutely  recumbent  for  several 
weeks,  and  preferably  with  the  trunk  enveloped  in  a  plaster-of-Paris 
dressing,  and  the  same  measures  should  be  employed  even  when  reduc- 
tion has  not  been  effected,  in  order  to  favor  the  consolidation  of  the 
bones  in  their  new  positions. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  LUMBAR   VERTEBRJE.  499 


Dislocations  of  the  Lumbar  Vertebrae. 

The  possibility  of  the  occurrence  of  pure  dislocation  of  the  lumbar 
vertebne,  which  has  been  long  in  doubt  because  of  the  close  interlock- 
ing of  the  processes  and  the  strength  of  the  ligaments,  is  proved  by 
two  cases  collected  by  Blasius  and  also,  it  may  be  said,  by  two  others 
in  which  there  was  present  associated  but  unimportant  fracture  of  some 
of  the  processes.    The  first  two  cases  are  those  of  Curling'  and  Porta.^ 

Curling  presented  a  specimen  preserved  in  the  London  Hospital 
Museum  :  the  intervertebral  disk  between  the  third  and  fourth  lumbar 
vertebrae  was  destroyed,  with  slight  splintering  of  the  edge  of  the  bone 
at  one  or  two  places;  the  body  of  the  third  projected  nearly  half  an  inch 
in  front  of  that  of  the  fourth,  and  the  articular  processes  of  the  two 
bones  were  separated  to  the  same  distance;  the  ligaments  connecting 
the  laminae  and  the  spinous  processes  were  stretched  but  not  materially 
torn. 

The  other  two  cases  are  those  of  Keig^  and  Cloquet,*  In  the  former 
a  sailor  twenty-three  years  old  was  crushed  under  a  heavy  iron  cylinder 
which  fell  across  his  back.  The  second  lumbar  vertebra  was  displaced 
backward  seven  lines,  the  upper  articular  process  of  the  third  becoming 
lodged  in  the  notch  of  the  second;  the  tip  of  the  right  lower  articular 
process  of  the  second  was  broken  off  but  not  separated  from  the  rest; 
the  left  transverse  processes  of  the  first  and  second  vertebrae  were 
broken  off  (by  muscular  action,  it  was  thought),  and  the  spinous  pro- 
cesses of  the  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  dorsal  vertebrae  and  the  left 
eleventh  and  twelfth  ribs  were  broken.  The  right  sacro-lumbalis 
muscle  was  completely  divided  transversely,  and  the  liver  and  spleen 
were  ruptured. 

In  another  case  Porta  found  at  the  autopsy  a  pure  diastasis  between 
the  third  and  fourth  lumbar  vertebrae,  the  bones  being  separated  a  few 
lines  without  lateral  or  antero-posterior  displacement,  and  all  the  liga- 
ments being  torn;  the  spinous  process  of  the  third  was  broken  at  its 
base. 

The  conditions  which  so  effectually  oppose  dislocation  with  or  with- 
out fracture  are  the  great  breadth,  thickness,  and  elasticity  of  the  inter- 
vertebral disks,  the  large  masses  of  muscle  that  lie  on  each  side  of  the 
spinous  processes,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  articular  processes  by 
which  those  of  each  upper  vertebra  are  received  between  those  of  the 
next  lower  and  are  thus  absolutely  prevented  from  moving  laterally  or 
from  being  separated  by  lateral  flexion  without  fracture  of  one  or  the 
other. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  irregularity  in  the  line  of  the  spinous 
processes,  local  pain,  disability,  and  more  or  loss  complete  paralysis  of 
the  parts  below.  As  the  spinal  cord  is  replaced  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  this  section  by  nerve  trunks,  the  cauda  equina,  which  less  com- 
pletely fill  the  canal,  the  paralysis  is  less  likely  to  be  complete  than 

1  Curling;  London  Hospital  Reports,  vol.  iii.  p.  355. 

"  Quoted  by  Blasius :  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  ciii.  p.  55. 

s  Keig:  Schmidt's  Jahrbiich,  vol.  cvii.  p.  69.    (Blasius  writes  the  name  Keli.) 

<  Blasius  :  Loc.  cit.,  from  Journal  des  DiflFormites,  vol.  i.  p.  453. 


500  DISLOCATIONS. 

when  the  injury  is  at  a  higher  point,  and  it  is  also  more  easily  recovered 
from  if  the  displacement  is  corrected. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  is  more  favorable  than  in  dislocations  of 
the  dorsal  and  cervical  regions,  presumably  because  of  the  usual  absence 
of  injury  to  the  cord,  and  the  less  extent  of  the  paralysis;  and,  while 
many  of  the  cases  have  promptly  proved  fatal,  death  has  usually  been 
due  to  associated  injuries. 

Treatment.  In  backward  dislocation  reduction  appears  not  to  have 
been  difficult;  it  has  been  obtained  by  pressure  upon  the  projecting 
spinous  process,  with  or  without  forcible  extension  of  the  column.  In 
a  case  reported  by  Harrison,'  dislocation  backward  of  the  third  lumbar 
vertebra,  reduction  was  obtained  with  the  aid  of  anaesthesia  by  exten- 
sion and  counter-extension,  combined  with  moderate  pressure  upon  the 
spinous  process,  while  the  patient  was  lying  upon  his  back.  The 
paralysis  began  to  diminish  on  the  following  day,  and  complete  recov- 
ery followed,  although  a  slight  projection  in  the  line  of  the  column 
persisted.  A  plaster-of- Paris  jacket  was  worn  for  four  and  a  half 
months. 

Possibly  the  plan  recommended  by  some  of  the  older  surgeons,  of 
combining  flexion  forward  with  traction,  would  be  necessary  or  useful 
in  some  cases.  It  could  be  effected  by  placing  the  patient  on  his  belly 
across  the  side  of  a  barrel,  or  by  raising  him  on  a  cloth  passed  under 
his  belly. 

1  Harrison  :  Lancet,  1885,  ii.  p.  114. 


CHAPTER    XXXIX. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   STERNUM. 
(See  also  Fractures  of  the  Ster^jum.) 

Under  this  title  are  included  only  dislocations  of  the  normal 
divisions  of  the  sternum  from  one  another,  not  those  of  the  sternum 
from  the  clavicles  or  from  the  cartilag;es  of  the  ribs;  they  are  those  of 
the  body  from  the  manubrium,  and  of  the  ensiform  process  from  the 
body. 

Dislocations  of  the  Body  from  the  Manubrium. 

The  manubrium,  constituting  nearly  the  upper  third  of  the  sternum, 
is  united  to  the  second  piece,  the  body,  by  a  layer  of  interposed  carti- 
lage, sometimes  hyaline,  sometimes  more  or  less  distinctly  fibrous, 
and  sometimes  containing  a  central  synovial  sac  of  variable  size.  Henle 
speaks  of  this  central  sac  as  of  rare  occurrence;  Maisonneuve  and  Brin- 
ton  found  it  in  about  two-thirds  of  the  cases  examined.  Ossification 
of  the  band  occasionally  takes  place  in  advanced  life;  the  earliest  age 
at  which  it  has  been  observed  is  thirty-four  years. 

The  second  costal  cartilage  articulates  with  both  these  segments  of  the 
sternum  at  their  junction.  Although  this  division  of  the  sternum  into 
segments  was  described  by  the  anatomists,  no  account  thereof  appears  to 
have  been  taken  by  surgeons  until,  in  1842,  Maisonneuve^  read  before 
the  Academic  de  MMecine  in  Paris  a  paper  in  which  he  called  attention 
to  the  anatomical  divisions  of  this  bone,  and  reported  two  cases  of  dislo- 
cation of  the  body  from  the  manubrium  which  had  come  under  his 
observation,  and  in  which  he  had  made  the  autopsies.  Earlier  records 
show  several  cases  which  were  doubtless  dislocations,  but  Maisonneuve 
was  the  first  to  separate  them  from  the  class  of  fractures  and  apply  this 
name  to  them. 

The  injury  is  not  a  common  one,  even  if  allowance  is  made  for  the 
probable  description  of  some  as  fractures.  Malgaigne,  in  1855,  could 
collect  only  ten  examples,  although  he  included  in  the  list  several  of 
the  older  cases  reported  as  fractures;  Ancelet^  collected  sixteen  cases 
of  all  kinds,  Brinton^  thirteen  of  dislocation  forward,  and  added  one 
of  his  own.  Gurlt,*  in  his  table  of  fractures  and  diastases  of  the  ster- 
num, has  twenty-nine  cases  classified  as  diastasis  between  the  first  and 
second  pieces,  and  three  between  the  second  and  third.  Adding  to 
these  those  quoted  by  Ancelet,  Brinton,  and  Servier,*^  the  list  is  increased 
to  more  than  forty.  Only  one  of  the  patients  was  a  woman,  and  the 
ages  ranged  from  thirteen  to  more  than  sixty-five  years. 

1  Maisonneuve:  Arch.  g6n.  de  MM.,  1843,  vol.  xiv.  p.  249. 

2  Ancelet :  Gazette  des  UOpitaux,  186.3,  p.  257. 

3  Briiiton  :  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  July,  1867,  p.  39. 
*  Gurlt :  Die  Knochenbriiche,  1862,  vol.  ii.  p  31. 

5  Servier:   Diet.  Encyclop(5dique,  1884,  art.  Sternum. 


502  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  sixteen  the  body  was  completely  dislocated  forward  and  upward 
upon  the  manubrium,  in  three  or  four  backward;  in  two  the  dislocation 
was  incomplete  forward,  and  in  one  the  two  segments  were  separated 
longitudinally. 

Causes.  The  injury  has  been  produced  by  direct  and  indirect  vio- 
lence, and,  possibly,  in  one  or  two  cases,  by  muscular  action.  Guines,^ 
in  the  report  of  a  case  of  tetanus  in  a  boy  thirteen  years  old,  states 
that  on  the  seventh  day  he  found  the  breast  elevated,  all  the  false  ribs 
displaced  and  carried  upward,  the  sternum  bent  at  the  junction  of  the 
first  and  second  pieces,  and  forming  with  the  ensiform  process  an 
eminence  three  inches  high.  The  pectoral  muscles  were  forcibly  con- 
tracted, while  those  of  the  abdomen  were,  if  not  in  their  natural  condi- 
tion, at  least  much  relaxed  (compared  with  their  previous  condition). 
On  the  eighteenth  day,  the  tetanus  having  ceased,  it  is  noted  that  the 
deformity  of  the  breast  persisted.  I  understand  this  to  mean  that 
there  was  an  angular  displacement  at  the  junction  of  the  first  and 
second  pieces,  the  apex  being  directed  backward,  and  the  ensiform 
process  distant  three  inches  further  than  usual  from  the  spine. 

In  two  other  cases  muscular  action  may  possibly  have  been  the 
determining  cause,  but  the  mode  of  production  is  obscure;  in  one  of 
them  (Drache,  quoted  by  Malgaigne),  a  young  man  fell  into  a  cellar 
with  some  falling  timber,  which  rested  upon  his  chest;  while  striving 
to  free  himself  he  felt  a  snap  in  the  region  of  the  sternum,  and  the 
dislocation  was  thought  to  have  been  then  produced.  In  the  other 
(Ancelet),  a  boy  thirteen  years  old  was  exercising  on  parallel  bars  with 
his  chest  bent  forward;  his  feet  unexpectedly  touched  the  ground,  and 
a  forward  dislocation,  complete  on  only  the  left  side,  was  produced. 

In  the  case  of  longitudinal  separation  (Aurran  and  David),  the 
patient  fell  from  a  height  of  fifty  feet,  striking  on  his  back  across  a 
low  wall  so  that  his  head  was  on  one  side  and  his  legs  on  the  other. 
He  received  at  the  same  time  a  fracture  of  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
last  two  dorsal  vertebrse,  and  the  dislocation  (a  diastasis)  seems,  there- 
fore, to  have  been  produced  by  hyper-dorsal  flexion  of  the  spinal  col- 
umn, by  which  the  two  segments  of  the  sternum  were  pulled  apart. 
The  case  seems,  to  some  extent,  to  confirm  the  theory  of  the  possibility 
of  dislocation  by  muscular  action.      The  patient  recovered. 

In  three  cases  a  forward  dislocation  was  caused  by  violence  received 
directly  upon  the  front  of  the  chest,  presumably  upon  the  manubrium. 
One  patient  (Aurran)  fell  with  a  ladder,  striking  his  chest  against  one 
of  the  rungs;  another  (Malgaigne)  fell  against  the  gunwale  of  a  boat; 
the  third  (Fremey^)  was  struck  and  killed  by  the  pole  of  a  wagon. 
Drache' s  case  also  is  sometimes  quoted  as  an  example  of  direct  vio- 
lence, and  so  perhaps  may  be  Richet's,^  in  which  some  boxes  of  soap 
fell  upon  a  man,  and  caused  a  dislocation  backward  of  the  body  upon 
the  manubrium.  Reid's  patient  was  kicked  by  a  mule;  the  direction 
of  the  displacement  is  not  mentioned. 

In  Duverney's*  patient  the  injury  was  compound,  and  was  caused 

1  Guines:  Arch.  g6n.  de  M6d.,  1829,  vol.  xix.  p.  396 

~  Fr^mey  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1868,  vol.  xiii.  p.  419. 

3  Richet,  reported  by  Siredy  in  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anat.,  1857,  vol.  ii.  p.  305. 

*  Duverney :  Maladies  des  Os,  1751,  vol.  i.  p.  235. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  STERNUM.  503 

by  the  forcible  compression  of  the  sides  of  the  chest  by  a  falling  stone, 
the  second  piece  being  thrust  forward  (see  Fractures,  p.  172);  and  in 
Pitha's'  it  was  caused  by  similar  lateral  compression  between  the  buffers 
of  two  railway  cars. 

In  most  of  the  others  the  injury  was  caused  by  a  fall  from  a  height, 
by  which  the  trunk  was  probably  bent  forcibly  forward,  as  shown  in 
several  of  them  by  associated  fracture  of  the  cervical  or  dorsal  verte- 
brae. The  mode  of  production  in  these  cases  appears  to  be  similar  to 
that  by  lateral  compression  of  the  ribs;  the  first  and  second  ribs  being 
shorter  and  more  rigid  than  the  others,  the  manubrium  remains  fixed, 
while  the  second  piece  is  pushed  forward  and  upward  by  the  other  ribs 
that  articulate  with  it  and  which  are  themselves  pressed  forward  by 
the  flexion  of  the  spine.  Servier  demonstrated  this  action  upon  the 
cadaver  by  exposing  the  sternum  and  costal  cartilages,  dividing  the 
third,  fourth,  and  fifth  of  the  latter,  and  then  throwing  the  body  back- 
ward from  a  sitting  position  so  as  to  strike  upon  its  shoulders  on  the 
floor;  the  ends  of  the  ribs  could  be  seen  to  spring  forward  and  inward. 

Pathology.  In  the  common  form,  dislocation  of  the  second  piece 
forward  and  upward,  the  bones  override,  sometimes  as  much  as  an 
inch;  the  anterior  fibrous  layer  lining  the  bone  is  torn,  the  posterior 
one  stripped  from  the  second  piece.  The  second  costal  cartilages  almost 
invariably  remain  in  contact  with  the  manubrium.  Sometimes  the 
third  and  fourth  have  been  broken. 

In  two  cases,  N^laton's  and  Ancelet's,  the  dislocation  was  incom- 
plete; in  the  latter  the  body  was  turned  about  its  longitudinal  axis 
so  that  its  left  upper  corner  was  elevated  above  the  manubrium  and 
the  second  costal  cartilage  to  a  distance  fully  equal  to  the  thickness  of 
the  bone,  while  its  right  upper  corner  remained  in  place. 

The  dislocations  of  the  body  backward  furnish  two  autopsies.  Saba- 
tier's"^  patient  was  an  elderly  man  who,  after  having  been  beaten  with 
the  fists,  was  thrown  into  a  ditch  thirty  feet  deep;  he  survived  for  a 
week.  The  body  of  the  sternum  was  displaced  2.8  cm.  upward  behind 
the  manubrium;  there  was  a  large  extravasation  of  blood  under  the 
skin  and  in  the  substance  of  the  right  lung,  which  was  extensively 
bound  down  by  old  adhesions. 

Richet's  patient,  twenty-seven  years  old,  was  thrown  down  upon  his 
back  by  some  heavy  boxes  that  fell  from  a  wagon  upon  his  chest  and 
caused  many  associated  injuries;  he  died  of  pyaemia  on  the  twenty- 
second  day.  The  body  of  the  sternum  was  displaced  backward  and 
slightly  upward  behind  the  manubrium;  the  second  costal  cartilage  on 
the  left  side  remained  attached  to  the  body,  that  of  the  right  side  was 
separated  from  both  body  and  manubrium,  and  its  end  was  free  in  an 
abscess  that  bathed  the  dislocation.  There  was  a  complete  transverse 
fracture  of  the  manubrium  half  an  inch  above  its  lower  end,  and  a 
fracture  of  the  bofly  without  displacement  at  the  level  of  the  articula- 
tion of  the  fourth  costal  cartilages.  There  was  a  compound  fracture 
of  the  left  leg,  and  simple  fractures  of  the  left  third  and  fourth  ribs 
and  of  the  right  radius. 

'  Gurlt :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  225.  2  Gurlt :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  275. 


504  DISLOCATIONS. 

The  complications  have  been  numerous  and  varied:  fractures  of  the 
cervical  and  dorsal  vertebrae,  of  the  ribs  and  costal  cartilage?,  rupture 
of  the  adherent  lung,  rupture  of  the  lungs  and  heart  (Duverney). 

Symptoms.  In  tlie  severe  cases — those  complicated  by  other  injuries, 
especially  of  the  spinal  column  and  thoracic  viscera — the  general  symp- 
toms due  to  the  dislocation  may  be  masked  or  increased  by  those  of 
the  other  lesions;  in  general  terms,  the  rational  symptoms  in  forward 
dislocation  are  more  or  less  transient  oppression  of  breathing  and  sharp 
pain  at  the  seat  of  injury,  increased  by  pressureor  by  movements  of  the 
body  or  head. 

The  neck  and  trunk  are  bent  forward,  the  lower  ribs  appear  promi- 
nent, and  the  upper  ones  depressed.  The  anterior  surface  of  the  ster- 
num presents  a  well-marked  elevation  at  the  level  of  or  just  below  the 
first  intercostal  space,  which  has  a  sharp,  well-defined  upper  margin 
rising  directly  from  the  manubrium  and  is  continuous  below  with  the 
body  of  the  sternum.  The  absence  of  the  second  costal  cartilages 
from  the  upper  corners  of  the  body  makes  it  possible  to  recognize  with 
the  finger  the  shallow,  saucer-like  depression  at  these  points  with  which 
they  articulate.  The  recognition  of  these  depressions,  or  the  distance 
of  the  upper  edge  of  the  projection  from  the  line  of  the  third  ribs, 
will  enable  the  surgeon  to  distinguish  a  dislocation  from  a  fracture  of 
the  body;  and  the  presence  of  the  second  costal  cartilages  below  the 
upper  edge  of  the  projection  will  indicate  a  fracture  of  the  manubrium. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  is  grave;  more  than  half  the  patients  have 
died  of  their  injuries,  though  doubtless  the  fatal  result  is  to  be  attrib- 
uted in  most  of  the  cases  to  the  associated  lesions.  In  the  cases  that 
have  survived  a  failure  to  effect  reduction  has  not  led  to  any  disability; 
one  of  the  patients  in  the  list  had  borne  his  unreduced  dislocation  for 
fifteen  years  without  inconvenience.  Stetter^  mentions,  without  giving 
the  reference,  a  case  observed  by  Audio  of  habitual  dislocation  back- 
ward (or  of  the  manubrium  forward)  which  recurred  every  time  the 
patient  rose  from  the  recumbent  posture  without  supporting  his  head. 

Treatment.  Reduction  is  to  be  made  by  bending  the  trunk  backward 
and  making  pressure  upon  the  projecting  piece  of  the  sternum.  The 
patient  should  be  placed  upon  his  back  on  a  firm  cushion  or  on  a  table 
with  his  head  and  shoulders  projecting  beyond  its  end,  and  then  the 
head  and  neck  should  be  drawn  backward,  and  counter-extension  made 
on  the  pelvis.  It  is  recommended  also  that  in  dislocation  backward 
the  patient  should  be  encouraged  to  make  full  inspirations. 

After  reduction  is  made  a  body  bandage,  or,  better,  a  broad  strip  of 
adhesive  plaster,  should  be  placed  around  the  chest. 

In  case  of  failure  to  reduce  by  these  or  other  simple  means,  resort 
should  not  be  had  to  cutting  operations  unless  grave  indications  due  to 
pressure  upon  the  thoracic  organs  should  exist. 

Pathological  Dislocations.  To  the  three  examples  of  this  kind  quoted 
by  Malgaigne,  Bourneville^  has  added  a  fourth.  In  two,  as  a  result  of 
frequent  pressure  against  the  sternum,  displacement  took  place  between 
the  first  two  pieces,  one  angular  with  projection  of  the  upper  edge  of 

1  Stetter :  Compend  von  den  Luxationen,  1886,  p.  19. 

-  Bourneville ;  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1869,  vol.  xiv.  p.  56. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  STERNUM.  505 

the  second  piece,  the  other  of  the  second  behind  the  first.  In  the  third 
case  the  body  of  the  sternum  and  the  connected  costal  cartilaj^es  could 
be  pressed  back  to  a  depth  of  two  inches.  In  Bourneville's  there  was 
tubercular  suppuration  at  the  junction  of  the  first  two  pieces,  with 
slight  displacement  of  the  second  forward. 

Dislocation  of  the  Ensiform  Process. 

Of  this  injury,  referred  to  by  many  of  the  earlier  writers  as  a  pos- 
sibility, only  five  or  six  more  or  less  well-authenticated  cases  are  on 
record.  They  are  those  of  Martin  and  Billard  quoted  by  Malgaigne, 
Polaillon,^  Gallez  quoted  by  Servier,  and  Hamilton.^  In  addition  may 
be  mentioned  the  reference  made  by  Malgaigne  to  an  example  observed 
in  a  new-born  child  by  Seger,  and  that  to  one  similar  to  Polaillon's 
quoted  by  Mauriceau  in  the  discussion  on  his  case. 

Polaillon's  patient  was  a  woman  thirty-five  years  old,  and  her  injury 
was  caused  apparently  by  tight  lacing  to  conceal  the  enlargement  of 
pregnancy;  all  the  others  were  males,  and  their  injuries  were  caused 
by  blows  received  upon  the  epigastrium;  their  ages  were  eighteen, 
nineteen,  twenty-eight,  and  fifty-three  years. 

No  autopsy  was  had  in  any  case,  and  in  Polaillon's  alone  is  the  con- 
dition described  with  sufficient  detail  to  make  it  reasonably  certain  that 
the  separation  took  place  at  the  line  of  union  between  the  process  and 
the  body  of  the  sternum;  the  others  may  have  been  fractures  of  the 
process  itself.  In  Polaillon's  the  base  of  the  process  was  displaced 
backward,  and  the  point  looked  directly  forward.  In  Hamilton's,  first 
seen  by  him  twelve  years  after  the  accident,  the  cartilage  was  '^  bent 
at  right  angles  with  the  sternum,  pointing  directly  toward  the  spine." 
In  the  other  cases  the  character  of  the  displacement  is  not  fully  de- 
scribed, but  apparently  the  apex  of  the  process  was  directed  backward 
in  most. 

In  three  cases  the  most  prominent  symptom  was  persistent  vomiting, 
which  in  one  (Hamilton's)  recurred  every  five  or  six  days  for  two 
years  and  then  ceased  spontaneously,  in  another  (Martin)  it  was  relieved 
by  grasping  the  process  with  the  fingers  and  drawing  it  forward  into 
place,  and  in  a  third  (Billard),  after.it  had  lasted  a  month  and  threat- 
ened to  prove  fatal,  it  was  relieved  by  drawing  the  process  forward  by 
means  of  a  blunt  hook  introduced  below  it  through  an  incision.  Polail- 
lon's patient  suffered  sharp  pain,  which  was  excited  by  the  pressure  of 
the  clothing  and  the  ingestion  of  food,  and  was  extremely  severe  during 
delivery;  reduction  was  impossible,  and  after  a  time  the  inconvenience 
caused  by  it  ceased.  In  Gallez' s  case  the  prominence  could  be  reduced 
and  reproduced  with  a  click  by  manipulation;  the  patient  suffered  only 
local  pain  and  was  promptly  cured  by  reduction  maintained  by  the 
aid  of  a  small  compress  fixed  over  the  process  by  means  of  adhesive 
plaster. 

1  Polaillon  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgle,  1877,  p.  9. 

-  Hamilton :  Fractures  atid  Dislocation.s,  6tli  ed.,  p.  182.  The  account  leaves  it  uncertain  whether 
this  was  deemed  a  fracture  or  a  dislocation. 


CHAPTER    XL. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF  THE   EIBS  AND  THE  COSTAL  CARTILAGES. 

Under  this  title  are  included  dislocation  of  the  ribs  at  their  junction 
with  the  vertebrae,  of  the  ribs  from  the  costal  cartilages,  of  the  carti- 
lages from  the  sternum,  and  of  the  cartilages  of  some  of  the  lower  ribs 
from  one  another. 

The  head  of  each  rib  articulates  with  the  bodies  of  one  or  two  ver- 
tebrse  by  a  true  joint  containing  one  or  two  synovial  sacs  and  strength- 
ened by  firm  ligaments;  the  tubercle  and  neck  of  each  rib,  except  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth,  are  united  to  the  transverse  process  of  the  corre- 
sponding vertebra  by  a  synovial  joint  and  ligaments  and  to  the  trans- 
verse process  of  the  vertebra  next  above  by  a  longer  ligament.  The 
union  between  each  rib  and  its  costal  cartilage  is  direct,  without  a 
synovial  sac,  and  is  strengthened  on  the  anterior  surface  by  the  perios- 
teum. The  articulations  between  the  costal  cartilages  and  the  sternum 
are,  with  the  exception  of  the  first,  true  synovial  joints,  sometimes 
double,  surrounded  by  a  capsule  which  is  strengthened  in  front  and 
behind  to  form  the  anterior  and  posterior  ligaments.  The  seventh  rib 
is  the  lowest  that  articulates  with  the  sternum.  The  fifth,  sixth, 
seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  costal  cartilages  are  united  with  one  another 
for  a  short  distance  on  their  contiguous  margins  by  true  synovial  joints 
formed  by  slight  projections  on  their  margins  and  surrounded  by 
capsules  which  are  strengthened  by  fibres  derived  from  the  anterior 
intercostal  aponeuroses. 

Dislocation  of  the  Head  of  the  Rib.     (Luxatio  Costo-vertebralis.) 

The  first  recorded  case,  and  that  a  doubtful  one,  was  reported  in 
1753  to  the  Academic  de  Chirurgie  by  Buttet.  His  patient  was  a 
man  fifty-five  years  old  who  had  been  run  over  by  a  wagon;  he  was  so 
fat  and  the  swelling  was  so  great  that  the  outlines  of  the  ribs  could 
not  be  traced,  and  the  diagnosis  was  based  on  the  fact  that  when  press- 
ure was  made  upon  the  front  of  the  chest  the  sixth  rib  on  the  right  side 
could  be  felt  to  move  with  a  very  distinct,  audible  click  which,  moreover, 
was  reproduced  whenever  the  patient  made  a  movement  of  his  trunk. 

The  next  case  was  Hankel's^  in  1834:  a  young  man  fell  into  a  clay- 
pit  and  received  an  injury  in  the  lower  dorsal  region;  he  died  on  the 
fifteenth  day,  and  the  autopsy  showed  fractures  of  the  eleventh  dorsal 
vertebra  and  of  the  twelfth  rib  on  each  side  and  a  dislocation  of  the 
eleventh  left  rib. 

During  the  next  following  six  years  six  additional  cases  were  re- 
ported, and  the  list  has  not  since  been  added  to  except  by  Webster's 

1  Hankel :  Gazette  Medicale,  1834,  p.  187. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  RIBS  AND  COSTAL  CARTILAGES.       507 

case,  the  date  of  occurrence  of  which  is  not  known  but  is  probably 
earlier  than  that  of  the  others,  and  by  Quint/ 

In  all  but  one  of  the  nine  (Kennedy)  the  condition  was  shown  by 
autopsy.  The  causes  were  extreme  violence,  falls  or  blows,  and  in  one 
a  gunshot  wound.  The  ribs  dislocated  were  the  first,  fourth,  sixth  or 
eighth,  and  tenth  once  each;  seventh,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  twice  each; 
in  one  case  the  right  eleventh  and  twelfth  and  tiie  left  eleventh.  In 
two  cases  the  corresponding  vertebra  was  broken,  and  in  four  one  or 
more  adjoining  ribs  were  broken.  With  one  exception  the  patients 
died  promptly  or  within  a  few  days  in  consequence  of  associated 
injuries.  The  exception  was  Webster's;  in  his  the  head  of  the  seventh 
rib  was  found  united  with  the  front  part  of  the  vertebra,  having  been 
displaced,  it  was  thought,  in  a  fall  from  a  horse  several  years  before; 
the  injury  was  thought  at  the  time  to  be  a  fracture  of  a  rib. 

Separation  of  the  Ribs  from  the  Costal  Cartilages. 
(Luxatio  Chondro-costalis.j 

Of  this  injury  there  are  only  eight,  possibly  nine,  examples  on 
record,  and  in  only  one  of  these  was  the  condition  demonstrated  by 
autospy.  Of  the  latter  our  only  knowledge  is  through  the  description 
of  the  specimen  presented  without  history  to  the  Societe  Anatomique 
by  Carbonell.^  It  showed  a  separation  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
cartilages  from  the  ribs,  with  fracture  of  the  ossified  union  between  the 
first  rib  and  the  sternum  and  of  the  fifth  costal  cartilage  one  centimetre 
from  its  outer  end;  all  five  ribs  were  also  broken  at  their  angles,  and 
the  right  bronchus  was  torn  away  from  the  trachea. 

The  other  cases  are  those  of  Chaussier,^  Bell/  Bouisson,^  De  Kimpe,^ 
Bradley,^  Stimson,^  and  B.  F.  Curtis.^ 

In  four  of  the  cases  the  patient  had  been  crushed  between  a  moving 
body  and  a  wall;  in  two  the  cause  was  a  blow  upon  the  front  of  the 
chest;  in  one  the  patient  had  long  suffered  with  a  cough  and  had 
thereby  produced  a  hernia  of  the  lung  between  the  eighth  and  ninth 
ribs  on  the  left  side  and  another  between  the  seventh  and  eighth  ribs 
on  the  right  side  at  the  level  of  their  junction  with  the  cartilages, 
accompanied  by  a  separation  between  the  seventh  rib  and  its  cartilage 
on  the  right,  and  between  the  eighth  and  its  cartilage  on  the  left;  at 
each  of  these  points  the  rib  was  movable  with  crepitus. 

In  Bell's  case  the  ends  of  all  the  ribs  on  both  sides  projected  dis- 
tinctly at  their  junction  with  the  cartilages;  in  the  others  the  displace- 
ment of  the  end  of  the  rib  was  in  some  forward,  in  some  backward. 
In  Bradley's  all  the  ribs  from  the  first  to  the  sixth  were  depressed;  in 
mine  the  second  rib  was  dislocated  backward  from  its  cartilage,  and 
the  cartilages  of  the  third  to  the  sixth  forward  from  the  sternum.  In 
Bouisson's  and  De  Kimpe's  the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs  respectively  were 
displaced  forward. 

1  Webster,  Cooper  on  Dislocations  and  Fractures,  Am.  ed..  1844,  p.  450;  Boudet,  Bull,  dela  See. 
Anatomique,  1839,  vol.  xiv.  p.  104 ;  Alcock,  2  cases,  London  Medical  Gazette,  1838-39,  vol.  ii.  pp.  586 
and  587  ;  Kennedy,  Dunne,  and  Finnecane,  Dublin  Medical  Press.  February  and  March,  1841, 
abstracts  in  Gazette  Med.,  1841,  p.  410  ;  and  Quint,  Bull,  M6d.  du  Nord,  June,  1888. 

-  Carbonell :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1865,  p.  17. 

3  Chaussier :  Bull,  de  la  Facuitu,  1814,  p.  50.  ^  Bell :  Surgical  Observations,  1817,  p.  171. 

5  Bouisson  :  Gurlt,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  ii.  p.  251.  ^  De  Kimpe :  Gaz,  des  Hop.,  1852,  p.  18. 

7  Bradley  :  Medical  Record,  August  24,  1890. 

8  Stimson  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  March  1,  1890.  »  B.  F.  Curtis  :  Ibid. 


508 


DISLOCATIONS. 


The  possible  ninth  case  is  Monteggia's,^  a  separation  of  the  second 
and  third  costal  cartilages  in  a  very  emaciated  man  seventy  years  old, 
in  consequence  of  a  violent  attack  of  coughing.  Gurlt  says:  '^  Mon- 
teggia  declares  expressly  that  it  was  not  a  fracture  of  the  cartilage  but 
a  separation  of  the  epiphysis,"  by  which,  of  course,  is  meant  a  sepa- 
ration at  the  costo-chondral  junction. 

The  injury  is  so  closely  allied  to  fracture  of  the  cartilages  that  the 
reader  is  referred  for  other  details  to  Chapter  XVI. 

Dislocation  of  the  Costal  Cartilages  from  the  Sternum. 
(Luxatio  Chondro-sternalis.) 

Of  this  injury  there  are  fourteen  recorded  examples  :  Ravaton,  Man- 
zotti,   Monteggia,  and  Bell,  quoted  by  Malgaigne;   Cooper,^  Flagg,^ 

Wolfenstein/  Gross,®  Bennett,^ 
^^*^-  246.  Mulvany,''Blodgett,twocases,^ 

Stoner,^  and  mine  quoted  in 
the  preceding  section.  There 
are,  in  addition,  one  or  two 
cases,  elsewhere  referred  to 
(see  Chapter  XXXIX.),  in 
which  separation  of  the  first 
and  second  pieces  of  the  ster- 
num has  been  accompanied  by 
complete  separation  of  the 
second  costal  cartilage  from 
the  sternum  on  one  or  both 
sides. 

In  three  of  the  cases  (Bell, 
Cooper,  and  Blodgett's  second) 
the  cause  appears  to  have  been 
traction  exerted  through  the 
pectoralis  major,  in  swinging 
dumb-bells,  kneading  bread, 
and  exercising  on  parallel 
bars;  and  possibly  the  cause 
was  the  same  in  Blodgett's 
first  case,  in  which  a  man 
while  carrying  a  piano  made 
a  violent  effort  to  prevent  its 
fall.  In  four  others  the  cause 
was  a  fall  or  compression  of 
the  chest;  in  the  remainder  it 
is  unrecorded  or  obscure. 
The  fourth  cartilage  was 
displaced  singly  forward  in  three  cases,  forward  in  combination  with 
the  fifth  and  sixth  in  two,  and  backward  with  the  second  and  third  in 

1  Gurlt;  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  ii.  p.  250.  -  Cooper:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  451. 

3  Flagg  :  Northwestern  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  August,  1871,  quoted  by  Hamilton. 
*  Wolfenstein  :  Allg.  Wiener  med.  Ztg..  1873,  No.  44,  quoted  by  Poinsot. 

5  Gross  :  Surgery,  6th  ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  1132. 

6  Bennett :  Dublin  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  1879,  i.  p.  441. 
^  Mulvany  :  Lancet,  1882,  i.  p.  432. 

8  Blodgett :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  1883,  vol.  xxxviii.  p.  34. 
3  Stoner  :  The  Physc.  and  Surg.,  October,  1889. 


Dislocation  forward  of  the  third  to  the  sixth  costal 
cartilages  from  the  sternum,  and  of  the  first  rib  back- 
ward. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  RIBS  AND  COSTAL  CARTILAGES.       509 

one;  the  third  singly,  the  fifth  and  sixth  together,  and  the  fifth,  sixtli, 
and  seventh  together  were  displaced  forward  in  two  cases,  the  third  to 
the  sixth  forward  in  one,  and  the  first  and  second  were  together  dis- 
placed forward  and  outward  once  (Blodgett's  first).  In  two  cases  it  is 
not  stated  which  cartilage  was  displaced,  nor  in  what  direction. 

The  only  autopsy  was  in  Bennett's  case.  The  patient  was  a  woman 
about  fifty-six  years  old  who  had  been  run  over  by  a  cart  and  died  a 
few  days  later  of  pleurisy  and  pneumonia.  The  third  cartilage  on 
the  left  side  was  displaced  forward,  and  there  was  also  fracture  of  the 
second,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  ribs  on  the  same  side,  and  of  the  second 
to  the  ninth  ribs  on  the  right  side.  The  perichondrium  with  the 
attached  ligaments  was  stripped  clean  off.  The  dislocation  was  reduced 
by  direct  pressure  and  did  not  recur;  it  must  be  remembered,  however, 
in  connection  with  this,  that  the  corresponding  rib  was  broken. 

In  the  single  case  of  backward  dislocation  (Mulvany)  the  patient 
was  a  boy  fifteen  years  old,  who  while  steering  a  ship  in  a  heavy  storm 
was  thrown  violently  across  the  deck  by  a  wave  and  struck  upon  the 
back  of  his  left  shoulder  against  the  deck-house.  The  second,  third, 
and  fourth  left  cartilages  were  displaced  backward  behind  the  sternum, 
and  the  sternal  end  of  the  right  clavicle  was  dislocated  forward. 
Reduction  could  be  effected  by  drawing  the  shoulders  backward,  but 
the  displacement  immediately  recurred  when  the  traction  ceased.  The 
patient  was  kept  upon  his  back  for  eighteen  days,  and  the  deformity 
was  then  found  to  have  been  much  diminished.  In  two  months  he 
was  again  at  work. 

Usually  there  has  been  sharp  local  pain  at  the  moment  of  the  acci- 
dent, subsequently  excited  by  movements  of  the  thorax  and  by  local 
pressure.    In  one  case  (Mulvany)  there  was  slight  recurrent  haemoptysis. 

The  recognition  of  the  injury  appears  always  to  have  been  easy,  by 
attention  to  the  difference  in  level  between  the  cartilage  and  the 
sternum.  In  only  one  case  (Wolfenstein)  was  it  mistaken  for  a  local 
inflammation. 

Reduction  of  the  forward  dislocations  was  in  every  case  easily  effected 
by  direct  pressure,  but  the  tendency  to  recurrence  was  marked. 

The  best  treatment  would  appear  to  be  the  application  over  the  dis- 
placed cartilage  and  around  the  chest  of  a  broad  strip  of  adhesive 
plaster,  as  in  fracture  of  a  rib,  making  special  local  pressure,  if  neces- 
sary, with  a  compress.    Possibly  a  truss  could  be  used  with  advantage. 

Dislocation  of  One  Cartilage  upon  Another. 
(Luxatio  Chondro-chondralis.) 

Malgaigne  collected  three  supposed  cases,  one  of  which  came  under 
his  own  observation.  I  think  they  should  rather  be  classed  as  dislo- 
cations of  the  ribs  from  the  cartilages,  or  of  the  cartilages  from  the 
sternum,  although  there  was  also  displacement  above  or  below  the  level 
of  the  adjoining  ribs. 

In  the  following  two  the  character  of  the  lesion  is  more  apparent: 
Hochenzegg^  presented  to  the  Gesellschaft  der  Aertze  in  Vienna  a 

1  Hochenzegg :  Medical  Press  and  Circular,  Dec.  17,  1890. 


510  DISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

patient  thirty  years  old,  who  in  a  fall  broke  the  bond  between  the 
seventh  and  eighth  ribs.  A  year  later  after  a  fit  of  coughing  he  felt 
something  give  way  in  his  side  and  found  a  wide  space  between  those 
ribs. 

Aunis^  found  in  a  man  fifty  years  old  a  dislocation  forward  of  the 
seventh  cartilage  from  the  eighth;  it  could  be  reduced  by  pressure,  but 
immediately  recurred,      Tlie  injury  was  caused  by  a  fall  backward. 

1  Aunis:  Gaz.  Hebdom.,  March  13, 1892. 


CHAPTER    XLI. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE  CLAVICLE. 

Of  874  dislocations  of  all  kinds  (Chapter  XX  VII.)  41  were  of  the 
clavicle,  nearly  5  per  cent. ;  32  of  the  acromial,  9  of  the  sternal  end. 
The  period  of  greatest  frequency  appears  to  he  between  the  thirtieth 
and  fiftieth  years,  and  during  it  the  injury  is  almost  wholly  confined 
to  males. 

The  dislocation  may  be  of  either  end  or  of  both,  and  occasionally 
both  clavicles  have  been  simultaneously  dislocated. 


1.  DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  STERNAL  END  OF  THE  CLAVICLE. 


Anatomy.  The  sternal  end  of  the  clavicle  is  so  much  larger  than 
the  clavicular  notch  of  the  sternum  wdth  which  it  articulates  that  it 
projects  above  it  and  in  front  and  behind.  The  articular  surfaces  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  an  interposed  fibro-cartilaginous  disk,  or 
meniscus,  of  varying  thickness,  which 
is  most  strongly  attached  above  to 
the  upper  edge  of  the  end  of  the  clav- 
icle, and  below  to  the  cartilage  of  the 
first  rib.  On  each  side  of  it  is  a  syn- 
ovial cavity.  The  ligaments  of  the 
joint  are  the  interclavicular,  costo- 
clavicular, and  the  anterior  and  pos- 
terior sterno-clavicular.  The  inter- 
clavicular ligament  extends  across 
from  the  upper  edge  of  the  end  of 
one  clavicle  to  that  of  the  other  above 
the  interclavicular  notch  of  the  ster- 
sending;  bundles  of  fibres  into 


num. 


Frontal  section  through  the  sterno-clavicu- 
lar joint.  A,  rhomboid  or  costo-clavicular 
ligament ;  B,  meniscus ;  C,  interclavicular 
ligament.    (Henle.) 


the  meniscus  and  to  the  top  of  the 
sternum.  The  costo-clavicular  liga- 
ment extends  from  the  sternal  end  of 

the  first  rib  upward  and  outward  to  the  under  surface  of  the  clavicle 
as  far  as  to  the  subclavian  vein,  partly  surrounding  the  inner  end  of 
the  subclavius  muscle  but  lying  mainly  behind  it.  It  sometimes 
contains  within  itself  a  bursa  of  considerable  size.  The  anterior  and 
posterior  sterno-clavicular  ligaments  cover  in  the  joint  in  front  and 
behind  respectively,  mainly  constituting  its  capsule.  They  are  short 
and  quite  tense. 

Motion  is  possible  about  all  the  axes  to  this  extent,  that  the  acromial 
end  of  the  bone  can  be  made  to  describe  a  circle  which  is  the  base  of 


512  DISLOCATIONS. 

a  cone  having  an  angle  of  60  degrees  at  its  apex  in  the  joint.  Move- 
ment of  the  shoulder  downward  and  backward  is  arrested  by  contact 
of  the  clavicle  with  the  first  rib,  and  if  then  continued  this  point  of 
contact  becomes  the  centre  of  motion,  or  the  fulcrum,  and  the  sternal 
end  of  the  clavicle  is  forced  upward  or  forward  out  of  its  place,  and 
a  dislocation  is  produced. 

Varieties.  The  dislocation  may  be  complete  or  incomplete,  upward, 
forward,  or  backward;  and  when  complete  it  is  usually  also  inward, 
toward  the  median  line,  and  when  complete  forward  or  backward  it  is 
usually  also  downward.  Possibly  a  separate  class  of  dislocations, 
upward  and  outward,  should  be  made  of  such  cases  as  those  of  Stokes 
{vide  infra)  in  which  the  cause  is  the  prolonged  action  of  the  sterno- 
cleido-mastoid  muscle  in  forced  inspiration. 

Dislocation  Forward.     (Luxatio  Claviculae  Prsesternalis.) 

This  is  the  most  common  form,  and  is  usually  caused  by  the  shoulder 
being  forced  backward,  or  backward  and  downward.  The  means  by 
which  this  movement  has  been  produced  are  various;  in  some  cases  it 
has  been  a  fall  upon  the  point  of  the  shoulder  or  upon  the  extended 
hand;  in  others,  the  pressure  of  some  heavy  object  upon  the  front  of 
the  shoulder  when  the  body  was  supine,  as  the  wheel  of  a  wagon  or  the 
foot  of  a  horse;  in  others,  again,  by  the  sudden  slipping  of  a  heavy 
burden  carried  upon  the  back  by  straps  passing  around  the  shoulders. 

Richerand'  reported  a  case  in  which  it  was  caused  in  a  girl  twenty 
years  old  by  the  forcible  approximation  of  her  elbows  behind  her  back, 
and  Boyer  another  in  which  the  shoulders  were  drawn  back  to  give  the 
patient,  a  young  girl,  a  more  erect  and  graceful  carriage.  In  like  man- 
ner, it  has  been  caused  by  the  voluntary  throwing  back  of  the  shoulders, 
as  in  soldiers  at  drill,  and  in  one  case,  Bardenheuer,"  by  the  involun- 
tary effort  made  to  prevent  the  fall  of  a  burden  carried  upon  the  head. 

In  all  of  these  the  mechanism  is  the  same:  the  outer  end  of  the 
clavicle  is  carried  back  to  the  limit  of  the  normal  range  of  motion,  and 
then  it  either  finds  a  new  centre  of  motion  at  the  point  at  which  it 
comes  into  contact  with  the  first  rib,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
inner  end  is  carried  forward  if  the  movement  is  prolonged,  or  the  ante- 
rior sterno-clavicular  ligament  is  put  upon  the  stretch  and  ruptured, 
and  then  dislocation  takes  place. 

In  a  few  cases  it  has  been  gradually  produced,  apparently  by  the 
relaxation  of  the  ligaments,  the  dislocation  then  occurring  whenever 
the  arm  was  raised  and  being  spontaneously  reduced  when  it  was  low- 
ered. In  one  of  my  cases  both  clavicles  were  thus  affected.  The  same 
condition  of  easy  recurrence  and  reduction  may  follow  a  primary  trau- 
matic dislocation. 

In  a  few  cases  the  dislocation  has  been  caused  by  the  pressure  of  an 
aneurism  at  the  root  of  the  neck,  and  in  others^  by  prolonged,  forced, 
inspiratory  efforts.  In  the  latter  (two  cases)  the  dislocations  appear  to 
have  been  primarily  upward,  and  the  displacement  forward  to  have 

1  Richerand  :  Quoted  by  Polaillon,  loc.  cit.,  p.  729. 

2  Bardenheuer :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  63,  a,  p.  57. 

3  stokes :  Dublin  Medical  Journal,  1852,  vol.  xiii.  p.  459. 


DISL  0  CA  TIONS  OF  THE  CLA  VICLE.  5 1 .3 

been  the  consequence  of  the  elongation  of  the  ligaments.  In  one  of 
them  both  clavicles  were  dislocated. 

Cazin^  reported  a  case  in  which  the  dislocation  was  gradually  pro- 
duced in  a  boy  eleven  years  old  who  was  suffering  from  Pott's  disease 
of  the  dorsal  spine  with  angular  deformity  and  retraction  of  the  corre- 
sponding side  of  the  chest,  and  who  had  the  habit  of  resting  on  his 
elbows  in  bed.  Cazin  thought  the  displacement  was  due  to  the  dimi- 
nution of  the  size  of  the  upper  part  of  the  chest,  not  to  the  force 
exerted  through  the  arm. 

Age.  According  to  Bardenheuer,  Fergusson  met  with  a  case  in  which 
the  dislocation  was  produced  in  a  child  during  delivery.  The  next 
earliest  age  at  which  the  injury  has  been  reported  is  ten  months;  it 
was  caused  by  a  fall  from  bed.^ 

Pathology.  The  dislocation  may  be  complete  or  incomplete;  in  the 
latter  form  the  posterior  portion  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  clavicle 
remains  in  contact  with  that  of  the  sternum,  and  the  anterior  sterno- 
clavicular ligament  alone  is  ruptured.  In  the  former  the  articular 
surfaces  are  completely  separated,  and  the  posterior  edge  of  that  of  the 
clavicle  rests  upon  the  front  of  the  sternum;  ordinarily  it  lies  nearer 
the  median  line  and  at  a  lower  level  than  that  of  its  normal  position,  the 
greatest  recorded  displacements  being  one  mentioned  by  Richeraud, 
three  inches  downward,  and  one  reported  by  Jousset^  in  which  the  end 
of  the  clavicle  lay  upon  the  second  rib.  This  displacement  inward  or 
downward  or  in  both  directions  must  be  secondary  and  due  to  the 
action  of  the  weight  of  the  corresponding  limb  and  to  the  contraction 
of  the  muscles  which  draw  the  shoulder  inward,  downward,  and  for- 
ward when  it  is  deprived  of  its  normal  support,  in  the  same  manner 
and  for  the  same  reasons  as  after  fracture  of  the  clavicle.  The  oppor- 
tunities for  post-mortem  examination  have  been  so  few  that  a  positive 
account  of  the  condition  of  the  ligaments  cannot  be  given.  That  the 
anterior  one  is  ruptured  cannot  be  doubted,  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
posterior  one  is  also  torn,  although  in  some  cases  it  may  only -be  torn 
from  its  attachment  and  left  continuous  with  the  stripped-up  perios- 
teum of  the  posterior  surface  of  the  clavicle.  In  one  case*  all  the  liga- 
ments except  the  anterior  steruo-clavicular  are  described  as  intact;  the 
meniscus  accompanied  the  clavicle  and  was  partly  torn.  In  a  case 
reported  by  Cloquet^  there  was  found  at  the  autopsy  instead  of  rupture 
of  the  posterior  ligament  a  fracture  that  split  the  end  of  the  clavicle 
into  two  parts,  the  posterior  one  of  which  remained  in  place,  while  the 
anterior  one,  continuous  with  the  shaft  of  the  bone  and  capped  by  the 
meniscus,  was  dislocated  forward.  AVhether  or  not  the  meniscus  habit- 
ually accompanies  the  end  of  the  clavicle  in  its  displacement  is  not 
known. 

In  the  cases  in  which  the  dislocation  has  been  slowly  produced, 
Stokes's  and  probably  He u singer' s,  the  ligaments  were  found  greatly 
elongated  but  not  torn.  Stokes  does  not  mention  the  position  of  the 
meniscus;  in  Heusinger's  case  it  accompanied  the  clavicle. 

1  Cazin  :  Gaz.  des  HOpitaux,  1874,  vol.  xlvii.  p.  507. 

-  T.  R.  Wright :  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  1880,  vol.  cii.  p.  333. 

3  Jousset :  Gaz.  Medicale,  1833,  p.  217.  *  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1879,  p.  809. 

5  Cloquet:  Nouveau  Journ.  de  Mid.,  1820,  vol.  vii.  p.  248,  quoted  by  Polaillon. 

33 


514  DISLOCATIONS. 

Occasionally  a  portion  o£  the  edge  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  ster- 
num or  of  the  clavicle  has  been  broken  off.  The  sternal  portion  of  the 
sterno-cleido-mastoid  may  be  pushed  aside  or  even  torn  away  from  the 
sternum,  perhaps  bringing  with  it  a  scale  of  bone. 

Simultaneous  dislocation  of  the  acromial  end  {vide  infra)  and  frac- 
ture of  the  shaft  have  been  observed  as  complications;  also  a  similar 
dislocation  of  the  other  clavicle. 

Symptoms.  The  principal  physical  sign  is  the  projection  of  the  end  of 
the  clavicle  and,  if  the  dislocation  is  complete,  its  displacement  toward 
the  median  line  or  downward.  If  the  dislocation  is  incomplete  the  pro- 
jection can  be  made  to  disappear  by  pressing  it  backward,  but  it  is  likely 
to  reappear  when  the  pressure  is  removed.  In  the  complete  dislocations 
the  weight  of  the  limb,  if  unsupported,  tends  to  bring  the  shoulder  nearer 
the  thorax  and  thus  forces  the  end  of  the  clavicle  inward  or  downward. 

The  other  symptoms  are  sharp  local  pain,  which  is  greatly  abated  in 
a  day  or  two,  depression  of  the  shoulder,  inclination  of  the  head  toward 
the  injured  side,  and  inability  to  raise  the  arm. 

The  local  swelling  may  be  so  great  as  to  mask  the  position  of  the 
bone,  and  if  crepitus  should  be  present  the  injury  may  be,  as  it  has 
been,  mistaken  for  fracture.  Another  error  of  diagnosis  has  been 
to  mistake  the  dislocated  end  for  an  exostosis;  and,  conversely,  hyper- 
trophy of  the  bone  has  been  mistaken  for  a  dislocation. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  is  unfavorable  as  regards  the  complete 
correction  of  the  deformity,  but  favorable  in  respect  of  the  restoration 
of  function.  In  almost  all  the  reported  cases  projection  of  the  end  of 
the  bone,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  has  persisted,  but  the  patients  have 
been  able  to  use  the  arm  freely  and  with  no  sense  of  loss  of  power, 
even  when  the  dislocation  has  remained  complete.  In  some  the  con- 
dition of  '' habitual"  or  ''recurrent^'  dislocation  ensues,  the  bone 
slipping  out  of  place  whenever  certain  movements  of  the  arm  are 
made.     The  discomfort  caused  thereby  may  be  very  great. 

Treatftient.  Reduction  is  effected  by  drawing  the  shoulder  outward 
and  slightly  backward  and  making  pressure  backward  on  the  dislocated 
end  after  it  has  been  thus  brought  opposite  the  joint.  Hamilton  failed 
in  two  cases  to  effect  reduction,  but  I  have  met  with  no  other  reported 
failures.  The  reduction  is,  however,  the  least  part  of  the  treatment; 
the  difficulty  is  to  keep  the  bone  in  its  place.  The  anatomical  rela- 
tions and  the  mode  of  production  suggest  that  this  would  best  be 
effected  by  keeping  the  shoulder  well  forward  until  after  repair  of  the 
torn  ligaments  shall  have  taken  place,  and  I  can  account  for  the  fail- 
ures under  this  plan,  which  was  recommended  by  Velpeau  and  Mal- 
gaigne,  only  by  supposing  that  it  was  not  properly  carried  out.  I  have 
found  it  easy  to  maintain  the  position  by  a  figure-of-eight  bandage  about 
both  shoulders,  the  turns  crossing  in  front  of  the  chest,  and  also  by  a 
plaster-of-Paris  dressing  about  the  shoulder  and  chest.  In  the  simpler 
cases  it  is  sufficient  to  immobilize  the  shoulder  without  drawing  it  for- 
ward, and  to  prevent  the  elevation  of  the  arm. 

Moulded  pads  of  leather,  gutta-percha,  or  plaster-of-Paris  covering 
the  end  of  the  bone  and  the  adjoining  part  and  held  in  place  by  band- 
ages about  the  chest  have  given  good  results. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  CLAVICLE.  515 

Direct  pressure,  usually  in  conjunction  with  fixation  of  the  shoulder, 
has  been  applied  in  a  great  variety  of  ways,  of  which  the  sim])lest, 
which  may  serve  also  as  the  type,  was  that  employed  by  Nelaton.  He 
used  an  ordinary  spring-truss,  placing  one  of  its  pads  uj)on  the  sternal 
end  of  the  clavicle  and  the  other  between  the  shoulder-blades,  and 
carrying  the  spring  under  the  axilla  of  the  uninjured  side.  The  objec- 
tion to  the  use  of  pressure  arises  from  the  j^robability  of  irritating  the 
skin  or  even  causing  a  slough  at  the  })oint  at  which  it  is  applied. 
Combined  with  rest  in  bed  upon  the  back  and  a  good  position  of  the 
shoulder,  the  maintenance  of  the  pressure  for  a  week  has  proved  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  recurrence  although  not  entirely  to  overcome  the  pro- 
jection. 

In  a  case  in  which  the  total  correction  of  the  displacement  Avould 
be  important,  the  patient  should  be  kept  in  bed  upon  the  back,  in  order 
to  diminish  the  tendency  to  reproduction  of  the  deformity  created  by 
the  weight  of  the  shoulder  when  the  body  is  erect,  and  frequent  inspec- 
tion should  be  made  to  determine  the  efficiency  of  the  measures. 
Should  all  other  means  fail,  digital  pressure  might  be  maintained  for 
a  week  or  ten  days.    The  dressings  should  be  worn  for  at  least  a  month. 

Habitual  or  reoun-ent  dislocation  has  been  successfully  treated  by 
prolonged  retention,  and  in  two  cases  by  myself  ^  by  periarticular  injec- 
tions of  alcohol;  a  few  drops  of  alcohol  are  injected  with  a  hypodermic 
syringe  into  the  tissues  in  front  of  and  below  the  joint,  and  the  arm 
immobilized,  or,  at  least,  elevation  of  the  elbow  is  avoided.  In  one 
case  I  made  four  injections  at  intervals  of  about  a  week;  in  the  other 
one  injection  was  sufficient. 

Dislocation  Backward.     (Luxatio  Claviculse  Retrosternalis.) 

This  dislocation,  the  second  in  order  of  frequency  of  those  of  the 
sternal  end,  may  be  produced  directly,  by  a  force  acting  from  before 
backward  upon  the  end  of  the  bone,  or  indirectly ,  by  a  force  that  presses 
the  shoulder  forward  and  inward.  The  latter  is  the  more  frequent. 
In  the  few  recorded  cases  of  dislocation  by  direct  violence  the  cause  has 
been  such  as  a  fall  of  the  patient  forward,  striking  upon  the  clavicle, 
or  the  fall  upon  him  of  a  stone,  or  the  passage  across  his  chest  of  the 
wheel  of  a  wagon.  In  the  dislocations  by  indirect  violence  the  patient 
has  commonly  been  caught  between  two  bodies,  as  the  pole  of  a  wagon 
and  a  wall,  or  the  side  of  a  railway  car  and  a  wall,  or  between  two 
boats,  in  such  a  way  that  the  shoulder  has  been  pressed  forward  and 
inward. 

The  dislocation  may  be  complete  or  incomplete. 

Pathology.  The  only  recorded  cases  in  which  direct  inspection  of 
the  parts  has  been  made  are  those  of  TyrrelP  and  Bennett.^  In  the 
former  a  compound  dislocation  was  caused  by  the  point  of  a  pickaxe 
entering  below  the  end  of  the  bone;  the  pectoralis  major  was  freely  torn 
from  its  attachment  to  the  clavicle,  but  in  all  probability  this  was 
mainly,  if  not  entirely,  the  result  of  a  direct  action  upon  it  of  the 

1  Stimson  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  November  23, 1889. 

2  Tyrrell :  St.  Thomas's  Hospital  Reports,  1836,  vol.  i.  p.  261. 

'  Bennett :  Dublin  Journ.  Med.  Sciences,  1881,  vol.  Ixxi.  p.  444. 


516  DISLOCATIONS. 

point  of  the  pickaxe,  and  is  not  a  common  feature  of  the  dislocation. 
The  meniscus  remained  attached  to  the  sternum,  and  the  end  of  the 
clavicle  could  be  easily  felt  by  the  finger  in  the  wound. 

In  the  second  case  the  patient  was  caught  between  a  wall  and  a  rail- 
way car  and  rolled  along  for  some  distance.  The  sternal  end  of  the 
right  clavicle,  accompanied  by  the  meniscus,  was  dislocated  backward, 
and  the  cartilages  of  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  ribs  of  the  same 
side  were  broken. 

The  end  of  the  bone  is  displaced  inward  or  inward  and  downward, 
and  it  is  generally  stated  that  it  lies  between  the  trachea  and  the  sterno- 
hyoid and  stern o-thyroid  muscles,  bat,  in  the  absence  of  direct  proof 
of  this,  I  am  disposed  to  believe  rather  that  it  may  lie  between  the 
latter  muscle  and  the  sternum,  and  below  the  former,  for,  it  will  be 
remembered,  the  sterno-hyoid  arises  in  part  from  the  posterior  ligament 
of  the  joint  and  frequently  from  the  clavicle  itself,  and  the  sterno-thyroid 
lies  behind  the  other  and  has  its  origin  as  low  even  as  the  cartilage  of 
the  second  rib.  Possibly  the  difference  noted  in  the  direction  of  the 
displacement,  inward  in  some,  inward  and  downward  in  others,  may 
depend  upon  varying  relations  between  the  bone  and  these  muscles. 

Whatever  the  relations  between  these  parts  may  be,  the  end  of  the 
bone  frequently  presses  upon  the  trachea  and  thereby  causes  more  or 
less  dyspnoea,  or  upon  the  oesophagus  and  causes  dysphagia.  Of  six- 
teen cases  analyzed  by  Polaillon^  dyspnoea  was  present  in  six  and  dys- 
phagia in  three.  The  venous  congestion  of  the  face  and  neck  coexisting 
with  the  dyspnoea  has  been  sometimes  attributed  to  pressure  upon  the 
brachio-cephalic  vein,  but  although  the  region  into  which  the  end  of 
the  bone  is  displaced  is  occupied  by  most  important  vessels  and  nerves, 
the  recorded  histories  do  not  show  that  they  have  ever  been  seriously 
pressed  upon. 

Beside  the  complication  of  fracture  of  the  cartilages  of  the  first  four 
ribs  in  Bennett's  case  mentioned  above,  fracture  of  the  first  rib  has  been 
noted  in  a  case  reported  by  Dr.  N.  C.  Morse  :^  the  patient  was  a  girl 
.eight  years  old  who  had  been  run  over  by  a  wagon  and  had  received  a 
dislocation  backward  of  the  sternal  end  of  the  left  clavicle,  with  frac- 
ture of  the  first  rib,  and  a  dislocation  '^outward"  (forward?)  of  the 
sternal  end  of  the  right  clavicle.  Apparently  the  wheel  had  crossed 
the  left  clavicle  and  chest.  There  was  great  dyspnoea  and  marked 
venous  congestion  of  the  face  and  neck  which  disappeared  on  reduction 
•of  the  dislocation.      The  child  recovered. 

Symptoms.  The  absence  of  the  end  of  the  clavicle  from  its  articu- 
lation, and  its  position  behind  the  sternum  are  recognizable  by  inspec- 
ition  and  palpation,  the  course  of  the  bone  can  be  seen  and  felt  to  pass 
inward  behind  its  normal  position,  and  the  cavity  and  border  of  the 
larticular  surface  of  the  sternum  can  be  traced  with  the  finger. 

The  shoulder  hangs  a  little  forward  and  nearer  the  chest;  sharp  pain, 
increased  by  movements  of  the  arm  or  head,  is  felt  at  the  seat  of  injury, 
but  usually  is  prompt  to  disappear.  These  voluntary  movements  are 
restricted  or  abolished  by  the  pain. 

1  Polaillon  :  Diet.  Encyelop6dique  des  Sciences  M6d.,  art.  Clavicule. 

2  Morse ;  Cincinnati  Medical  News,  ]877,  vol.  vi.  p.  819. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  CLAVICLE.  517 

Disturbance  of  respiration  by  compression  of  the  trachea  has  been 
noted  in  only  about  one-third  of  the  cases,  and  may  be  slight  or  so 
severe  as  to  threaten  suffocation.  Ordinarily  it  lasts  for  only  a  short 
time,  even  if  the  dislocation  remains  unreduced. 

Difficulty  in  swallowing  has  been  less  frequently  noted  than  dysp- 
noea (three  times  in  sixteen  cases). 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  is  favorable  as  regards  the  re-establishmeut 
of  function  even  if  the  dislocation  is  not  reduced,  and  reduction  is,  as 
a  rule,  easy,  and  retention  more  complete  than  after  dislocation  forward. 

Treatment.  Reduction  can  commonly  be  effected  by  drawing  the 
shoulder  outward  and  backward,  and  this  seldom  requires  more  force 
than  the  surgeon  himself  can  exert  without  assistance.  In  one  case 
Lenoir  was  obliged  to  provide  counter-extension  by  a  bandage  carried 
around  the  chest  and  made  fast  to  the  wall,  and  extension  by  another 
bandage  passed  around  the  upper  part  of  the  arm  and  drawn  upon  by 
two  assistants  while  a  third  held  the  elbow  near  the  side.  In  another 
of  his  cases  one  assistant  placed  his  knee  against  the  patient's  back  and 
drew  his  shoulder  backward  while  a  second  assistant  held  up  the  chin, 
and  Lenoir  passed  his  finger  down  behind  the  end  of  the  clavicle  and 
pressed  it  forward.  Reduction  took  place  promptly  and  with  a  distinct 
snap. 

Recurrence  of  the  displacement  should  be  opposed  by  dressings  that 
hold  the  shoulder  back  and  down.  The  necessity  exists  as  in  disloca- 
tion forward  to  examine  the  joint  frequently  with  the  object  of  promptly 
detecting  and  correcting  any  faulty  position,  and  to  wear  the  dressings 
for  several  weeks. 

Dislocation  Upward.     (Luxatio  Claviculse  Suprastemalis.) 

The  first  recorded  case  of  this  form  of  dislocation  was  published  by 
Duverney^  in  1751,  the  next  was  observed  by  Sedillot^  in  1835,  and 
Malgaigne  in  1855  could  collect  only  five  cases.  The  number  is  now 
increased  to  about  twenty,^  with  two  autopsies,  Duverney's  and  R.  W. 
Smith's.*  It  differs  from  the  forward  dislocation  in  that  the  bone  lies 
behind  the  sternal  portion  of  the  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscle  instead 
of  in  front  of  and  below  it. 

The  cause  in  the  sudden,  traumatic  cases,  is  the  forcible  depression 
of  the  shoulder  and  the  acromial  end  of  the  clavicle,  by  which  the 
upper  portion  of  the  capsule  is  torn  and  the  end  of  the  bone  lifted  out 
of  the  joint;  then,  the  force  continuing  to  act  and  pressing  the  shoulder 
inward  toward  the  chest,  the  bone  is  forced  inward  to  or  beyond  the 
median  line  and  sometimes  upward  so  far  even  as  to  rest  upon  the  ante- 
rior surface  of  the  larynx.  A  unique  mode  of  production  was  reported 
by  Dr.  A.  N.  Blodgett.'^  The  patient  was  carrying  one  end  of  a  piano 
when  the  two  men  who  were  carrying  the  other  end  allowed  it  to  fall. 
The  patient  felt  a  sharp  pain  at  the  root  of  the  neck  and  front  of  the, 

1  Duverney  :  Trait6  des  Maladies  des  Os,  vol.  i.  p.  201. 
-  Scdillot :  Contributions  a  la  Chirurgie,  1868.  vol.  i.  p.  261. 

3  For  the  bibliography  see  Malgaigne,  Hamilton,  and  Polaillon,  and  cases  here  mentioned  passim,. 
and  Evans,  Gaillard's  Medical  Journal,  March,  1888. 
*  R.  W.  Smith :  Dublin  Journal  Medical  Sciences,  1872,  vol.  ii.  p.  450. 
^  Blodgett :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  1883,  vol.  xxxviii.  p.  34. 


518 


DISLOCATIONS. 


chest,  and  it  was  found  that  the  sternal  end  of  the  right  clavicle  had 
been  dislocated  upward  and  inward  and  that  the  first  and  second  costal 
cartilages  of  the  same  side  had  been  dislocated  from  the  sternum  for- 
ward and  outward. 

In  Duverney's  case  all  the  ligaments  were  torn  and  the  periosteum 
was  stripped  from  the  end  of  the  clavicle;  probably,  therefore,  the 
meniscus  remained  attached  to  the  sternum.  In  R.  W.  Smith's  case 
(Fig.  248),  the  end  of  the  left  clavicle  rested  on  the  upper  border  of 
the  sternum  in  contact  with  the  right  sterno-cleido-mastoid,  having 
passed  behind  the  sternal  portion  of  the  left  sterno-cleido-mastoid  and 
in  front  of  the  sterno-hyoids.  The  anterior  and  posterior  sterno- 
clavicular ligaments  and  the  costo-clavicular  were  torn;  the  meniscus 
accompanied  the  clavicle.  The  subclavius  muscle  was  relaxed  but 
not  torn.  There  were  dyspnoea  and  dysphagia;  death  was  the  result  of 
associated  injuries. 

Fig.  248. 


Dislocation  upward  of  the  sternal  end  of  the  clavicle.    (R.  W.  Smith.) 

In  a  case  reported  by  Stokes,^  and  mentioned  above,  the  dislocation 
is  described  as  forward  and  upward,  and  the  joints  as  being  so  loose 
that  the  sternal  end  of  each  clavicle  could  be  easily  moved  in  any 
direction;  this  condition  had  been  produced  by  the  "  powerful  action 
of  the  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscles"  in  forced  inspiratory  efforts  pro- 
voked by  great  dyspnoea  due  to  ascites.  At  the  autopsy  the  ligaments 
were  found  to  be  greatly  stretched,  the  sterno-clavicular  being  half  as 
long  again  as  natural  and  the  rhomboids  (costo-clavicular)  also  elon- 
gated. The  relations  of  the  end  of  the  clavicle  to  the  sternal  portion 
of  the  sterno-cleido-mastoid  are  not  stated,  and  it  remains  uncertain, 
therefore,  whether  the  case  properly  belongs  in  the  class  of  dislocations 
upward. 

Symptoms.     If  the  dislocation  is  incomplete  the  only  symptoms  are 

1  stokes :  Dublin  Medical  Journal,  1852,  vol.  xiii.  p.  459. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  CLAVICLE. 


519 


the  projection  of  the  end  of  the  clavicle  above  its  normal  position,  and 
the  local  pain  increased  by  movements  of  the  head  and  arms. 

The  symptoms  of  the  complete  form  are  the  recognizable  displace- 
ment of  the  end  of  the  bone  inward  and  upward  to  a  variable  distance, 
its  position  behind  the  sternal  portion  of  the  sterno-cleido-mastoid  of 
the  same  side,  the  depression  of  the  shoulder,  and  its  approximation  to 
the  chest;  local  pain,  sometimes  dyspnoea  and  dysphagia,  inhibition  of 
voluntary  movements  of  the  shoulder  and  head  because  of  pain,  and 
sometimes  the  impossibility  of  passively  raising  the  shoulder.  The 
emptiness  of  the  clavicular  notch  of  the  sternum  may  perhaps  be 
recognized  by  palpation. 

Treatment.  Reduction  is  effected  by  drawing  the  shoulder  outward 
and  making  direct  pressure  downward  and  outward  upon  the  sternal 
end  of  the  clavicle,  but  here  again  the  chief  difficulty  is  to  prevent 
recurrence.  Fixation  of  the  shoulder  by  various  dressings  and  the 
recumbent  position  to  avoid  the  depression  of  the  shoulder  by  the 
action  of  gravity  have  been  employed  with  a  fair  measure  of  success, 
the  resulting  deformity  being  slight  and  the  re-establishment  of  the 
usefulness  of  the  arm  complete. 

2.  DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ACROMIAL  END  OF  THE  CLAVICLE. 

Anatomy.  The  outer  portion  of  the  clavicle  is  attached  to  the  scap- 
ula at  two  points,  namely :  at  its  extreme  end  to  the  inner  margin  of  the 
acromion  by  the  acromio-clavicular  joint,  and  further  inward  to  the 
coracoid  process  by  the  coraco-clavicular  ligaments.     The  articular 


Ligaments  uniting  the  clavicle  to  the  scapula.    (Henle.) 

surfaces  forming  the  acromio-clavicular  joint  are  flat  and  oval  in  shape, 
the  long  axis  being  antero-posterior,  and  the  upper  edge  of  the  end  of 
the  clavicle  rises  to  a  variable  distance  above  the  upper  surface  of  the 
acromion.  The  articular  surfaces  are  separated  in  part,  sometimes  com- 
pletely, by  an  interposed  meniscus  of  fibrous  tissue,  wedge-shaped,  with 
its  base  directed  upward  and  attached  to  the  broad,  strong  superior 
ligament ;  the  inferior  ligament,  usually  much  thinner  than  the  superior, 
closes  the  joint  below.     The  coraco-clavicular  ligament  is  composed  of 


520  I^ISL  0  CA  TI0N8. 

two  portions,  the  postero-internal,  or  conoid,  and  the  antero-external, 
or  trapezoid,  as  shown  in  Fig.  249. 

Complete  dislocation  involves  not  only  the  rupture  of  the  ligaments 
of  the  joint  proper,  but  also  of  the  conoid  and  trapezoid  ligaments  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent.  The  joint  allow^s  motion  in  all  directions,  the 
extreme  ranges  being,  according  to  Albert,  20  to  30  degrees  in  the 
horizontal  plane,  and  60  to  70  degrees  in  the  vertical  plane;  and  its 
dislocation  appears  to  be  commonly  effected,  not  by  extending  the 
movement  of  the  joint  beyond  its  normal  limit,  but  by  direct  displace- 
ment of  one  bone  upon  the  other. 

The  clavicle  may  be  displaced  upward,  supra-acromial  dislocation, 
or  downward  and  backward,  subacromial  dislocation,  or  downward  and 
forward  under  the  coracoid  process,  subcoracoid  dislocation.  The  first 
is  by  far  the  most  common;  the  last  has  been  observed  by  only  two 
surgeons,  one  of  whom  reported  five  cases. 

Some  authors,  following  the  system  of  nomenclature  used  in  the  dis- 
location of  other  joints,  term  them  dislocations  of  the  scapula,  but  the 
innovation  has  not  made  its  way. 

Supra-acromial  Dislocation.     (Luxatio  Claviculae  Supra-acromialis.) 

The  dislocation  may  be  complete  or  incomplete;  in  the  latter  the 
clavicle  is  displaced  upward  to  a  distance  equal  or  nearly  equal  to  the 
vertical  diameter  of  its  articular  surface;  in  the  former  the  separation 
of  the  articular  surface  is  complete,  and  there  is  an  additional  displace- 
ment outward  over  the  acromion,  or  outward  and  backward,  or  to  a 
greater  distance  upward. 

The  cause  is  usually  a  blow  received  upon  the  point  of  the  shoulder 
and  directed  downward  with  an  inclination  inward,  forward,  or  back- 
ward. The  vigorous  contraction  of  the  trapezius  by  which  the  clavicle 
is  prevented  from  accompanying  the  acromion  in  its  descent  seems  to 
be  an  important,  perhaps  an  essential,  factor  in  the  production  of  the 
lesiou,  the  alternative  factor  that  has  been  suggested,  arrest  of  the 
descent  of  the  clavicle  by  contact  with  the  first  rib,  seems  more  likely 
to  produce  dislocation  of  the  sternal  end  of  the  bone.  Malgaigne 
found  in  one  case  marked  tenderness  of  the  trapezius  and  sterno-cleido- 
mastoid  muscles,  and  cites  the  fact  as  proof  of  the  correctness  of  this 
theory  in  some  cases.  The  absence  of  such  tenderness  in  other  cases 
should  not,  1  think,  be  deemed  opposing  evidence,  for  an  efficient  con- 
traction not  followed  by  injury  of  the  muscle  is  easily  conceivable.  A 
case  reported  by  Cloquet,^and  sometimes  quoted  as  an  example  of  dis- 
location by  direct  violence,  seems  clearly  to  indicate  the  important  part 
played  by  muscular  action  :  A  man  who  was  carrying  a  beam  upon  his 
shoulder  made  a  violent  effort  to  keep  it  from  falling,  and  found  he  had 
thereby  produced  a  dislocation.  Polaillon^  mentions  a  case  communi- 
cated to  him  by  I)olbeau  in  which  the  dislocation  was  caused  in  a 
woman  by  an  attempt  to  strike  a  child.  In  such  a  case  the  momen- 
tum of  the  arm  presumably  takes  the  place  of  the  more  common  exter- 
nal violence  received  upon  the  shoulder. 

1  Cloquet :  Journal  Hebdomadaire,  1830,  vol.  vii.  p.  400,  quoted  by  Malgaigne. 
-  Polaillon  :  Diet.  Encyclopedique  des  Sciences  Medicales,  art.  Clavicule,  p.  719. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  CLAVICLE.  521 

A  unique  case  in  which  the  dislocation  was  caused  bv  a  Vjlow  received 
upon  the  clavicle  from  below  upward  is  reported  by  Hamilton;'  a  bolt 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter  was  driven  through  the  skin  on 
the  anterior  margin  of  the  left  axilla,  breaking  the  first  rib,  severing 
the  coraco-clavicular  ligaments,  and  forcing  the  clavicle  upward  from 
its  place. 

Malgaigne, reports  a  case  in  which  the  injury  was  apparently  caused 
by  a  fall  upon  the  elbow. 

Pathology.  Our  knowledge  of  the  character  and  extent  of  the  lacera- 
tion of  the  ligaments  is  derived  almost  exclusively  from  clinical  obser- 
vation and  experiments  upon  the  cadaver,  for  there  is  only  one  reported 
autopsy  and  one  museum  specimen.  The  autopsy,  reported  by  Mal- 
gaigne/  was  in  a  case  of  incomplete  dislocation  and  showed  that  the 
articular  facet  of  the  clavicle  had  not  entirely  left  that  of  the  acromion; 
the  superior  acromio-clavicular  ligament  was  only  stretched  or  perhaps 
slightly  torn  away  from  the  acromion,  and  the  inferior  one  was  in  great 
part  ruptured;  on  the  other  hand,  the  strong  coraco-clavicular  ligaments 
were  torn  entirely  across.  There  were  other  and  more  serious  asso- 
ciated lesions,  among  them  a  comminuted  fracture  of  the  body  of  the 
scapula  on  the  same  side. 

The  museum  specimen  is  one  preserved  in  St.  Thomas'  Hospital  and 
mentioned  by  Sir  Astley  Cooper.^  The  patient  was  a  man  sixty  years 
old  who  died  of  pulmonary  disease  seven  weeks  after  the  receipt  of  the 
injury.  The  account  from  which  I  quote  states  only  that  "  the  clavicle 
was  found  dislocated  at  its  capsular  extremity,  and  projected  consider- 
ably over  the  spine  of  that  bone.  The  acromion  process,  just  where 
the  clavicle  is  united  with  it,  was  broken  off."  Malgaigne,  quoting 
apparently  from  some  other  account,  says  that  Cooper  supposed  that 
all  the  acromial  and  coracoid  ligaments  must  have  been  torn.  He  adds 
that  this  is  what  experiments  upon  the  cadaver  indicate,  but  that  it  is 
melancholy  to  limit  one's  self  to  conjectures  when  the  specimen  itself 
can  be  examined.  Cooper*  gives  also  a  drawing  of  a  specimen  of  an 
old  dislocation  in  which  the  conoid  ligament  had  become  ossified. 

Experiments  upon  the  cadaver  have  yielded  results  that  are  not 
entirely  in  accord  with  one  another.  Malgaigne  found  that  even  in 
incomplete  dislocation  the  capsular  ligaments  were  completely,  and  the 
coraco-clavicular  partly,  ruptured.  Bouisson  and  Ader  found  that 
incomplete  dislocation  could  be  easily  produced  after  division  of  the 
acromial  ligaments  and  without  injury  to  the  coracoidal,  and  even  to 
such  a  degree  that  the  articular  surfaces  were  completely  separated 
vertically  from  each  other.  Ader  further  showed  that  after  division 
of  the  coracoidal  ligaments  a  complete  dislocation  could  be  readily  pro- 
duced and  the  end  of  the  clavicle  removed  to  a  distance  of  two  centi- 
metres from  the  acromion. 

Instead  of  rupture  of  the  upper  acromial  ligament  avulsion  of  the 
edge  of  bone  on  either  side  to  which  it  is  attached  has  frequently  been 
observed  clinically. 

Among  the  recorded  complications  are  simultaneous  dislocation  of 

1  Hamilton  :  Fractures  and  Dislocations,  1880,  p.  626.  2  Malgaigne :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  432. 

2  Cooper :  Dislocations  and  Fractures,  Am.  ed.,  p.  313.  *  Cooper :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  312. 


522  DISLOCATIONS. 

the  sternal  end  of  the  same  or  of  the  other  clavicle,  fracture  of  the 
clavicle,  of  a  rib,  of  the  acromion  process,  of  the  coracoid  process,  of 
the  body  of  the  scapula,  and  subcoracoid  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  of 
the  same  side. 

Symptoms.  In  incomplete  dislocation  the  deformity  consists  in  the 
elevation  of  the  end  of  the  clavicle  to  a  variable  distance,  not  equal, 
however,  to  the  thickness  of  the  bone,  above  the  level  of, the  acromion, 
and  this  elevation  can  be  readily  recognized  by  palpation,  and  can  gen- 
erally be  reduced  by  moderate  pressure. 

In  complete  dislocation  the  elevation  is  greater,  more  than  an  inch 
in  some  cases,  or  is  combined  with  displacement  outward,  backward,  or 
forward.  The  displacement  outward  is,  of  course,  due  to  the  approxi- 
mation of  the  acromion  to  the  chest,  and  it  is  greater  when  the  displace- 
ment upward  is  also  greater.  The  explanation  of  this  latter  fact  is  to 
be  found  in  the  presumably  more  extensive  laceration  of  the  ligaments 
uniting  the  two  bones.  The  greatest  recorded  overriding  is  one  inch 
(Malgaigne).  It  has  been  observed  also  in  some  cases  that  the  scapula 
has  undergone  a  movement  of  rotation  by  which  its  inferior  angle  is 
carried  backward  toward  the  spine,  and  the  anterior,  upper  angle  is 
lowered,  a  movement  that  is  attributed  to  the  action  of  the  weight  of 
the  arm;  it  has  been  observed  only  when  the  displacement  inward  of 
the  scapnla  toward  the  chest  has  not  been  very  marked. 

There  is  local  pain,  more  or  less  severe,  persisting  for  a  variable 
length  of  time,  and  increased  by  pressure  or  by  voluntary  movements 
of  the  shoulder  or  arm.  The  interference  with  voluntary  movements 
of  the  limb  varies  greatly,  and  corresponds  measurably  with  the  pain 
and  the  extent  of  the  displacement;  some  patients  are  completely  dis- 
abled, others  can  use  the  limb  quite  freely. 

Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis  is  to  be  made  by  recognition  of  the  changed 
relations  of  the  bones,  which  is  easy  in  the  cases  of  complete  disloca- 
tion, and  seldom  difficult  in  the  incomplete.  In  the  latter  case  the 
local  pain  and  the  possibility  of  reducing  the  bony  prominence  by 
pressure,  together  with  its  immediate  reappearance  on  the  removal  of 
the  pressure,  will  give  the  clew.  The  question  will  then  lie  between 
dislocation  and  fracture  of  the  clavicle  near  its  end,  and  this  may  be 
answered  by  tracing  the  outline  of  the  acromion,  comparative  meas- 
urements of  the  two  clavicles,  and  consideration  of  the  presence  or 
absence  of  signs  peculiar  to  fracture.  The  error  of  mistaking  the 
injury  for  a  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  appears  to  have  been  quite  fre- 
quently made,  although  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  it  could  occur 
if  the  examination  were  thorough. 

A  contusion  or  sprain  of  a  joint  in  which  the  end  of  the  clavicle 
stood  abnormally  high  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  a  recent  disloca- 
tion, since  it  would  present  all  the  signs  of  one,  but  the  error  would  be 
of  slight  importance  and  would  cause  no  harm  to  the  patient  beyond 
perhaps  a  needlessly  prolonged  confinement  of  the  limb. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  in  the  incomplete  form  is  good,  for  although 
the  displacement  has  commonly  persisted  in  some  measure,  the  result- 
ing deformity  is  slight.  In  the  complete  form,  with  marked  displace- 
ment, there  is,  in  addition  to  the  common  imperfect  maintenance  of  the 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  CLAVICLE. 


523 


reduction,  an  occasional  inability  even  to  make  reduction.  In  such  cases 
the  functions  of  the  limb  may  or  may  not  be  seriously  interfered  with 
by  the  persistence  of  the  dispkicement.  In  the  unique  case  quoted 
above  from  Hamilton,  of  dislocation  by  direct  violence  acting  upon 
the  clavicle  from  below  upward,  the  bone  remained  displaced  two 
inches  upward,  yet  the  patient  could  use  the  arm  as  freely  and  strongly 
as  the  other.  On  the  other  hand,  in  one  of  Bardeuheuer's  cases,  in 
which  the  displacement  persisted,  the  diminution  of  function  was  con- 
siderable, and  the  power  of  abduction  of  the  arm  was  almost  entirely 
lost. 

Treatment.     In  most  cases  the  reduction  of  even  the  complete  dislo- 
•cation  can  be  readily  effected  by  drawing  the  shoulder  either  directly 


Fig.  250. 


Fig.  251. 


Complete  supra-acromial  dislocation  of 
the  clavicle. 


Dressing  for  supra-acromial  dislocation 
of  the  clavicle. 


upward,  or  upward  and  outward,  or  backward,  and  at  the  same  time 
pressing  the  clavicle  directly  toward  its  place.  The  only  opposition 
that  ordinarily  needs  to  be  overcome  is  the  weight  of  the  arm,  which 
draws  the  shoulder  downward  and  inward  away  from  the  clavicle;  with 
this  is  sometimes  associated  reflex  contraction  of  the  trapezius  which 
draws  the  clavicle  upward,  and  in  a  few  cases  the  end  of  the  clavicle 


524  DISLOCATIONS. 

has  passed  through  the  trapezius  in  such  a  way  that  the  interposed 
fibres  of  tlie  muscle  have  constituted  a  serious  obstacle  to  reduction. 
To  overcome  this  latter  obstacle  Moutet^  subcutaneously  divided  the 
clavicular  portion  of  the  trapezius  close  to  its  insertion  and  was  then 
able  easily  to  restore  the  bone  to  its  place  and  keep  it  there  by  a  bandage. 

In  making  reduction  the  arm  should  be  kept  near  the  side  and 
pressed  directly  upward.  If  the  shoulder  needs  to  be  drawn  directly 
outward,  this  should  be  done  by  the  hand  introduced  into  the  axilla, 
or  by  grasping  the  upper  part  of  the  arm  with  both  hands,  the  fingers 
resting  in  the  axilla,  and  the  thumbs  against  the  projecting  articular 
surface  of  the  clavicle,  and  thus  drawing  the  shoulder  outward  while 
pressing  the  clavicle  inward.  In  short,  reduction  is  to  be  effected  by 
forcing  the  acromion  upward,  and  outward,  forward,  or  backward,  as 
may  be  indicated  by  the  direction  of  the  displacement,  by  pressure 
exerted  upon  it  through  the  humerus,  and  by  pressing  the  end  of  the 
clavicle  in  the  opposite  direction. 

The  maintenance  of  the  reduction  was  long  deemed  difficult.  The 
weight  of  the  arm  constantly  tends  to  reproduce  the  deformity,  to  carry 
the  shoulder  downward  away  from  the  clavicle,  and  the  dressings  em- 
ployed did  not  satisfactorily  oppose  it.  The  following  simple  dressing 
which  I  devised  about  1883  has  proved  perfectly  satisfactory:  A  strip 
of  stout  adhesive  plaster,  about  four  feet  long  and  two  or  three  inches 
wide,  is  placed  with  its  centre  under  the  elbow,  the  forearm  being  flexed 
at  or  within  a  right  angle,  and  its  two  ends  are  carried  upward,  one 
behind,  the  other  in  front,  of  the  arm,  and  crossed  over  the  shoulder 
at  a  point  corresponding  to  the  end  of  the  clavicle,  and  then  fastened 
to  the  front  and  back  of  the  chest  respectively.  While  applying  it, 
the  surgeon  must  press  the  elbow  firmly  upward  and  the  clavicle  down- 
ward. The  eye  or  finger  can  readily  detect  through  the  plaster  any 
recurrence  of  the  displacement.  The  dressing  should  be  worn  for  three 
or  four  weeks. 

Wiring  of  the  clavicle  to  the  acromion  has  been  practised  a  few  times 
in  recent  and  in  old  dislocations,  but  is  not  generally  approved;  if  any- 
thing of  the  kind  should  need  to  be  done  periosteal  catgut  sutures 
would  probably  be  sufficient. 

Subacromial  Dislocation.     (Luxatio  Claviculse  Subacromialis.) 

This  dislocation,  of  which  Petit  was  the  first  to  make  mention,  is  so 
rare  that  Polaillon  in  1875  could  collect  only  six  recorded  cases;  the 
list  has  now  been  increased  to  eleven,  or,  adding  Newman's,  to  twelve. 
The  first  four,  quoted  by  Malgaigne, ^  are  those  of  Melle,  1765,  Fleury, 
1816,  Tournel,  1837,  and  Baraduc,  1842.  The  others  are  two  observed 
and  reported  by  Morel-La vallee,^  one  by  Dr.  W.  B.  Chase,"*  one  by 
Dr.  J.  X.  Allen,^  and  one  by  Dr.  Eaton.^     Konig^  refers  to  one  that 

I  Moutet  :  Montpellier  Medical,  1861,  vol.  vi.  p.  219,  quoted  by  Polaillon. 

-  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  cit..  pp.  448  and  452.    Malgaigne  tninks  Baraduc's  case  was  probably  patho- 
logical, not  traumatic.    The  reference  he  gives  for  Tournel  is  incorrect ;  it  should  be  1837,  not  1847. 
=i  Morel-Lavallt>e  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1863,  vol.  iv.  pp.  51  and  240. 
4  Chase :  Transactions  of  the  Medical  Society  of  the  State  of  New  York,  1879,  p.  170. 
6  Allen  :  New  York  Medical  Record,  1881,  vol.  xix.  p.  206. 
6  Eaton  :  New  York  Medical  Record,  1881,  vol.  xx.  p.  734. 
'  Konig :  Speciel.  Chirurgie,  3d  ed.,  vol.  ill.  p.  16. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  CLAVICLE.  525 

was  observed  in  Bruns's  clinic,  and  Bardenheuer'  makes  several  quo- 
tations from  the  report  of  a  case  by  Uhde,  but  does  not  give  tlie  i-efer- 
ence.  He  speaks  also  of  a  case  reported  by  Gosselin  in  ]881,  Ijut  I 
have  been  able  to  find  only  a  clinical  lecture  by  Gosselin  on  a  case  of 
supra-acromial  dislocation.  To  these  may  be  added  ]^e\vman's  case  of 
simultaneous  dislocation  of  both  ends  of  the  clavicle  {vide  infra),  in 
which  the  outer  end  was  displaced  under  the  acromion. 

The  cause  in  these  cases  was  direct  violence  exerted  upon  the  upper 
surface  of  the  outer  end  of  the  clavicle  (Melle,  Tournel,  Chase),  a  fall 
upon  the  shoulder  in  three  (Fleury,  Morel-La vallee's  two),  and  mus- 
cular effort  in  one  (Allen). 

Allen's  patient,  a  stout  muscular  girl  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  old, 
was  chopping  wood,  and  at  the  moment  she  had  the  axe  raised  and 
was  about  to  deliver  the  blow  she  felt  a  sharp  pain  in  the  shoulder,  and 
the  arm  fell  powerless  by  her  side.  When  seen  six  weeks  later  there 
was  a  marked  depression  on  the  top  of  the  shoulder,  much  discoloration 
in  the  axilla,  and  the  inferior  angle  of  the  scapula  was  thrown  promi- 
nently outward.  There  was  complete  loss  of  voluntary  motion  of  the 
arm  and  hand,  and  numbness  of  the  entire  limb.  Reduction  was  easily 
effected  by  drawing  the  shoulder  outward  and  backward. 

Chase's  case  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  direct  violence.  A  boy 
eight  years  old  fell  head  foremost  from  a  height  of  twelve  or  fifteen 
feet  and  struck  with  the  top  of  his  shoulder  against  the  rung  of  a 
ladder.  An  ecchymosis  over  the  outer  end  of  the  clavicle  showed  where 
the  blow  had  been  received.  The  acromial  end  of  the  clavicle  was  dis- 
located downward  and  somewhat  backward,  the  shoulder  was  flattened 
in  front,  and  the  acromion  very  prominent.  Reduction,  under  anaes- 
thesia, was  easily  effected  by  drawing  the  shoulder  outward  and  back- 
ward and  pressing  the  clavicle  in  the  opposite  direction.  There  was 
no  tendency  to  recurrence  and  recovery  was  complete  in  five  weeks. 

Of  the  other  two  cases  of  direct  violence,  in  one,  Tournel's,  the 
injury  was  caused  by  a  horse  stepping  upon  the  front  of  the  patient's 
shoulder  as  he  lay  on  the  ground;  in  the  other,  Melle' s,  the  patient, 
who  was  a  Russian  soldier,  attributed  the  injury  to  an  effort  he  made 
when  six  years  old  to  lift,  with  the  aid  of  another  child,  a  keg  of  water 
by  means  of  a  stick  resting  on  his  shoulder.  He  had  also  a  dislocation 
of  the  corresponding  humerus,  which  apparently  had  been  received  at 
the  same  time. 

The  autopsy  in  Melle' s  case  and  experiments  upon  the  cadaver  show 
that  the  ligaments  uniting  the  acromion  and  coracoid  to  the  clavicle  are 
completely  ruptured;  the  clinical  facts  show  that  the  displacement  of 
the  clavicle  is  not  only  downward  and  outward  under  the  acromion  but 
also  backward  to  an  extent  that  leaves  the  acromial  facet  entirely  in 
front  of  the  clavicle.  This  is  perhaps  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  head  of  the  humerus,  which  opposes  a  displacement  directly 
downward;  and  the  same  anatomical  fact  may  explain  the  coincident 
dislocation  of  the  humerus  in  Melle' s  case.  The  only  other  compli- 
cations observed  clinically  are  fracture  of  the  surgical  neck  of  the 

1  Bardenheur  :  Deutsche  Chir.,  Lief.  63,  a,  p.  89. 


526  DISLOCATIONS. 

humerus,  in  one  of  Morel-La  valine's  cases,  and  simultaneous  disloca- 
tion o£  the  other  end  of  the  clavicle,  in  Newman's;  but  in  experiments 
upon  the  cadaver  fractures  of  the  acromion  and  of  the  clavicle  have 
b^en  met  with.   In  Melle's  case  the  meniscus  accompanied  the  clavicle. 

Symptoms.  The  pain  at  the  moment  of  the  accident  may  be  severe 
or  slight;  voluntary  movements  of  the  arm  are  interfered  with,  and 
sometimes  entirely  prevented;  and  in  one  case  (Allen)  there  was  per- 
sistent numbness  and  tingling  in  the  arm  and  hand,  indicative  of  press- 
ure upon  the  brachial  plexus.  The  appearance  of  the  shoulder  is 
affected  by  the  sinking  of  the  acromion  and  rising  of  the  inferior  angle 
of  the  scapula  so  that  it  appears  to  be  inclined  forward.  The  shoulder 
is  usually  approximated  to  the  side  of  the  head,  but  may  be  on  a  lower 
level  than  the  opposite  one  because  of  the  inclination  of  the  trunk. 
The  central  portion  of  the  clavicle  may  be  depressed  below  the  level 
of  the  soft  parts  in  front  and  behind;  its  sternal  end  projects  sharply 
forward,  and  its  acromial  end  can  be  traced  with  the  finger  to  the  point 
where  it  engages  under  the  acromion  a  little  behind  the  articular  facet 
on  the  latter.  An  obscure  part  of  the  description  of  Tournel's  case, 
which  Malgaigne  found  unintelligible,  may  possibly  mean  that  the  end 
of  the  clavicle  passed  entirely  under  the  acromion  and  projected  beyond 
its  outer  border.^  The  outline  of  the  acromion  and  its  empty  articular 
facet  can  usually  be  traced  with  the  finger,  although  in  one  case  the 
swelling  of  the  soft  parts  was  very  great. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  is  favorable;  in  Tournel's  case,  in  which 
the  reduction  was  not  attempted,  the  patient  had  good  use  of  the  limb; 
in  Melle's  a  new  joint  had  formed  between  the  under  surface  of  the 
acromion  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  clavicle,  but  the  effect  upon  the 
functions  of  the  limb  cannot  be  known,  for  a  dislocation  of  the  humerus 
coexisted.  In  all  the  other  cases  in  which  the  record  is  sufficiently 
complete  reduction  was  easily  effected  with  or  without  the  aid  of  anaes- 
thesia, and  there  appears  to  have  been  no  tendency  to  recurrence  except 
in  one  case. 

Treatment.  Reduction  is  made  by  drawing  the  shoulder  outward 
and  backward,  the  arm  being  kept  parallel  to  the  trunk,  and  counter- 
extension  being  made  by  a  bandage  passed  around  the  chest.  Tournel 
reduced  by  placing  his  knee  between  the  shoulders  and  drawing  them 
forcibly  backward;  and  Uhde  did  likewise,  at  the  same  time  pressing 
the  clavicle  forward.  The  arm  should  be  fixed  against  the  trunk,  and 
the  forearm  supported  by  a  body  bandage  and  sling. 

Subcoracoid  Dislocation.     (Luxatio  Claviculse  Subcoracoidea.) 

Authority  for  the  belief  that  this  singular  displacement  has  ever  been 
clinically  observed  rests  upon  the  statements  of  two  surgeons,  Godemer 
and  Pinjon.  Godemer  met  with  his  first  case  in  1833  and  with  four 
others  in  the  following  five  years;  Pinjon  reported  a  sixth  example  in 
1842.  Godemer' s  cases  were  reported  to  the  Society  m^dicale  d'Indre 
et  Loire,  and  published  in  1843;  his  paper  was  republished  by  Mal- 

1  The  phrase  is :  "  L'epaule  pr^sentait  en  outre  deux  saillies  ;  une  interne  et  supSrieure  formfie 
par  I'acromion,  I'autre  externe  et  inf6rieure  formde  par  I'extr6mit6  externe  de  la  clavicule." 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  CLAVICLE.  527 

gaigne  iu  the  Revue  medico-chirurgicale  de  Paris,  1847,  vol.  ii.  p.  155; 
Pinjon's  case  was  reported  in  the  Journal  de  Medecine  de  Lyon,  1842, 
vol.  iii.  p.  58.  All  systematic  writers  upon  the  subject  are  agreed  iu 
viewing  these  reports  with  much  suspicion  because  of  their  remarkable 
similarity  in  detail  and  the  great  anatomical  obstacles  to  the  production 
and  maintenance  of  the  displacement. 

The  features,  as  described  by  Malgaigne,  are  as  follows  :  Four  of  the 
six  patients  were  between  the  ages  of  sixty-seven  and  seventy-one 
years;  the  remaining  two  are  described  as  adults.  In  every  case  the 
injury  was  caused  by  a  fall  upon  the  shoulder. 

The  symptoms  were  :  1st.  More  or  less  pain  and  a  large  ecchymosis 
in  the  coraco-acromial  region. 

2d.  A  depression  at  the  normal  position  of  the  clavicle;  this  bone 
was  found  to  be  inclined  downward  and  outward,  and  its  acromial  end 
lodged  in  the  axilla, 

3d.  The  coracoid  and  acromion  processes  were  prominent  under  the 
skin. 

4th.  The  shoulder  was  inclined  downward  and  forward;  the  inferior 
angle  and  posterior  border  of  the  scapula  formed  posteriorly  a  projec- 
tion which  disappeared  when  the  shoulder  was  carried  upward  and 
backward. 

5th.  The  arm  was  dependent,  but  could  be  easily  moved  in  any 
direction  except  upward  and  inward. 

Godemer  made  reduction  in  three  cases  by  grasping  the  clavicle  and 
disengaging  it  from  under  the  coracoid  process,  while  an  assistant 
forced  the  shoulder  backward  and  outward.  In  his  other  two  cases 
the  swelling  prevented  reduction  before  the  third  day.  Pinjon  failed 
to  reduce  because  of  the  fainting  of  his  assistant;  the  next  day  reduc- 
tion was  made  by  a  ''bone-setter." 


3.  SIMULTANEOUS  DISLOCATION  OF  BOTH  ENDS  OF  THE  CLAV- 
ICLE.    (TOTAL  DISLOCATION.) 

The  recorded  cases  of  this  injury  are  now  ten  in  number:  Riche- 
rand,^  Morel-Lavall6e,^  North, ^  Hutchinson,^  Haynes,^  Col,^  Lund/ 
Pombeau,^  Hulke,^  and  Newman.^"  Seven  of  the  patients  were  males, 
three  females;  their  ages  ranged  between  thirteen  and  forty  years. 

Haynes's  patient,  a  weakly  girl,  thirteen  years  old,  produced  the 
dislocation  while  washing  the  back  of  her  neck  with  the  hand  of  the 
affected  side;  there  was  a  complete  dislocation  forward  of  the  sternal 
end,  and  an  incomplete  dislocation  upward  of  the  acromial  end  of  the 
clavicle. 

In  all  the  other  cases  the  cause  was  external  violence,  usually  very 

1  Rieherand  :  Arch.  gt^n.  de  M6d.,  1831,  vol.  xxv.  p.  108;  reported  by  Porral,  his  interne. 

2  Morel-Lavallee  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1859,  vol.  ix.  p.  361. 

3  North  :  New  York  Medical  Record,  1866,  vol.  i.  p.  79. 

4  Hutchinson  :  Lancet,  1871,  vol.  ii.  p.  711. 

5  Haynes :  British  Medical  Journal,  1872,  vol.  i.  p.  99. 
8  Col :  Gaz.  des  HOpitaux,  1872,  p.  893. 

7  Lund  :  British  Medical  Journal,  1874,  vol.  i.  p.  106. 

8  Rombeau  :  Bull.  G6n.  de  Th(3rapeutique,  1874,  vol.  Ixssvi.  p.  537,  reported  by  Gros. 

^  Hulke :  Lancet,  1855,  vol.  ii.  p.  245.  lo  Newman  ;  Ibid.,  p.  524. 


528  DISLOCATIONS. 

great.  The  mode  of  production  is  varied,  the  most  common  form 
appearing  to  be  force  exerted  along  the  transverse  axis  of  the  shoul- 
ders, and  pressing  forward  the  one  that  suffers  the  injury. 

The  sternal  end  has  always  been  displaced  forward,  and  the  only 
additional  change  in  position  that  is  mentioned  is,  in  Morel-La vallee' s 
case,  that  it  had  moved  rather  upward  than  downward.  The  acromial 
end  was  displaced  backward  in  four  cases  (once  to  a  distance  of  three 
finger-breadths),  upward  and  outward  twice,  and  once  each  forward 
and  outward,  downward,  and  incompletely  upward.  In  Hutchinson's 
case  the  displacement  is  not  described  further  than  by  saying  that 
'^  when  pressure  was  made  on  either  end  of  the  dislocated  bone  the 
other  extremity  rose  perceptibly  and  protruded  the  skin." 

In  six  of  the  cases  reduction  of  both  dislocations  was  effected  and 
maintained,  and  the  patients  recovered  with  good  use  of  the  limb  and 
but  little  deformity;  in  some  of  them  mention  is  made  of  more  or  less 
persistent  projection  of  the  sternal  end.  Morel-La  valine  was  unable 
to  reduce  the  dislocation  of  the  outer  end,  although  he  made  direct 
traction  upon  it  with  a  hook  introduced  through  the  skin.  Lund,  with 
the  aid  of  chloroform,  could  only  bring  the  bone  *'  into  fair  position;" 
at  the  end  of  ten  days  the  ends  were  found  "  fixed  in  their  new  posi- 
tion." In  Newman's  case,  dislocation  of  the  outer  end  under  the 
acromion,  reduction  was  impossible;  the  patient  withdrew  from  the 
hospital  on  the  tenth  day,  and  remained  disabled.  The  result  in 
Hutchinson's  case  is  not  recorded. 

Treatment.  Reduction  has  usually  been  effected  by  drawing  the 
shoulder  outward  and  backward,  and  recurrence  prevented  by  immo- 
bilizing it  in  a  suitable  position  by  means  similar  to  those  employed 
when  the  dislocation  involves  either  end  alone.  Hulke  used  a  gutta- 
percha splint  moulded  over  the  clavicle  and  bound  down  by  a  bandage 
that  crossed  the  shoulders  and  was  made  fast  in  front  and  behind  to 
another  about  the  waist. 


CHAPTER    XLIL 


DISLOCATIONS   OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


ANTERIOR  DISLOCATIONS. 


Fig.  252. 


Acr. 


Anatomy.  The  bony  surfaces  which  enter  directly  into  the  cooaposi- 
tion  of  the  shoulder-joint  are  the  glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula  and  the 
postero-internal  half  of  the  globular  head  of  the  humerus.  The  former 
is  of  irregularly  oval  shape,  the  more  pointed  end  above  and  the  broader 
one  below,  and  is  slightly  concave,  being  deepened  by  a  low  fibro-car- 
tilaginous  rim,  which  is  continuous  throughout  with  the  capsule,  and 
above  also  with  the  tendon  of  the  long  head  of  the  biceps.  The  cavity 
looks  outward  and  forward  in  a  direction  nearly  midway  between  the 
sagittal  and  frontal  planes  of  the  body  when  the  scapula  occupies  its 
usual  position. 

Against  this  shallow  surface  the  head  of  the  humerus  rests,  being 
held  in  place  by  atmospheric  pressure,  the  tonicity  of  the  muscles,  and 
the  tension  of  thickened  portions  of  the 
capsule  in  different  positions  of  the  limb. 
On  the  outer  and  anterior  portion  of  the 
upper  end  of  the  humerus  is  the  greater 
tuberosity,  bounded  internally  in  front  by 
the  bicipital  groove  which  lodges  the  long 
tendon  of  the  biceps  and  has  upon  its  inner 
side  the  lesser  tuberosity.  Between  the 
upper  margins  of  these  tuberosities  and  the 
globular  articular  head  is  a  shallow  groove, 
the  anatomical  neck. 

The  acromion  and  coracoid  processes  lie 
above,  the  one  on  the  outer,  the  other  on 
the  inner  side,  and  the  strong  coraco-acro- 
mial  ligament  uniting  them  closes  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  joint,  but  is  separated 
from  its  cavity,  as  are  also  the  two  pro- 
cesses, by  the  interposed  capsule  and  the 
tendon  of  the  supraspinatus. 

The  surface  of  the  head  of  the  humerus 
that  is  covered  by  articular  cartilage  is 
about  one-third  of  that  of  a  sphere,  and  the 
axis  passing  through  its  centre  meets  the  long  axis  of  the  shaft  at  an 
angle  of  about  130  degrees.  The  linear  extent  of  the  glenoid  fossa, 
including  its  fibro-cartilaginous  rim,  on  a  horizontal  section  is  less  than 
half  as  great  as  that  of  the  head  of  the  humerus;  on  a  vertical  section 
it  is  about  two-thirds  as  great.     The  head  of  the  humerus,  therefore, 

34 


S  ■'  F 

To  show  the  relations  of  the  hu- 
merus and  scapula,  x,  the  lesser 
tuberosity.  F  and  :S  indicate  the 
frontal  and  sagittal  planes. 


530 


DISLOCATIONS. 


simply  rests  against  the  fossa,  and  its  displacement  is  but  slightly 
opposed  by  the  conditions  of  contact  between  them.  The  muscles 
which  are  most  closely  associated  with  the  joint  are  the  supraspinatus, 
infraspinatus,  and  teres  minor,  attached  to  the  greater  tuberosity  in 
the  order  named  from  above  downward,  and  the  subscapularis,  which, 
arising  from  almost  the  whole  of  the  costal  surface  of  the  scapula, 
passes  forward,  broadly  cov^ering  the  inner  side  of  the  joint  with  its 
fibres  and  tendon,  to  be  attached  to  the  lesser  tuberosity.  The  tendon 
of  the  long  head  of  the  biceps,  starting  from  the  upper  margin  of  the 
glenoid  cavity,  passes  upward  and  forward  over  the  head  of  the 
humerus  and  then  down  the  bicipital  groove,  carrying  with  it  a  pro- 
longation of  the  synovial  membrane  of  the  joint.  The  deltoid,  from 
its  broad  origin  on  the  spine  of  the  scapula,  the  acromion,  and  the 
clavicle,  covers  the  joint  superficially  on  its  posterior,  external,  and 
anterior  aspects;  and  the  coraco-brachialis,  the  short  head  of  the 
biceps,  and  the  great  vessels  and  nerves  lie  upon  its  inner  side. 


Fig.  253. 


Horizontal  section  tlirough.  tlie  shoulder-joint ;  A,  in  inward,  B,  in  outward  rotation.    (Henle.) 


The  capsule  extends  from  the  free  margin  of  the  fibro-cartilaginous 
rim  of  the  glenoid  fossa,  or  from  the  surface  of  bone  immediately  out- 
side of  it,  to  the  anatomical  neck  of  the  humerus.  At  the  upper  part 
its  scapular  insertion  is  at  the  base  of  the  coracoid  process  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  glenoid  fossa  by  the  tendon  of  the  biceps;  on  the  pos- 
terior and  inner  portion  of  the  humerus  it  extends  somewhat  beyond 
the  cartilaginous  surface  along  the  projection  upon  which  the  head  rests. 
Between  the  two  tuberosities  the  synovial  membrane  by  which  it  is 
lined  is  prolonged  down  the  bicipital  groove,  and  is  reflected  over  the 
long  tendon  of  the  biceps.  The  capsule  is  reinforced  at  some  points 
by  thickenings  of  itself  which  are  known  as  ligaments  and  by  tendons 
of  the  scapular  muscles;  on  the  inner  side  it  is  perforated  by  the  tendon 
of  the  subscapularis,  and  there  shows  a  gap  tlirough  which  the  cavity 
of  the  joint  communicates  with  the  subscapular  bursa,  a  large  pouch 
lying  against  the  inner  side  of  the  neck  of  the  scapula  and  the  root  of 
the  coracoid  process,  between  them  and  the  upper  part  of  the  subscap- 
ularis. This  opening  lies  just  in  front  of  the  upper  part  of  the  ante- 
rior (inner)  margin  of  the  glenoid  fossa,  has  the  form  of  a  slit  or 
crescent,  and  is  usually  large  enough  to  admit  the  end  of  the  finger. 
When  the  synovial  membrane  has  been  dissected  away  the  gap  has  the 
form  shown  in  Figs.  254  and  255,  and  is  partly  occupied  by  the  tendon 
of   the  subscapularis.     The  portion  of   the  capsule  which  forms  its 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


531 


upper  margin  is  called  the  gleno-hutneral  ligament,  or,  to  adopt  the 
subdivisions  described  by  Farabeuf,^  the  supragleno-suprahumeral,  the 
portion  forming  the  lower  margin  is  the  supragleno-pnehumeral,  and 
the  portion  immediately  below  the  latter  is  the  prtegleno-subhumeral. 


Fig.  254. 


Hupraijleno-snprahumeral 
ligament 


bscapularis 


Latis.  dorsi. 
The  shoulder-joint  from  in  front.    (Farabeuf.) 


These  different  portions  are  shown  in  Figs.  254  and  255,  which  are 
copied  from  Farabeuf  s  paper.  Of  them  the  one  that  forms  the  lower 
margin  of  the  gap,  the  supragleno-prsehumeral,  is  often  of  slight 
strength  and  underlies  and  is  intimately  adherent  to  the  tendon  of  the 
subscapularis. 


Fig.  255 


The  interior  of  the  shoulder-joint  from  behind.  (Faeabeuf.)  1,  coraco-humeral  ligament ;  2, 
supragleno-suprahumeral  ligament ;  3,  supragleno-preehumeral  ligaments  ;  4,  prsegleno-subhumeral 
ligament ;  5,  upper  edge  of  the  tendon  of  the  subscapularis ;  5',  its  lower  part ;  B,  biceps  tendon  ; 
C,  coracoid  ;  E,  spine  of  scajmla  ;  G,  glenoid  fossa. 

The  coraco-humeral  ligament  is  a  strong  wide  band  extending  from 
the  root  and  outer  border  of  the  coracoid  process  over  the  top  of  the  joint 


1  Farabeuf :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgie,  1885,  p.  391. 


532  DISLOCATIONS. 

to  the  neck  of  the  humerus  above  the  greater  tuberosity,  and  is  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  capsule  and  the  tendon  of  the  supraspiuatus. 
It  is  thought  to  play  an  important  part  in  determining  the  position 
taken  by  tlie  limb  when  dislocated,  and  the  manoeuvres  by  which  the 
dislocation  can  be  reduced. 

The  tendon  of  the  supraspiuatus  passes  between  the  acromion  and 
the  head  of  the  humerus  and  is  attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
greater  tuberosity;  it  is  blended  with  the  capsule  and  is  separated  from 
the  acromion  by  a  bursa.  Below  it  come  the  tendons  of  the  infraspi- 
natus and  teres  minor,  passing  to  the  lower  and  middle  facets  respec- 
tively and  also  blended  with  the  capsule. 

Outside  the  capsule  is  a  loose  layer  of  connective  tissue  which  sepa- 
rates it  and  the  tendons  of  the  outer  muscles  from  the  inner  surface  of 
the  deltoid;  within  this  layer  is  the  subdeltoid  bursa,  extending  under 
the  acromion,  which  deserves  special  mention  because  of  the  fact  that 
when  the  tendon  of  the  supraspinatus  is  torn  away  from  its  attach- 
ment in  a  dislocation  and  retracts  under  the  acromion  with  the  adherent 
capsule,  this  bursa  is  thereby  opened  and  placed  in  communication  with 
the  cavity  of  the  joint,  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  capsule  is  thus 
greatly  lengthened.  The  influence  of  these  new  conditions  in  favoring 
recurrence  of  dislocation  has  been  discussed  in  Chapter  XXIX. 

With  respect  to  the  nerves  and  arteries  it  is  only  necessary  to  speak 
of  the  circumflex  nerve  and  of  the  arterial  branches  which  pass  out- 
ward, the  two  circumflex  and  the  subscapular.  The  circumflex  nerve 
winds  around  behind  the  neck  of  the  humerus  to  its  outer  side,  to  be 
distributed  to  the  deltoid  muscle  and  to  the  integument  covering  it. 
It  may  be  so  injured  in  a  dislocation  that  the  deltoid  will  be  paralyzed, 
perhaps  permanently. 

The  circumflex  and  subscapular  arteries  pass  outward  to  be  distrib- 
uted among  the  muscles  of  the  scapula  and  upper  part  of  the  arm; 
when  in  a  dislocation  the  head  of  the  humerus  presses  the  axillary 
artery  inward,  those  branches  are  put  upon  the  stretch  because  they  are 
prevented  by  the  attachment  of  their  branches  to  the  tissues  from 
moving  inward  as  freely  as  the  main  trunk  does,  and  consequently  they 
may  be  ruptured  or  torn  away  from  the  side  of  the  main  artery.  This 
accident  may  be  the  consequence  of  the  dislocation  itself,  or  of  the 
efforts  to  reduce  it. 

The  movements  which  are  most  frequently  concerned  in  the  produc- 
tion of  a  dislocation  are  outward  rotation  and  abduction.  In  the  latter 
the  elbow  is  raised  directly  outward  and  forward  from  the  side  of  the 
body  by  the  action  of  the  deltoid,  the  plane  in  which  it  moves  being 
more  or  less  exactly  that  which  would  be  represented  by  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  broad  surface  of  the  shoulder-blade.  As  the  movement  is 
made,  the  head  slides  downward  on  the  glenoid  fossa,  the  long  head  of 
the  triceps,  the  lower  part  of  the  subscapularis,  and  the  lower  and  inner 
portion  of  the  capsule  are  made  tense,  and  the  movement  is  arrested 
when  the  top  of  the  greater  tuberosity  comes  into  contact  with  the 
upper  margin  of  the  glenoid  fossa,  and  the  side  of  the  shaft  close  below 
the  tuberosity  touches  the  acromion.  If  the  movement  is  now  con- 
tinued, and  the  arm  raised  to  the  side  of  the  head,  it  is  effected  by  the 


DISL  0  OA  TIONS  OF  THE  SHO  ULDEB.  533 

rotation  of  the  scapula  and  the  elevation  of  its  outer  portion.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  movement  is  continued  while  the  scapula  is  kept 
stationary,  the  centre  of  motion  is  transferred  to  the  point  of  contact 
between  the  humerus  and  the  edge  of  the  acromion,  and  the  head  of 
the  bone  is  forced  downward  against  the  already  tense  capsule  and 
ruptures  it  at  its  lower  and  inner  portion,  where  it  presses  directly 
against  it. 

In  outward  rotation  when  the  arm  is  hanging  by  the  side  or  is  but 
slightly  abducted  the  movement  is  arrested  by  the  tension  of  the  cap- 
sule on  the  inner  side,  and  at  the  same  time  the  lower  and  outer  part 
of  the  greater  tuberosity  comes  into  contact  with  the  outer  lip  of  the 
glenoid  fossa;  if  the  movement  is  then  continued  the  capsule  yields, 
but  the  head  does  not  become  dislocated  unless  some  other  force  inter- 
venes to  press  it  inward  through  the  rent  that  has  thus  been  made. 

In  all  the  other  movements  similar  conditions  are  found,  and  dislo- 
cations following  them  are  less  frequent  only  because  the  movements 
are  themselves  less  frequently  carried  beyond  the  limits  set  by  the 
structure  of  the  joint.  Thus,  abduction  and  rotation  inward  are 
checked  by  contact  of  the  arm  with  the  body  before  the  capsule  is  put 
upon  the  stretch,  and  extension  of  the  arm  behind  the  axillary  line 
must  be  carried  very  far  before  a  new  fulcrum  is  found,  and  is  also  a 
movement  that  is  rarely  produced  or  exaggerated  by  external  violence. 

Statistics.  The  great  frequency  of  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  is  fully 
explained  by  the  structure  of  the  joint  and  by  its  exposure  to  the  dis- 
locating action  of  direct  and  indirect  violence.  This  frequency  is  so 
great  that  dislocations  of  the  shoulder  are  about  as  numerous  as  all  the 
other  dislocations  of  the  body  combined.  The  tables  of  statistics  given 
in  Chapter  XXVII.  show  percentages  varying  from  38  to  41  of  all 
dislocations.  Malgaigne's  statistics  of  489  cases  contain  321  of  the 
humerus,  more  than  65  per  cent.;  Gurlt's  collection  of  907  cases  in 
the  hospitals  of  Berlin,  Paris,  and  Philadelphia  contain  563  of  the 
shoulder,  58  per  cent. ;  Bardenheuer^  saw  20  in  a  total  of  37  cases 
treated  in  one  year,  54  per  cent.  Kronlein's  statistics,  which  are  espe- 
cially valuable  because  they  are  made  up  from  both  hospital  and  poly- 
clinic records,  giv^e  a  total  of  207  dislocations  of  the  shoulder,  of 
which  184  were  in  males  and  only  23  in  females;  of  Malgaigne's  370 
cases  97  were  in  women;  classified  according  to  age  and  sex  they  both 
show  that  the  injury  is  rare  in  youth,  infrequent  in  old  age,  and  most 
frequent  in  middle  life.  The  youngest  recorded  case,  excluding  obstet- 
rical cases,  is  Villar's,^  fifteen  days  old.  The  relative  frequency  at 
the  different  ages,  established  by  taking  into  account  the  percentages 
of  total  population  belonging  to  those  ages,  differs  somewhat  from  the 
actual  frequency,  the  maximum  being  found  above  the  age  of  fifty 
years.  The  proportions  calculated  from  Kr5nlein's  statistics  with  the 
aid  of  the  relative  numbers  of  the  population  at  the  different  ages,  as 
given  in  Chapter  XXVII.,  are  five,  nine,  eleven,  and  twelve  respec- 
tively for  the  decades  from  thirty-one  to  seventy.  This  relatively 
greater  frequency  in  advanced  years  is  much  more  marked  in  women 

1  Bardenheuer :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  63  a,  p.  279. 

2  Villar :  Provincial  Medical  Journal,  August  26, 1892. 


534  DISLOCATIONS. 

than  in  men,  a  fact  which  is  to  be  explained  by  the  greater  exposure 
to  violence  incident  to  the  occupations  and  habits  of  men  in  middle 
life.  It  indicates,  I  think,  that  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  dislo- 
cations in  advanced  life  are  due  to  falls  while  walking  than  in  middle 
life,  since  that  is  an  accident  to  which  both  sexes  are  more  equally 
exposed  than  they  are  to  others. 

The  relations  pointed  out  by  Krdnlein  as  existing  between  disloca- 
tions of  the  shoulder  and  those  of  the  elbow  and  fractures  of  the 
clavicle  are  interesting.  His  statistics  show  that  during  the  first  two 
decades  of  life,  a  period  in  which  dislocations  of  the  shoulder  are  rare, 
dislocations  of  the  elbow  and  fractures  of  the  clavicle  are  most  fre- 
quent. Thus,  of  109  dislocations  of  the  elbow  contained  in  his  table, 
80  of  the  patients  were  under  twenty  years  of  age,  and  of  100  cases  of 
fracture  of  the  clavicle  collected  by  him  70  of  the  patients  were  under 
ten  years  of  age;  while  of  207  dislocations  of  the  shoulder  none  of  the 
patients  was  less  than  ten,  and  only  2  less  than  twenty  years  old.  He 
thinks  fractures  of  the  clavicle  are  in  childhood  the  equivalent  injury 
of  dislocations  of  the  shoulder  by  direct  violence  in  middle  life,  and 
dislocations  of  the  elbow  the  equivalent  iujury  of  dislocations  of  the 
shoulder  by  indirect  violence. 

Classification.  The  head  of  the  humerus  in  leaving  the  joint  may 
pass  at  first  upward  or  downward,  backward  or  forward,  and  may  come 
to  rest  in  any  one  of  a  great  number  of  positions.  The  classification 
of  the  varieties  is  beset  with  much  difficulty,  because  of  their  number, 
because  of  the  frequency  and  importance  of  the  secondary  displace- 
ments, and,  last  though  not  least,  because  of  the  number  of  classifica- 
tions that  have  already  been  made  and  are  more  or  less  current.  The 
confusion  has  been  further  increased  by  the  application  of  the  same  or 
very  similar  terms  to  different  varieties  by  different  authors.  With 
the  rare  dislocations  backward,  and  the  still  rarer  ones  upward,  there 
is  no  difficulty;  the  uncertainty  arises  in  connection  with  those  in  which 
the  head  of  the  humerus  has  passed  across  the  anterior  lip  of  the  gle- 
noid fossa.  A  brief  account  of  some  of  the  classifications  and  terms 
heretofore  and  still  in  use  will  show  their  differences  and  resemblances, 
and  may  serve  as  a  convenient  introduction  and  preparation  for  the 
classification  that  must  follow. 

Sir  Astley  Cooper's  classification,  upon  which  those  now  in  use  in 
England  and  America  have  been  in  the  main  constructed,  recognized 
four  kinds  of  dislocations:  1.  Downward  and  inward  into  the  axilla; 
2.  Forward,  the  head  of  the  humerus  lying  under  the  clavicle  on  the 
sternal  side  of  the  coracoid  process;  3.  Backward;  4.  Partial  inward, 
the  head  resting  against  the  outer  side  of  the  coracoid  process.  It  is 
apparent,  from  his  description,  that  the  first  and  fourth  included  the 
common,  frequent  cases,  those  which  are  now  generally  termed  "  sub- 
glenoid," or  '^  into  the  axilla,"  and  ''  subcoracoid,"  respectively. 

A  few  years  later  Malgaigne  followed,  also  with  four  principal  forms, 
but  only  one  of  them  the  same  as  Cooper's.    His  grouping  is  as  follows: 

fl.  Subcoracoid,  complete;  quite  common. 
2.  Subcoracoid,  incomplete;  rare. 
3.  Subglenoid ;  rare. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  535 

T^.  ,       ,.        .  J  f  4.  Intracoracoid ;  most  common  of  all. 

Dislocations  inward      .     .     • -1  5.  Subclavicular  ;  rare. 

-r,.  ,       ,.        ,1  1  f  6.   Subacromial;  rare. 

Dislocations  backward      .     .  |  7    Subspinous  ;  Very  rare. 

Dislocations  upward     ...     8.  Supracoracoid  ;  only  two  cases  known. 

All  these  titles  are  now  in  general  use;  but  while  the  last  four,  and 
perhaps  the  second  also,  are  still  used  to  designate  the  forms  which  he 
designated  by  them,  the  others  have  been  used  with  different,  some- 
times with  widely  different,  meanings.  The  first  form,  the  complete 
subcoracoid,  was  ''  characterized  by  the  projection  of  the  head  of  the 
humerus  in  the  axilla,  and  its  position  exactly  below  the  coracoid  pro- 
cess;" it  would  be  included  in  Cooper's  first  group,  dislocation  down- 
ward into  the  axilla.  His  second  subdivision,  incomplete  subcoracoid, 
was  the  same  as  Cooper's  fourth,  partial  dislocation  inward.  His 
third,  subglenoid,  was  one  concerning  which  he  seems  to  have  been  far 
from  having  very  precise  notions;  he  had  seen  only  one  case,  and  had 
been  able  to  collect  only  eleven  others,  and  of  these  the  symptoms 
differed  widely,  the  head  of  the  humerus  being  described  as  raising  the 
anterior  wall  of  the  axilla  in  one  case  and  the  posterior  in  another,  as 
resting  against  the  second  intercostal  space  in  one  and  against  the  third 
in  another,  and  even  as  having  perforated  the  wall  of  the  chest  and 
lodged  within  it.  The  one  feature  which  they  had  in  common,  and 
which  he  gives  as  pathognomonic,  was  that  the  head  of  the  humerus 
was  not  immediately  below  and  in  contact  with  the  beak  of  the  coracoid 
process,  but  was  separated  from  it  by  a  greater  or  less  interval.  Appar- 
ently the  class  was  created  simply  to  collect  together  the  odds  and  ends, 
the  irregular  cases  that  were  not  subcoracoid;  and  the  idea  which  sug- 
gested the  name  given  to  it  was  that  the  primary  displacement  took 
place  more  directly  downward  than  in  the  preceding  varieties.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  name  has  since  been  applied  to  a  very  much  larger 
proportion  of  cases. 

His  second  main  division  embraced  two  varieties,  the  intracoracoid 
and  the  subclavicular.  Concerning  the  latter  there  is  no  misconcep- 
tion; the  term  has  remained  in  use,  and  with  the  same  meaning.  The 
group  is  made  up  of  those  cases  in  which  the  head  of  the  humerus  has 
passed  entirely  to  the  inner  side  of  the  coracoid  process,  and  lies  below 
the  clavicle.  But  the  other  term,  intracoracoid,  is  generally  employed 
in  a  much  more  restricted  sense  than  by  Malgaigne.  By  it  he  desig- 
nated the  greatest  number  of  dislocations,  more  than  two-thirds  of 
those  he  saw  at  the  Hopital  St.  Louis;  he  applied  it  to  those  in  which 
the  head  of  the  humerus,  while  still  remaining  under  the  coracoid  pro- 
cess, overlapped  it  on  the  inner  side  by  more  than  half  its  own  diam- 
eter. Most  of  such  cases  are  now  termed  subcoracoid,  and  only  those 
in  which  the  head  has  passed  almost,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  inner  side 
of  the  process  are  called  intracoracoid. 

The  tendency  of  the  more  recent  French  and  German  writers  is  to 
make  a  single  group  of  all  the  dislocations  in  which  the  humerus  passes 
to  the  anterior  side  of  the  scapula,  containing  four  or  more  subdivisions 
or  varieties,  two  of  which,  the  subclavicular  and  intracoracoid,  in  the 
narrower  sense,  are  accepted  by  all.      Of  the  remaining  two  principal 


536  DISLOCATIONS. 

ones,  the  subcoracoid  and  the  subglenoid,  the  former  is  made  to  include 
the  great  majority,  and  the  subglenoid  is  either  closely  and  distinctly 
restricted  to  the  very  rare  cases  in  which  the  head  of  the  humerus  is 
displaced  directly  downward  upon  the  tendon  of  the  long  head  of  the 
triceps,  or  Malgaigne's  grouping  is  accepted  with  all  its  diversities  and 
vagueness.  In  the  former  case  the  group  is  removed  from  the  prin- 
cipal division  of  "anterior"  or  "  prgeglenoidal "  dislocations,  and 
made  to  form  by  itself  another  principal  division,  termed  '^disloca- 
tions downward." 

The  English  and  American  writers,  as  a  rule,  divide  the  same 
cases  into  subglenoid  and  subcoracoid,  basing  the  distinction  between 
them  upon  the  clinical  feature  of  the  greater  or  less  facility  with 
which  the  head  of  the  humerus  can  be  felt  in  the  axilla;  those  in  which 
it  is  more  prominent  in  the  axilla  are  "subglenoid,"  those  in  which 
it  is  more  prominent  behind  the  anterior  w^all  of  the  axilla,  close 
beneath  the  coracoid  process,  are  "  subcoracoid."  The  objections  to 
this  grouping  are  that  it  does  not  sufficiently  distinguish  between  pri- 
mary and  secondary  displacements,  and  that  the  clinical  features  upon 
which  it  rests  present  a  complete  series  of  intermediate  forms,  most  of 
which  might  be  as  properly  placed  in  one  group  as  in  the  other.  The 
arbitrariness  and  uncertainty  of  the  decision  are  well  shown  by  a  com- 
parison of  clinical  and  pathological  statistics.  Thus,  Hamilton  and 
Bryant  say  that  the  subglenoid  is  of  more  frequent  occurrence  than  the 
subcoracoid,  and  Erichsen  says  that  this  is  the  opinion  of  most  English 
surgeons;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Flower,^  who  made  an  examina- 
tion of  all  the  specimens  contained  in  the  London  museums,  41  in 
number,  found  that  in  32  the  dislocation  was  subcoracoid,  and  he  adds, 
that  of  50  cases  recently  observed  by  him  in  living  patients  the  same 
was  true  of  "a  large  majority";^  he  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that 
"  the  great  frequency  of  subcoracoid  dislocation  observed  in  this  series 
[of  specimens]  does  not  accord  with  the  descriptions  of  this  injury  gen- 
erally given  in  the  standard  surgical  works  of  the  country."  A  few 
years  later,  in  the  article  on  Injuries  of  the  Upper  Extremity  which 
he  prepared  in  connection  with  Mr.  Hulke  for  Holmes's  System  of 
Surgery,  Mr.  Flower  made  a  classification  in  which  the  influence  of 
this  important  investigation  is  apparent.     It  is  as  follows  : 

1.  Subcoracoid.  Forward  and  slightly  downward.  On  to  the 
neck  of  the  scapula,  in  front  of  the  glenoid  fossa,  and  immediately 
below  the  coracoid  process.      Common. 

2.  Subglenoid.  Downward  and  forward.  Head  of  the  humerus 
in  front  of  the  inferior  costa  [border]  of  the  scapula,  below  the  gle- 
noid fossa.     Rare. 

His  remaining  three  divisions  are  Subclavicular,  Supraooraeoid,  and 
Subspinous,  the  latter  including  Malgaigne's  sixth  and  seventh. 

Turning  now  to  the  pathological  data,  to  the  recorded  results  of  post- 
mortem examinations  and  experiments  upon  the  cadaver,  and  confining 
our  attention  for  the  moment  to  the  forms  mainly  in  dispute,  the  dislo- 

1  Flower  :  Transactions  London  Pathological  Society,  1861,  vol.  xii.  p.  179. 

-  The  number  is  given  as  44  in  his  article  on  Injuries  of  the  Upper  Extremity  in  Holmes's  System 
of  Surgery. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


537 


cations  forward  (or  inward)  and  downward,  and  to  the  points  that  affect 
the  position  of  the  head  of  the  humerus,  the  following  facts  appear  : 

The  head  of  the  humerus,  when  it  passes  across  the  anterior  edge  of 
the  glenoid  cavity,  must,  as  a  glance  at  Fig.  252  shows,  move  somewhat 
downward  so  as  to  get  below  the  beak  of  the  coracoid  process;  the  posi- 
tion of  the  limb  that  most  favors  the  production  of  dislocation  is 
abduction  with  or  without  external  rotation.  The  inner  and  lower 
portion  of  the  capsule,  being  pressed  upon  by  the  head  of  the  humerus, 
tears  between  the  tendon  of  the  subscapularis  and  the  triceps,  the  rent 
being  small  or  large  and  varying  greatly  in  extent  and  direction  in  the 
different  cases,  but  it  is  always  on  the  anterior  and  inner  side,  and  the 
head  passes  more  or  less  completely  through  it.  If  the  movement  is 
more  directly  forward  and  inward  and  to  a  less  degree  downward,  as 
in  dislocations  by  direct  violence  received  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
shoulder,  the  head  of  the  bone  pushes  the  subscapularis  muscle  before 
it  and  lodges  close  under  the  coracoid  process  and  between  that  muscle 
and  the  edge  of  the  glenoid  cavity.  In  this  case  no  secondary  dis- 
placement ensues,  and  the  form  would  be  classed  as  subcoracoid  by  all. 
If  the  movement  is  forcible  and  prolonged  the  subscapularis  may  be 
torn  entirely  across  and  the  head  may  pass  through  it  and  come  to  rest 
on  the  side  of  the  thorax  under  the  clavicle;  or,  as  in  a  case  quoted  by 
Malgaigne,  it  may  pass  over  the  upper  border  of  the  subscapularis  and 
come  to  rest  at  the  same  point.     If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  primary 


Fig.  256. 


Tendon 
of  triceps 

To  show  the  range  of  positions  that  may  be  taken  by  the  head  of  the  humerus  after  primary 
displacement  forward  or  downward  in  any  of  the  directions  between  the  arrows. 


movement  downward  has  been  more  marked,  as  in  dislocations  effected 
by  hyper-abduction  of  the  arm,  the  head  either  passes  below  the  sub- 
scapularis or  tears  its  lower  portion,  and  then,  as  the  elbow  is  lowered 
the  head  rises,  pressing  the  subscapularis  or  its  untorn  portion  upward 
and  remaining  separated  by  it  from  the  coracoid  process.  The  extent 
and  direction  of  this  movement  of  the  head  are  determined  largely  by 
the  resistance  of  the  untorn  portions  of  the  capsule,  notably  the  outer 
and  anterior  part,  which,  by  preventing  the  further  descent  of  that 


538  DISLOCATIONS. 

part  of  the  humerus  to  which  they  are  attached,  compel  the  head  to 
move  upward  as  the  elbow  descends.  Other  factors  are  found  in  the 
muscles;  if  the  head  lies  under  an  untorn  subscapularis  its  distance 
below  the  coracoid  process  will  be  greater  than  when  it  lies  under  only 
the  upper  portion  of  the  muscle,  and  if  in  addition  it  has  passed  under 
the  teres  major  or  downward  as  far  as  the  lower  border  of  the  pectora- 
lis  major  the  arm  will  remain  widely  abducted  or  even  with  the  elbow 
above  the  head  (laxatio  erecta).  Or,  departing  still  farther  from 
what  is  usual,  it  may  perhaps  even  turn  backward  after  it  has  left  its 
socket  and  pass  under  the  long  head  of  the  triceps  to  lodge  behind  the 
glenoid  cavity,  the  alleged  subtricipital  dislocation. 

The  head  of  the  humerus  rests  against  the  inner  side  of  the  head  or 
neck  of  the  scapula  at  any  point  between  its  junction  with  the  broad 
axillary  border,  or  inferior  costa,  and  the  middle  of  the  anterior  lip  of 
the  glenoid  fossa,  and  it  may  lie  either  directly  against  the  edge  of  this 
lip  or  further  back  on  the  side,  as  is  clearly  shown  by  the  specimens 
of  old,  unreduced  dislocations  preserved  in  the  museums.  And  accord- 
ing as  it  occupies  one  or  the  other  position  it  will  be  more  or  less  prom- 
inent in  the  axilla  or  more  or  less  clearly  seen  and  felt  behind  the 
pectoralis  major  beneath  the  coracoid  process. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  position  in  which  the  head  of  the  bone 
is  found  bears  only  a  limited  relation  to  the  point  at  which  it  left  the 
joint,  and  that  a  classification  which  is  sharply  made  upon  this  position 
is  not  only  arbitrary  and  uncertain  for  a  large  number  of  cases,  but 
also  favors  inattention  to  points  that  have  an  important  bearing  upon 
a  safe  and  easy  reduction. 

It  is  desirable  that  a  classification  should  not  deal  minutely  with 
unimportant  variations,  and  that  instead  of  multiplying  divisions  it 
should  rather  gather  into  few  groups  those  varieties  that  have  charac- 
teristic and  important  features  in  common;  and  yet,  as  some  forms 
differ  widely  in  their  symptoms  from  others  with  which  they  are  on 
other  grounds  closely  related,  it  is  equally  desirable  to  recognize  and 
note  such  differences.  The  distinction  between  '^  regular"  and  "  irreg- 
ular" dislocations  made  by  Bigelow  at  the  hip  can  also  be  made  at  the 
shoulder,  taking  for  the  dislocations  downward  and  forward  the  integ- 
rity or  the  rupture  of  the  antero-external  portions  of  the  capsule  as 
the  determining  feature.  The  following  classification  is,  in  the  main, 
the  same  as  that  of  Mr.  Flower,  above  given,  and  the  later  French  and 
German  writers.  It  differs  from  that  of  the  majority  of  the  English 
and  American  writers  in  restricting  the  group  of  the  '^subglenoid" 
and  correspondingly  enlarging  that  of  the  ''  subcoracoid"  dislocations. 

iSubcoracoid  ;  very  common. 
Intracoracoid  ;  exceptional, 
subclavicular. 

{Subglenoid ;  uncommon, 
erecta  ;  very  rare, 
subtricipital  (?) 

Posterior  f  Subacromial ;  rare. 

t  Subspinous ;  very  rare. 

Upward Supraglenoid  ;  very  rare. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  539 

The  names  of  the  four  principal  divisions  indicate  the  direction  of 
the  primary  displacement;  those  of  the  subdivisions  the  position  in 
which  the  head  of  the  bone  lodges,  with  the  exception  of  the  erecta, 
which  takes  its  name  from  the  attitude  of  the  limb,  and  the  sublricip- 
ital,  which  rather  indicates  the  route  traversed  by  the  head  than  the 
position  finally  taken  by  it.  Between  the  anterior  and  the  downward 
the  division  cannot  be  sharply  made,  and  in  many  of  the  cases  included 
among  the  first  the  primary  displacement  has  more  of  the  downward 
than  of  the  anterior  feature,  but  it  is  believed  that  by  enlarging  the 
subcoracoid  class  so  that  it  will  include  all  but  the  lowest  of  the  lower 
forms,  by  extending  its  range  so  that  it  will  distinctly  include  the  lower 
as  well  as  the  higher  primary  displacements,  the  necessity  of  abducting 
the  arm  to  effect  reduction  in  those  cases  in  which  the  secondary  dis- 
placement upward  is  marked  and  might  otherwise  lead  into  error  v.'ill 
be  less  liable  to  be  overlooked.  The  difficulty  of  distinguishing  be- 
tween the  subglenoid  and  the  lowest  of  the  subcoracoid  will  arise  in 
only  a  very  limited  number  of  cases  and  will  be  without  practical 
importance;  at  the  most  it  will  be  merely  a  question  of  nomenclature. 

There  would  be  some  advantage  in  further  dividing  the  subcoracoid 
group  into  high  and  low. 


ANTERIOR  (AND  DOWNWARD)  DISLOCATIONS. 

1.  Subcoracoid. 

2.  Intracoracoid,  subclavicular. 

In  these  dislocations  the  head  of  the  humerus  passes  across  the  ante- 
rior lip  of  the  glenoid  fossa,  taking  at  first  a  direction  that  is  forward 
and  inward  and  more  or  less  downward;  it  may  subsequently  move 
upward  or  further  inward.  The  class  includes  two  subdivisions,  the 
subcoracoid  and  the  intracoracoid,  of  which  the  latter  is  here  made  to 
include  also  the  more  marked  dislocation  inward  known  as  the  sub- 
clavicular. 

The '  class  embraces  the  subcoracoid,  partial  and  complete,  of  all 
authors,  most  of  the  subglenoid  of  most  English  and  American  authors, 
and  the  intracoracoid  and  subclavicular  of  all.  The  terms  ''  axillary 
dislocations"  and  "  dislocations  into  the  axilla"  are  applied  by  some 
to  cases  that  are  here  called  subcoracoid,  and  the  term  "  pectoral"  to 
the  intracoracoid. 

1.  Subcoracoid  Dislocations. 

In  this  form,  which  includes  a  large  majority  of  all  cases,  the  head 
of  the  humerus  lies  under  and  in  close  proximity  to  the  beak  of  the 
coracoid  process,  or  at  a  distance  below  it  that  may  equal  or  even 
exceed  a  finger-breadth.  The  centre  of  the  head  may  be  either  directly 
below  the  beak  of  the  coracoid  process  or  on  its  outer  or  inner  side.  If 
more  than  three-fourths  of  the  transverse  diameter  has  passed  to  the 
inner  side  of  the  coracoid  the  dislocation  is  termed  intracoracoid.  The 
class,  therefore,  is  continuous  with  the  subglenoid  below  and  with 
the  intracoracoid  on  the  inner  side,  and  the  separation  from  them  is 


540  DISLOCATIONS. 

arbitrary  and  artificial,  but  is  justified  by  custom  and  convenience  in 
description. 

Malgaigne  showed,  as  early  as  1835,  that  in  some  cases  the  articular 
surface  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  rested  on  the  anterior  edge  of  the 
glenoid  fossa,  and  such  he  termed  ''  incomplete."  The  formation  of 
a  separate  class  composed  of  such  cases  seems  unnecessary  and  even 
undesirable,  for  they  differ  from  the  complete  ones  only  in  degree,  and 
the  difference  is  slight  and  without  practical  importance;  the  symptoms 
are  like  those  of  complete  dislocation,  the  bone  is  fixed  in  its  new  posi- 
tion, and  aid  is  required  to  replace  it  in  the  joint.  Moreover,  in  some 
the  diagnosis  (differential,  between  complete  and  incomplete)  can  only 
be  made  at  the  autopsy. 

The  injury  may  be  produced  by  direct  or  indirect  violence,  a  blow 
upon  the  outer  and  upper  part  of  the  shoulder  or  hyperabduction  of 
the  arm,  or  by  muscular  action.  When  produced  by  direct  violence 
the  displacement  is  usually  in  a  direction  that  is  only  sufficiently 
inclined  downward  to  enable  the  head  to  pass  below  the  coracoid  pro- 
cess; in  a  unique  case  reported  by  Kronlein^  the  blow  was  received 
from  above  upon  the  acromion  and  only  dislocated  the  humerus  after 
it  had  broken  that  process.  The  extent  of  the  displacement  inward 
is  affected  partly  by  the  force  of  the  blow  and  the  extent  of  the  lacera- 
tion of  the  capsule,  and  partly  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  that 
adduct  the  limb. 

Dislocations  by  indirect  violence  are  the  most  common,  the  force 
acting  to  produce  hyperabduction  of  the  joint. ^ 

Hyperabduction  acts  by  bringing  the  outer  side  of  the  upper  end  of 
the  humerus  into  contact  with  the  edge  of  the  acromion  and  thus  cre- 
ating a  new  centre  of  motion  for  the  continued  movement,  the  effect  of 
which  is  to  cause  the  head  of  the  humerus  to  descend  and  rupture  the 
capsule  in  its  inner  and  lower  portion.  After  this  rupture  has  taken 
place  and  the  upward  movement  of  the  elbow  has  ceased,  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscles,  the  deltoid,  pectoralis  major,  and  latissimus  dorsi, 
draws  the  head  of  the  humerus  inward  past  the  anterior  lip  of  the  gle- 
noid fossa,  and  then  when  the  elbow  is  lowered  the  head  rises  along  the 
inner  side  of  the  joint,  for  the  untorn  outer  and  anterior  portion  of  the 
capsule  is  made  tense  and,  by  thus  preventing  the  descent  of  the  portion 
of  the  bone  to  which  it  is  attached,  compels  the  movement  to  take  place 
about  this  portion  as  a  centre.  As  the  first  new  centre  of  motion  at 
the  edge  of  the  acromion  determines,  in  connection  with  the  muscles, 
the  primary  displacement,  so  the  second  new  centre  on  the  humerus 
at  the  outer  and  anterior  attachment  of  the  capsule  determines  the 
secondary  displacement  and  the  final  position  of  the  head  of  the  bone 
and  the  attitude  of  the  limb. 

Muscular  action,  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  individual 
himself,  can  produce  a  dislocation  either  by  drawing  the  head  of  the 

1  Kronlein :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  26,  p.  14. 

-  Hyperabduction  of  ihe  joint  must  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  limb.  The  former  can  take 
place  even  while  the  elbow  is  below  the  level  of  the  shoulder,  for  it  is  determined  by  the  relations 
between  the  humerus  and  the  scapula ;  and  as  the  scapula  is  freely  movable  the  position  of  the 
limb  (with  reference  to  the  body)  when  the  limit  of  motion  in  the  joint  is  reached  varies  with  that 
of  the  scapula. 


[Note  to  page  540.— A  case  of  anterior  dislocation  of  the  shoulder 

ly  direct  violence  with  fracture  of  the  acromion,  similar  to  Kronlein's 

las    just  come  under    my  observation.     The  patient,   a    man    about 

^rty  years  old,  was  admitted  to  the  New  York  Hospital  December  17, 

bdS,  just  after  having  been  struck  upon  the  outer  curve  of  the  left 

oulder  by  a  falling  brick,  as  shown  by  an  abrasion  just  beyond  the 

r  edge  of  the  acromion.      The   head  of  the   humerus  lay  close 

neath  the  coracoid  process,  the  acromion  was  broken  at  its  base  and 

splaced  downward  and   inward,  witti    dislocation   of    the  acromio- 

ivicular  joint,  and  could  be  moved  with  slight  crepitus ;  the  joint 

.rface   of   the   clavicle   could  be  distinctly  felt   thro-igh   the   skin. 

eduction  was  easy  by  traction  and  direct  pressure  u/ on  the  head  of 

J  humerus.     The  acromion  returned  to  its  place,  r,nd  there  was  no 

■dency  to  recurrence  of  the  acromio-clavicular  dislocation  1 

f  -' 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


541 


bone  directly  out  of  its  socket,  or,  much  more  commonly,  by  creating 
conditions  of  leverage  and  momentum  similar  to  those  existing  in  the 
production  of  dislocations  by  indirect  violence.  In  many  of  the  re- 
ported cases  it  is  difficult  to  recognize  the  mechanism  of  the  injury. 
The  least  questionable  examples  of  dislocation  effected  by  the  direct 
traction  of  the  muscles  are  those  in  which  the  injury  has  occurred 
during  a  convulsion.  A  considerable  number  of  such  have  been 
reported;  in  one  quoted  below  (Pollosson,  page  545)  tiie  limb  seems 
to  have  been  in  the  position  of  inward  rotation  at  the  moment  of  dis- 
location. The  examples  of  the  other  kind  are  numerous  and  varied, 
and  the  explanation  is  usually  simple.  A  painter  raises  his  arm 
to  work  upon  a  ceiling,  an  artilleryman  to  throw  a  shot,  a  patient 
lying  in  bed  to  free  its  curtain  caught  under  the  pillow,  a  woman  to 


Fig.  257. 


Subeoracoid  dislocation  on  a  cadaver  ;  showing  rupture  of  lower  part  of  the  subscapularis. 

(B.  Anger.) 


grasp  an  object  hanging  on  the  wall;  in  such  cases  hyperabduction  of 
the  joint  seems  to  be  the  probable  cause.  In  others  hyperabduction 
can  only  be  invoked  on  the  supposition  that  the  contraction  of  the  del- 
toid has  lowered  the  acromion,  the  arm  being  fixed  in  a  position  below 
the  shoulder,  as  in  Bichat's  case  of  the  notary  who  dislocated  his 
shoulder  in  an  attempt  to  raise  a  heavy  book  from  the  floor,  or  in  Volk- 
mann's  of  a  woman  who  tried  to  lift  a  heavy  pot  from  a  shelf  at  the 
height  of  her  shoulder,  or  Malgaigne's  athlete  who  tried  suddenly  to 
lift  a  man  kneeling  in  front  of  him,  or  Duplay's  very  muscular  patient 
who  stumbled  while  descending  a  staircase  and  threw  out  his  arm  to 
save  himself  from  falling  but  touched  no  object  with  it. 


542  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  other  cases  the  influence  of  muscular  action  .is  entirely  indirect. 
Thus,  Rickert^  tells  of  a  very  muscular  man  twenty-five  years  old  who 
received  a  subclavicular  dislocation  by  resting  his  hand  against  a  wall 
over  his  head  and  sneezing.  Bardenheaer  mentions  a  similar  case 
observed  by  Saponi.  In  such  a  case  the  mechanism  is  essentially  the 
same  as  in  that,  for  example,  in  which  a  man  supported  himself  with 
his  arms  outstretched  against  a  wagon  to  receive  a  sack  of  grain  which 
another  threw  down  upon  his  back  and  thereby  dislocated  both  shoul- 
ders. 

It  is  impossible  in  most  cases  to  determine  the  exact  position  and 
attitude  of  the  limb  at  the  moment  the  dislocation  occurs,  and  the  rela- 
tive parts  taken  by  abduction,  rotation,  muscular  action,  and  direct 
impulsion  in  its  production.  At  present  it  can  only  be  said  that  every 
one  of  the  four  has  proved  sufficient  by  itself,  and  that  they  have  been 
found  to  co-operate  in  varying  degrees. 

Pathology.  The  capsule  is  torn  at  its  inner  and  lower  portion  between 
the  tendon  of  the  subscapularis  and  the  triceps,  and  the  rent  extends 
usually  along  the  inner  and  lower  border  of  the  glenoid  fossa  for  half, 
sometimes  even  two-thirds,  of  the  entire  periphery.  In  other  cases 
the  rent  extends  outward  and  backward,  rather  than  upward,  and  near 
the  insertion  of  the  capsule  upon  the  humerus.  Exceptionally,  the 
rent  is  very  small,  or  may  even  be  entirely  lacking,  its  place  being 
sometimes  taken  by  the  stripping  up  of  the  continuous  periosteum 
from  the  inner  side  of  the  neck  of  the  scapula.  Eve^  reported  a  case 
of  subcoracoid  dislocation  in  which  the  capsule  was  untorn,  but  was 
separated  from  the  anterior  border  of  the  glenoid  fossa,  remaining  con- 
tinuous with  the  periosteum  which  was  stripped  up  from  the  costal 
surface  of  the  scapula.  On  the  posterior  surface  of  the  head  of  the 
humerus  was  a  deep  vertical  indentation  made  by  impact  against  the 
anterior  margin  of  the  glenoid  fossa.  An  almost  identical  case  was 
shown  to  the  London  Pathological  Society  by  D'Arcy  Power.^  In 
1880  I  presented  to  the  New  York  Surgical  Society  the  shoulder- 
joint  of  an  old  man  who  had  died  of  pneumonia  a  week  after  he  had 
dislocated  his  shoulder.  The  dislocation  was  well  marked,  and  reduction 
was  effected  with  the  aid  of  ether.  The  joint  was  opened  from  behind, 
and  the  capsule  was  found  untorn;  the  tendon  of  the  subscapularis  was 
partly  detached  at  its  insertion,  but  at  no  point  throughout  its  entire 
thickness,  and  the  upper  facet  of  the  greater  tuberosity  was  broken  off 
in  several  pieces  but  not  widely  separated.  Such  cases  of  slight  or  no 
injury  to  the  capsule  have  been  classed  by  some  writers,  following 
Malgaigne,  as  ''  incomplete"  dislocations. 

The  subscapularis  muscle  is  sometimes  simply  pressed  inward  and 
separated  from  the  scapula  by  the  interposed  head  of  the  humerus,  but 
in  many  cases  it  is  torn  more  or  less  widely  from  its  lower  border 
upward,  and  its  upper  portion  may  lie  upon  the  head  of  the  humerus 
and  separate  it  from  the  coracoid  process.  Occasionally,  instead  of 
being  ruptured,  the  muscle  is  torn  away  from  its  attachment  to  the 

1  Rickert:  Maryland  Medical  Journal,  1883-84,  vol.  x.  p.  .339. 

2  Eve  :  Transactions  Pathological  Society  of  London,  1880,  vol.  Ixiii.  p.  317. 
8  D'Arcy  Power :  Lancet,  November  24, 1888. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  543 

humerus,  perhaps  bringing  with  it  the  lesser  tuberosity.  I  have  seen 
one  case  in  which  the  head  passed  beneath  the  tendon  and  then  to  its 
inner  surface,  so  that  division  of  the  tendon  was  required  to  effect 
reduction. 

The  supraspinatus  is  sometimes,  probably  often,  torn  from  its  attach- 
ment to  the  humerus,  and  the  same  is  true  in  a  less  degree  of  the  infra- 
spinatus, and  occasionally  even  of  the  teres  minor. 

The  teres  major  is  sometimes  slightly  torn,  apparently  by  the  partial 
passage  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  between  it  and  the  subscapularis. 

The  anterior  edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa  is  occasionally  broken  off,  and 
detachment  of  a  portion  of  its  fibro-cartilaginous  rim  seems  not  infre- 
quent; it  is  sometimes  pushed  away  to  some  distance,  bringing  with  it 
the  periosteum  of  the  scapula.  The  acromion  and  coracoid  process 
have  both  been  found  broken,  but  such  injury  appears  to  have  been 
purely  incidental  and  should  be  classed  as  a  complication. 

The  head  of  the  humerus  lies  against  the  edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa, 
or  further  back  against  the  side  of  the  neck  of  the  scapula,  and  either 
close  up  against  the  beak  of  the  coracoid  process  behind  the  coraco- 
brachialis  and  the  short  head  of  the  biceps,  or  lower  down  at  a  distance 
determined  by  its  relations  to  the  subscapularis  and  by  the  tension  of 
the  untorn  portion  of  the  capsule.  It  may  lie  largely  on  the  outer  side 
of  the  coracoid  process,  or  immediately  below  it,  or  it  may  pass  entirely 
to  its  inner  side  (intracoracoid  dislocation),  and  it  may  be  in  outward 
or  inward  rotation  (Fig.  258)  or  in  any  intermediate  attitude. 

As  has    been  already  said,  avulsion  of 
the    tuberosities    may    take    the    place    of  ^^°-  '^^• 

laceration  of  the  muscles  attached  to  them;  /'"    "  ) 

this  has  been  rarely  noted  of  the  lesser 
tuberosity,  but  frequently  of  the  greater, 
and  especially  of  its  upper  and  middle 
facets.  Von  Thaden,^  who  made  a  study 
of  this  feature,  found  that  the  upper  and 
middle  facets  were   each  sometimes  torn       siibcoracoid  dislocation,  to  show 

j^  Till  1       •  ^"^  different  degrees  of  rotation  of 

oil  separately,  but  the  lower  one  only  in  the  humerus  in  different  positions. 
connection  with  the  other  two.  The  com- 
plication is  of  importance  because  of  the  consequent  loss  of  the  control 
of  the  attached  muscles  over  the  humerus  and  the  consequent  exposure 
to  recurrence  of  the  dislocation  (see  Chapter  XXIX.),  and  because  it 
opens  the  way  for  the  escape  of  the  long  tendon  of  the  biceps  from  its 
groove  and  its  interposition  between  the  humerus  and  its  socket  in 
such  a  way  as  to  constitute  a  serious  obstacle  to  reduction.  In  the 
specimens  Von  Thaden  examined  he  found  the  tendon  thus  interposed 
three  times.  Korte^  reported  a  similar  case  in  which  the  tendon  had 
slipped  entirely  out  of  its  groove  and  was  wound  around  the  outer  and 
posterior  side  of  the  head. 

When  the  tuberosity  or  a  portion  of  it  is  thus  broken  off,  the  frag- 
ment lies  over  or  in  the  glenoid  fossa,  and  the  broken  surface  of  the 
humerus  rests  against  the  inner  surface  of  the  neck  of  the  scapula  or 

^  Von  Thaden  :  Arch,  ftir  klin.  Chir.,  vol.  vi.  p.  67. 
-  Kiirte :  Ibid.,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  747. 


644 


DISLOCATIONS. 


engages  the  edge  of  the  fossa.  The  upper  and  outer  portion  of  the 
capsule  thus  separated  from  the  humerus  may  remam  interposed  be- 
tween the  head  of  the  humerus  and  its  socket  and  prevent  reduction. 
After  reduction  of  the  dislocation  the  tuberosity  reunites  with  the 
humerus  with  more  or  less  irregularity  and  deformity. 

Except  in  connection  with  fracture  of  one  or  the  other  tuberosity 
the  long  tendon  of  the  biceps  is  rarely  dislocated,  but  it  is  sometimes 
torn  away  from  its  insertion  or  ruptured. 


Fig.  259. 


Old  unreduced  dislocation  of  the  right  humerus,  with  interposition  of  the  capsule.  At  the  inner 
side  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  is  the  rent  in  the  capsule  through  which  it  passed,  and  above  the 
rent  is  the  greater  tuberosity  which  had  been  torn  off.  At  the  outer  side  of  the  coracoid  process  is 
an  opening  in  the  capsule  which  had  been  produced  by  the  pressure  of  the  humerus  ;  through  it 
the  glenoid  fossa  is  seen.    (Hilton.) 

In  some  specimens  of  old  unreduced  dislocation  a  vertical  groove  has 
been  found  on  the  articular  surface  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  which 
was  thought  to  have  been  caused  by  prolonged  contact  with  the  edge 
of  the  glenoid  fossa.  Malgaigne,  who  took  a  special  interest  in  the 
specimens  as  supposed  examples  of  incomplete  dislocation,  suggested 
that  the  groove  might  have  been  caused  at  the  time  the  injury  was 
received  by  the  forcible  impact  of  one  bone  against  the  other.  It  is 
interesting  to  find  that  this  suggestion  has  been  confirmed  by  autopsy  in 
Eve's  and  Power's  cases  mentioned  above  and  by  two  specimens  of 
recent  dislocation  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh and  reported  in  an  interesting  and  valuable  paper  by  Caird,^  and 
by  one  reported  by  Broca  and  Hartmann;^  the  indentation  lay  wholly 
or  in  part  along  the  junction  of  the  head  and  shaft  above  and  behind  the 
greater  tuberosity,  was  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches  long,  and 
from  one-quarter  to  one-half  an  inch  deep,  and  accurately  fitted  the 


1  Caird  :  Edinburgh  Medical  Journal,  February,  1887. 

2  Broca  and  Hartmann  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anat.,  1890,  No.  14. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


545 


inner  lip  of  the  glenoid  fossa.  The  suggestion  that  tlie  causation  of 
fracture  of  the  anatomical  neck  may  be  referred  to  the  same  mechanism 
seems  very  plausible.  A  similar  indentation  adjoining  the  lesser  tuber- 
osity is  reported  by  Pollosson'  in  a  double  dislocation  by  muscular 
action — convulsions  of  eclampsia.  The  position  indicates  that  the 
limbs  were  in  inward  rotation  at  the  moment  of  dislocation. 

The  axillary  vessels  and  nerves  are  pressed  inward  and  are  some- 
times injured. 

Symptoms  and  Diagnosis,  The  description  of  the  symjitoms  will  be 
made  simpler  by  limiting  it  at  first  to  those  commonly  found  in  the 
medium  displacements,  and  subsequently  indicating  the  differences  or 
modifications  peculiar  to  the  exceptional  grades  and  conditions. 

Fig.  260. 


Subcoracoid  dislocation  of  tlie  left  shoulder. 


The  patient  sits  with  his  trunk  inclined  toward  the  injured  side,  and 
supports  the  forearm  with  the  other  hand.  The  shoulder  is  flattened 
on  the  outer  side  so  that  the  line  of  the  deltoid  runs  straight  down 
from  the  acromion  and  makes  a  more  marked  angle  with  the  arm  at 
its  insertion  than  is  usual.  The  anterior  fold  of  the  axilla  lies  lower, 
further  from  the  clavicle  than  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side,  and  its 
creases  appear  deeper,  as  if  the  arm  were  applied  more  closely  against 
the  chest,  and  the  outer  part  of  the  subclavicular  fossa  appears  more 
full. 

The  elbow  stands  a  little  away  from  the  side  and  can  be  easily 
abducted,  but  any  attempt  to  bring  it  nearer  the  side  causes  pain  and 
is  resisted;  it  may  be  in  the  axillary  line,  or  in  front  of  or  behind  it. 


1  Pollosson :  Rev.  de  Chir.,  November, 
35 


3,  p.  927. 


546  DISLOCATIONS. 

When  the  elbow  is  flexed  at  a  right  angle  the  forearm  is  directed  for- 
ward and  inward;  its  direction  can  be  passively  changed  to  either  side, 
but  not  freely.  The  hand  cannot  be  brought  to  the  opposite  shoulder. 
Voluntary  movements  of  the  dislocated  joint  are  declared  by  the 
patient  to  be  impossible,  and  pain  is  complained  of  in  the  shoulder, 
sometimes  extending  down  the  arm. 

If  the  axis  of  the  arm,  viewed  from  in  front,  is  prolonged  upward  by 
the  eye  it  will  be  seen  to  pass  to  the  inner  side  of  the  glenoid  cavity,  and 
if  the  fingers  are  firmly  pressed  against  the  anterior  wall  of  the  axilla 
in  the  line  of  this  prolongation  and  a  little  below  the  coracoid  process 
they  will  encounter  the  firm  resistance  of  a  solid  body;  palpation  shows 
this  body  to  be  globular,  and  if  it  can  be  grasped  between  the  thumb 
and  finger,  or  if  the  finger  can  find  some  projection  on  its  surface,  it 
will  be  found  to  share  in  slight  movements  of  rotation  communicated 
to  the  arm  by  the  other  hand  of  the  surgeon. 

If  now  the  head  of  the  humerus  is  sought  for  by  palpation  in  its 
normal  position  it  will  not  be  found  there;  the  fingers  can  be  pressed 
in  deeply  under  the  acromion  from  the  outer  side ;  the  outer  margin  of 
the  acromion  is  prominent  and  can  be  easily  traced.  This  is  marked 
when  the  limb  is  abducted. 

If  the  elbow  be  further  abducted  and  the  surgeon  pass  his  fingers  well 
up  into  the  axilla  he  can  there  feel  the  head  of  the  humerus  more  or 
less  distinctly  according  as  the  displacement  is  low  or  high. 

If  the  distance  be  measured  from  the  outer  margin  of  the  acromion 

to  the  external  epicondyle  of   the  humerus  or  the  olecranon,  it  will 

usually  be  found  somewhat  greater,   perhaps  half   an  inch,  on  the 

injured  than  on  the  uninjured  side,  but  if  successive  measurements  are 

taken  as  the  arms  are  abducted  the  difference 

Fig.  261.  ^'^Y[  disappear,  and  in  complete  abduction  the 

^,     __jm>  distance  will  be  greater  on  the  opposite  side. 

~       The  reason  for  this  is  seen  by  a  glance  at  Fig. 
261. 

As  in  most  other  dislocations,  the  capital 
point  in  the  diagnosis  is  the  recognition  of  the 
head  of  the  bone  and  the  determination  of 
its  relations  to  the  socket  from  which  it  has 
escaped.  Ordinarily,  both  of  these  can  be 
accomplished  at  the  shoulder  with  ease  and 
certaintv,  and  the  examination  is  difficult  only 

Diagram  to  show  the  efrect  ,  i,',-  i>   ,  ii  j.  i 

of  position  upon  the  apparent     when  the  patient  IS  vcry  fat  or  the  parts  much 

length  of  the  arm  in  disloca-      SWollcn. 

tion  of  the  shoulder.  ^,  aero-  ^g  ^^^  attitude  and  range  of  motion  of  the 
merus.  ^'  ^°^^'  ^°  °  ^  li^^b  depend  mainly  upon  the  tension  of  the 
untorn  portion  of  the  capsule,  they  will  be 
modified  when  the  capsule  is  freely  torn.  It  is  in  such  cases  that  the 
diagnostic  sign  so  freely  trusted,  the  inability  to  bring  the  elbow 
against  the  side  and  to  place  the  hand  on  the  opposite  shoulder,  is 
lacking  or  only  slightly  marked. 

When  the  displacement  of  the  humerus  is  less  than  usual,  when  its 
head  rests  upon  the  edge  of  the  fossa,  the  ' '  incomplete ' '  dislocation  of 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  547 

some  writers,  the  symptoms  are  modified  to  this  extent,  that  the  flat- 
tening of  the  shoulder  and  the  abduction  of  the  elbow  are  less — the 
elbow  may  even  lie  close  to  the  body;  but  the  limb  is  equally  fixed 
and  incapable  of  being  voluntarily  moved.  The  pain  also  is  greater. 
It  has  occasionally  happened  that  the  dislocation  has  been  reduced  by 
the  manipulations  used  to  make  the  diagnosis. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  will  be  described  in  connection  with  that 
of  the  following  variety. 

2.  Intracoracoid  Dislocations  (Subclavicular  Dislocations). 

To  avoid  misapprehension  I  repeat  that  the  term  '^  intracoracoid" 
was  applied  by  Malgaigne  to  the  class  of  cases  which  he  deemed  of 
most  frequent  occurrence,  comprising  two-thirds  of  the  forty-nine  cases 
of  shoulder  dislocation  observed  by  him  at  the  Hopital  St.  Louis,  those 
in  which  the  head  of  the  humerus  is  so  placed  that  from  one-third  to 
two-thirds  or  three-fourths  of  its  transverse  diameter  lies  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  coracoid  process.  Most  of  such  cases  are  now  habitually 
spoken  of  as  "  subcoracoid,"  and  the  terms  intracoracoid  and  subcla- 
vicular are  restricted  to  those  cases  in  which  the  bone  is  displaced  still 
further  inward.  As  between  "  intracoracoid"  and  ''subclavicular" 
thus  employed,  I  prefer  the  former  name  because  it  contains  that  of 
the  anatomical  landmark  the  relations  to  which  form  the  basis  of  the 
classification. 

The  injury  may  be  produced  by  direct  violence  received  upon  the 
outer  aspect  of  the  shoulder  or  by  hyperabduction  of  the  arm.  The 
essential  causative  feature  of  the  variety,  as  compared  with  the  sub- 
coracoid, is  that  the  action  of  the  original  violence  is  prolonged,  or  that 
the  secondary  cause  exaggerates  the  secondary  displacement  upward  and 
inward.  After  a  primary  displacement  forward  and  downward  by  abduc- 
tion of  the  limb,  anything  that  forcibly  presses  or  draws  the  arm  inward, 
such  as  pressure  inward  against  the  elbow,  or  the  contraction  of  the 
deltoid  and  pectoralis  major,  may  effect  this  displacement  if  the  head 
of  the  bone  has  passed  under  the  subscapularis,  or  if  this  muscle  has 
been  sufficiently  torn.  The  head  of  the  humerus  lies  against  the  wall 
of  the  chest,  or  rather  against  the  serratus  magnus,  on  one  side,  and 
against  the  costal  surface  of  the  neck  of  the  scapula  on  the  other.  The 
subscapularis  usually  is  widely  torn;  in  McNamara's  case,  quoted  by 
Malgaigne,^  it  was  untorn,  and  the  head  of  the  humerus  had  stripped 
it  away  from  the  scapula  and  had  risen  above  its  upper  border,  lying 
against  the  root  of  the  coracoid  process.  No  muscle  or  tendon  was 
torn.  In  one  of  my  own  the  head  of  the  bone  had  passed  beneath  and 
entirely  to  the  inner  side  of  the  subscapularis. 

The  capsule  is  extensively  torn,  and  the  greater  tuberosity  usually 
broken  off  in  whole  or  in  part  and  lying  in  the  glenoid  fossa. 

The  head  of  the  humerus  passes  behind  the  muscles  arising  from  the 
coracoid  process  (in  one  recorded  case,  Roser's,^  in  front  of  the  coraco- 
brachialis  and  biceps  and  behind  the  pectoralis  minor)  and  occasionally 

1  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  525. 

"  Roser:  Arch,  fur  phys.  Heilkunde,  1844,  p.  582.    The  dislocation  had  lasted  for  seven  years, 
and  many  attempts  had  been  made  to  reduce  it. 


548 


DISLOCATIONS. 


is  partly  interposed  between  the  contiguous  borders  of  the  deltoid  and 
pectoralis  major,  being  then  subcutaneous.  It  may  lie  immediately 
under  or  a,  little  behind  the  clavicle,  in  one  case  (Meyer)  it  even  pro- 
jected above  and  behind  it,  and  it  has  usually  been  found  rotated  inward. 

The  long  tendon  of  the  biceps  is  broken,  or  displaced  across  and 
beyond  the  fractured  surface  left  by  the  avulsion  of  the  greater  tuber- 
osity. 

The  main  vessels  and  nerves  lie  rather  behind  the  head  than  between 
it  and  the  wall  of  the  chest. 

Fig.  262. 


Intracoracoid  dislocation. 


Symptoms.  The  attitude  of  the  patient  and  the  general  appearance 
of  the  shoulder  are  the  same  as  in  the  subcoracoid  variety;  the  details 
differ  mainly  in  degree,  some  being  less,  others  more,  marked.  The 
flattening  of  the  shoulder  is  greater,  as  is  also,  in  some  cases,  the  ful- 
ness of  the  subclavicular  fossa,  but  this  fulness  is  nearer  the  median 
line.  The  elbow  may  lie  near  the  side,  even  in  contact  with  it;  the 
axis  of  the  arm  prolonged  upward  in  front  passes  well  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  coracoid  process.  The  fingers  cannot  be  passed  between 
the  head  of  the  humerus  and  the  chest-wall,  consequently  only  the 
shaft  and  lower  portion  of  the  head  can  be  felt  through  the  axilla;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  lower  anterior  edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa  and  the 
neck  of  the  scapula  can  sometimes  be  felt  behind  the  shaft. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


549 


Abduction  of  the  limb  is  not  always  easy,  and  is  effected  by  eleva- 
tion of  the  scapula  rather  than  by  movement  of  the  humerus  upon  it. 
Differences  in  length,  when  the  arm  is  dependent,  are  less  constant 
and  marked  than  in  the  preceding  variety,  but  if  the  arm  can  be 
abducted  upon  the  scapula  the  shortening  is  then  greater. 

The  dislocation  can  be  transformed  into  a  subcoracoid  by  traction 
downward  and  outward. 

Occasionally^  the  dislocated  arm  is  fixed  in  the  position  of  complete 
horizontal  abduction  (Fig.  263).     Such  are  doubtless  cases  in  which 

Fig.  263. 


Intracoracoid  dislocation,  witti  arm  lixed  in  horizontal  abduction.    (Bardenheuer.) 


the  head  has  left  the  socket  at  a  low  point  while  the  arm  was  widely 
abducted.  (See  Subglenoid  Dislocations  and  Luxatio  erecta,  Chapter 
XLIII.) 

Treatment  of  Anterior  Dislocations. 

(See,  also.  Chapter  XXXIII.) 

Obstacles  to  the  return  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  to  its  socket  may 
be  created  by  the  tension  of  portions  of  the  capsule  which  oppose  its 
movement  toward  the  socket,  except  in  certain  attitudes  of  the  limb, 
by  the  approximation  of  the  sides  of  the  rent  in  the  capsule  through 
which  it  has  j)assed,  by  the  interposition  of  portions  of  the  capsule  or 
of  the  tendon  of  the  biceps,  by  its  engagement  behind  the  edge  of  the 
glenoid  cavity  or  the  coracoid  process,  by  the  contraction  or  rigidity  of 
the  muscles  and  the  swelling  of  the  soft  parts,  and  exceptionally  by 
the  interposition  of  the  tendon  of  the  subscapularis  (see  above).  Those 
which  are  most  frequently  concerned  are  the  opposition  of  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  capsule  and  the  contraction  of  the  muscles. 

If  the  portion  of  the  capsule  which  extends  from  the  base  of  the 
coracoid  process  and  the  outer,  or  posterior,  edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa 
to  the  greater  tuberosity  and  posterior  portion  of  the  humerus,  includ- 
ing the  coraco-humeral  ligament,  remains  untorn,  it  is  stretched  down- 
ward and  forward  across  the  glenoid  fossa,  and,  being  drawn  tight  by 
the  weight  of  the  elbow,  it  holds  the  head  of  the  humerus  against  the 

1  Bardenheuer :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  63  a,  p.  317. 


550  DISLOCATIONS. 

scapula.  If  now  the  elbow  is  raised,  the  capsule  is  thereby  relaxed, 
and  the  abducted  limb  can  be  easily  drawn  outward. 

If  the  capsule  is  so  freely  torn  away  from  the  humerus  on  the  outer 
side  that  it  falls  down  between  it  and  the  glenoid  fossa,  it  cannot  be 
lifted  out  of  the  way  by  manipulation  of  the  arm,  because  its  separation 
is  so  complete  that  it  is  no  longer  affected  by  the  position  given  to  the 
latter.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  pushed  out  of  the  way  by  the  returning 
bone,  but  that  is  a  matter  of  chance  rather  than  of  skill.  Probably, 
full  abduction  of  the  arm  followed  by  traction  would  be  most  likely  to 
accomplish  the  object  under  such  circumstances. 

Dislocation  and  interposition  of  the  tendon  of  the  long  head  of  the 
biceps  occurs  only  with  avulsion  of  the  greater  tuberosity,  and  not 
always  then,  for  it  may,  instead,  be  ruptured.  Even  when  interposed, 
the  tendon  may  be  fairly  expected  to  have  preserved  its  relations  with 
the  lower  part  of  the  bicipital  groove  and  sheath,  and  consequently  to 
be  still  somewhat  under  control  by  the  humerus.  By  elevating  the 
arm  and  flexing  the  elbow  it  will  be  relaxed  and  raised  toward  the 
upper  part  of  the  joint,  leaving  space  below  for  the  head  of  the  bone 
to  pass  back  under  it. 

Abduction  of  the  arm  and  external  rotation  are,  then,  the  means  by 
which  the  most  common  obstacles  created  by  the  capsule  are  to  be 
avoided. 

The  muscles  oppose  reduction  by  their  contraction  excited  by  pain 
or  the  fear  of  pain;  this  can  sometimes  be  avoided  by  taking  the  patient 
unawares,  or  by  fatiguing  the  muscles,  and  always  by  anaesthesia.  A 
certain  anxiety  connected  with  resort  to  the  aid  of  anaesthesia  has  arisen 
from  the  fact  that  a  disproportionate  number  of  deaths  caused  by  chloro- 
form have  occurred  in  the  reduction  of  dislocations  (see  p.  451),  but  I  am 
not  aware  that  death  has  ever  followed  the  use  of  ether  under  such  cir- 
cumstances. There  are  many  reasons  why  reduction  should  be  made, 
when  conveniently  practicable,  without  its  aid,  but  I  never  hesitate  to 
avail  myself  of  the  aid  of  ether  in  preference  to  the  employment  of 
long-continued,  forcible,  or  painful  traction,  even  in  recent  cases.  In 
those  of  long  standing  in  which  adhesions  must  be  broken,  the  capsule 
retorn,  and  the  shortened  muscles  elongated,  it  is  indispensable. 

Reduction  in  recent  cases  is  usually  easy,  and  it  has  been  safely 
accomplished  after  the  lapse  of  many  weeks  and  even  months.  It  is 
impossible  to  fix  a  period  after  which  reduction  by  traction  should  no 
longer  be  attempted;  each  case  must  be  judged  by  itself.  Serious,  even 
fatal,  accidents  have  followed  the  attempt  so  often  that  the  surgeon  is 
fully  justified  in  advising  abstention  on  the  ground  that  the  risk  is  too 
great  to  be  taken.  Persoually,  I  prefer  in  a  doubtful  case  to  expose 
the  joint  by  incision  and  liberate  the  head  of  the  humerus  with  the 
knife,  rather  than  seek  blindly  to  break  up  the  adhesions  by  rotation 
and  traction.     (See  Chapter  XXXIII.) 

In  all  the  methods  in  which  forcible  traction  is  made  upon  the  arm 
success  depends  largely  upon  efficient  fixation  of  the  scapula.  When 
the  traction  is  made  by  specially  constructed  apparatus  the  counter- 
extension  is  effected  by  a  ring  or  crutch  arranged  to  bear  against  the 
scapula,  but  when  it  is  made  by  the  hands  of  assistants  the  scapula 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  551 

may  be  fixed  by  a  split  band  through  which  the  arm  is  passed.  In 
some  cases  in  which  only  moderate  traction  is  made  a  simple  baud 
about  the  chest  is  sufficient,  or  the  pressure  of  the  surgeon's  foot  or 
baud  against  the  side  of  the  chest  or  the  acromion. 

Direct  Reposition.  This  method,  the  use  of  which  can  be  traced 
back  to  the  time  of  Avncenna,  has  been  of  late  especially  recommended 
by  Richet  and  Von  Pitha.  It  is  often  successful  in  recent  cases  in 
which  the  displacement  and  muscular  contraction  are  not  great,  and 
especially  when  aided  by  aneesthesia.  The  arm,  somewhat  abducted, 
is  supported  by  the  side,  and  the  surgeon,  placing  his  fingers  in  the 
axilla  on  the  under  and  inner  side  of  the  head  of  the  humerus,  and 
his  thumbs  upon  the  acromion,  seeks  to  press  the  bone  directly  into 
place.  Or  the  position  of  the  hands  may  be  reversed,  the  thumbs 
being  placed  in  the  axilla  and  the  fingers  upon  the  acromion.  Or,  the 
patient  being  seated,  the  surgeon  supports  the  flexed  elbow  upon  his  own 
forearm,  gets  his  fingers  around  the  head  of  the  humerus  in  the  axilla, 
and  presses  it  toward  the  glenoid  cavity  w^hile  he  steadies  the  scapula 
with  the  other  hand. 

Traction  Downward  and  Outward  with  Coaptation.  In  its  simplest 
form,  one  that  is  successful  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases,  especially 
with  the  aid  of  anaesthesia,  the  method  is  practised  as  follows  :  The 
patient  is  placed  upon  a  bed  and  counter-extension  is  provided  by  a 
band  passed  around  his  chest  and  made  fast  to  a  support  on  the 
sound  side.  If  anaesthesia  is  used  the  weight  of  the  body  is  usually 
sufficient  for  counter-extension,  and  this  band  can  be  dispensed  with. 
The  surgeon  grasps  the  arm  above  the  elbow  and  pulls  steadily  down- 
ward and  outward  at  first,  and  then  slowly  changes  the  direction  by 
increasing  the  abduction  until  the  arm  is  nearly  or  quite  at  right  angles 
with  the  body,  while,  at  the  same  time,  he  rotates  the  arm  outward. 
Or  the  traction  is  made  by  an  assistant,  and  the  surgeon,  standing 
beside  the  patient,  watches  the  movement  of  the  head  of  the  humerus, 
and  when  it  has  approached  the  joint  he  presses  it  upward  into  place 
with  his  fingers  or  tiiumb,  making  counter-pressure  on  the  acromion. 

If  anaesthesia  is  not  used,  or  if  more  force  is  used,  the  scapula  may 
be  fixed  by  bauds  passing  over  and  under  the  shoulder  or  by  pressure 
against  the  edge  of  the  acromion.  Or  the  patient  can  be  laid  on  his 
back  on  the  floor,  and  the  surgeon  seated  beside  him  places  his  foot 
against  the  side  of  the  chest  or  the  edge  of  the  acromion  and  draws  the 
arm  directly  outward. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  elbow  shall  be  kept  partly  flexed  to  relax  the 
biceps,  and  also,  if  the  surgeon  himself  is  making  traction,  to  enable 
him  to  rotate  the  limb  inward  when  the  head  has  been  broug^ht  close 
to  its  socket,  since  this  manoeuvre  is  sometimes  an  efficient  substitute 
for  direct  pressure  upon  the  head. 

An  excellent  modification  in  cases  in  which  it  is  desired  to  avoid  the 
use  of  an  anaesthetic  is  the  substitution  of  continuous  traction  by  India- 
rubber  or  a  weight  and  pulley,  as  described  on  page  433. 

Another  is  the  so-called  ^ ' pendel-methode,' '  which  occupies  a  position 
intermediate  between  this  and  the  following  method,  hyper-elevation 
of  the  arm,  and  in  which  the  weight  of  the  patient's  body  is  used  to 


552  DISLOCATIONS. 

make  the  traction.  The  patient  is  laid  upon  the  floor  on  the  sound 
side,  and  an  assistant,  standing  upon  a  stool,  grasps  the  dislocated  arm 
and  lifts  the  shoulders  from  the  floor  while  the  surgeon  presses  the 
head  of  the  bone  toward  its  socket.  If  a  greater  weight  is  needed 
another  assistant  raises  the  feet  so  that  the  body  is  wholly  off  the  floor, 
or  presses  downward  against  the  side  of  the  chest.  If  a  sufficiently 
robust  assistant  is  not  at  hand,  or  if  the  effort  is  to  be  prolonged,  the 
suspension  may  be  made  by  means  of  a  rope  attached  to  the  arm  above 
the  elbow.  Bardenheuer  says  that  Simon  reduced  by  this  means  a 
dislocation  that  had  existed  for  a  year  and  three-quarters. 

Traction  Upward.  In  this  method  the  arm  is  raised  beside  the  head 
and  drawn  upon  while  counter-extension  is  made  by  the  hand  or 
foot  upon  the  top  of  the  shoulder.  Duplay,  following  Malgaigne, 
speaks  of  it  in  rather  exaggerated  terms  as  the  only  rational  method, 
because  it  relaxes  all  the  muscles.  The  difference  between  it  and  trac- 
tion at  right  angles  to  the  body  is  more  apparent  than  real,  because  the 
further  elevation  of  the  arm  is  effected  by  a  change  in  the  position  of 
the  scapula  upon  the  chest,  without  change  in  its  relations  to  the 
humerus.  The  method,  which  was  known  to  Celsus  and  practised  by 
Brunus  in  the  thirteenth  century,  was  extensively  used  in  England  in 
the  last  century,  but  is  more  particularly  connected  with  the  name  of 
Mothe  in  France,  and  of  Kluge  in  Germany.  Malgaigne  says  that 
he  himself  reinvented  it  for  the  fourth  or  fifth  time  in  1828  as  the 
result  of  experiments  upon  the  cadaver.  It  has  commonly  been  com- 
bined in  practice  with  some  form  of  the  method  next  to  be  described, 
the  bascule  of  the  French  and  German  authors,  that  in  which  the  head 
of  the  bone  is  pressed  outward  by  placing  a  fulcrum  high  up  in  the 
axilla  and  then  swinging  the  elbow  in  toward  the  body,  and  has  also 
been  frequently  supplemented  with  external,  followed  by  internal, 
rotation. 

In  its  simplest  form,  as  described  by  Bransby  Cooper,  the  patient  is 
placed  upon  his  back  on  the  bed  or  table,  and  the  surgeon  sitting  beside 
his  head  draws  the  dislocated  arm  upward  with  one  hand  and  fixes  the 
scapula  with  the  other;  the  counter-extension  may  be  aided  by  a  long 
bandage  or  towel  passing  over  the  shoulder  and  fixed  by  both  ends  to 
the  foot  of  the  bed.  After  reduction  has  taken  place,  and  while  the 
arm  is  being  lowered,  the  head  of  the  humerus  should  be  held  in  place 
by  direct  pressure  upon  it. 

Malgaigne' s  plan,  when  more  force  was  needed,  was  to  rest  the 
patient  on  the  floor,  and  lift  the  arm  directly  upward  with  both  hands, 
counter-extension  being  made  by  the  weight  of  the  body  and  aided,  if 
necessary,  by  pressure  made  upon  the  acromion  by  an  assistant.  If 
this  failed  and  he  wished  to  try  more  force  before  resorting  to  the 
bascule,  he  made  the  patient  stand  beside  a  door  and  raised  the  arm  to 
a  vertical  position  by  means  of  a  strong  band  made  fast  at  the  wrist  or 
elbow  and  carried  over  the  top  of  the  door;  then  the  patient  was 
directed  to  bend  his  knees  until  the  weight  of  his  body  should  be 
entirely  supported  by  the  dislocated  arm,  and,  in  addition,  the  surgeon 
contributed  his  own  weight  by  clasping  his  hands  over  the  patient's 
acromion  and  kneeling  beside  him.     The  addition,  as  proposed  by 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  553 

Laoour'  in  1847,  of  external  and  internal  rotation  to  the  vertical  trac- 
tion, has  added  to  its  efficiency. 

The  chief  objection  to  this  method  is  that  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  preceding  one,  that  of  the  risk  of  injuring  the  main  vessels 
in  the  axilla  by  unduly  stretching  them  around  the  head  of  the 
humerus,  and  it  is  even  greater  here  because  the  elevation,  or  abduc- 
tion, is  made  without  preliminary  traction  to  bring  the  head  nearer  the 
socket. 

Another  objection  is  that  it  is  likely  to  increase  the  laceration  of  the 
capsule  and  of  the  subscapularis  and  thereby  promote  recurrence  of  the 
dislocation. 

Traction  with  Leverage.  This  method  differs  from  that  of  traction 
downward  and  outward  in  the  addition,  or  the  substitution  for  direct 
coaptative  pressure  by  the  hands,  of  a  leverage  movement  in  which 
the  head  of  the  bone  is  forced  outward  by  the  adduction  of  the  limb 
over  a  fulcrum  placed  in  the  axilla.  The  fulcrum  is  usually  the 
closed  fist  or  the  heel. 

When  the  hand  is  used  traction  is  made  outward  and  downward  by 
an  assistant,  and  when  the  head  of  the  bone  has  been  moved  sufficiently 
far  the  surgeon  places  his  closed  fist  well  up  in  the  axilla,  and  the 
assistant,  still  maintaining  the  traction,  swings  the  arm  toward  the  side 
(adduction),  sometimes  combining  with  it  moderate  rotation. 

The  Heel  in  the  Axilla.  This  method,  generally  known  as  Sir  Astley 
Cooper's,  but  really  dating  back  to  the  time  of  Hippocrates,  was  in 
very  general  use  in  England  and  America  until  quite  recently.  It  is 
unfortunately  responsible  for  not  a  few  more  or  less  serious  injuries  to 
the  bloodvessels  and  nerves  of  the  axilla. 

The  patient  is  placed  upon  his  back  on  a  bed  or  sofa  and  a  towel  or 
stout  bandage  made  fast  to  the  arm  above  the  elbow.  The  surgeon, 
facing  him,  seats  himself  upon  the  side  of  the  bed  and  places  the  heel 
of  one  foot,  from  which  the  shoe  has  been  removed,  well  up  in  the 
axilla  against  the  head  of  the  humerus  and  then  makes  traction  down- 
ward upon  the  towel  and  maintains  it  until  the  bone  is  felt  to  slip  into 
place.  Remembering  that  under  these  conditions  traction  upon  the 
humerus  is  directly  transmitted  to  the  scapula  through  the  already 
tense  capsule,  it  seems  probable  that  the  method  owes  its  efficiency  to 
the  action  of  the  heel  as  a  wedge,  which  by  being  forced  in  between 
the  thorax  and  the  humerus  presses  the  latter  directly  outward.  If 
the  traction  is  made  at  first  in  a  direction  inclined  away  from  the  body, 
and  then  brought  more  nearly  parallel  to  it,  the  mechanical  effect  is 
the  same  as  when  the  fist  is  used  as  above  described. 

It  may  be  proper  to  employ  this  method  if  no  more  force  is  used 
than  can  be  exerted  by  the  surgeon  himself,  although  accidents  have 
happened  even  under  such  circumstances,  but  it  is  certainly  dangerous 
and  improper  to  employ  it  with  the  pulleys  or  assistants,  and  still  more 
so  to  substitute  an  iron  plug  for  the  heel  as  recommended  and  prac- 
tised by  Skey.  The  large  vessels  and  nerves  lie  upon  the  inner  side 
of  the  head  of  the  humerus  and  are  exposed  to  be  compressed  between 

1  Lacour  :  M6m.  de  Chirurgie,  1847,  vol.  i.  p.  387. 


554 


DISLOCATIONS. 


it  and  the  heel  and  thus  directly  bruised  or  so  held  fast  that  they  may 
be  overstretched  and  torn  as  their  distal  portions  are  drawn  downward 
in  the  sliding  of  the  soft  parts  of  the  arm  toward  the  elbow. 

Forcible  Traction.  If  more  forcible  traction  is  needed  than  can  be 
made  in  the  methods  already  described,  resort  should  be  had  to  the 
pulleys  or  specially  constructed  apparatus.  The  pulleys  are  made  fast 
to  the  arm  above  the  elbow  by  a  broad  leather  band  buckled  tightly 
around  it  or  by  a  strap  or  band  made  fast  by  several  turns  of  a  wet 
bandage;  it  is  necessary  to  secure  it  tightly  to  the  arm,  for  this  does 
not  increase  the  bruising  caused  by  the  traction,  and  if  it  should  slip 
the  soft  parts  might  be  seriously  torn.  As  a  further  precaution 
against  slipping  the  forearm  should  be  bandaged  and  the  elbow  fixed 
at  a  right  angle.  It  is  also  advisable  to  interpose  a  dynamometer 
between  the  pulleys  and  the  limb  to  indicate  the  amount  of  force  that 
is  being  employed,  and  a  pair  of  '' liberation  forceps"  to  allow  the 
traction  to  be  suddenly  relaxed  and  the  position  of  the  arm  changed. 
(Fig.  264.) 


Fig.  264. 


Reduction  with  the  pulleys ;  4,  dynamometer  ;  6,  '•  liberation  forceps."    (Ddplay. 


The  special  instruments,  of  which  the  most  elaborate  and  ingenious 
are  made  in  France,  are,  in  the  main,  modifications  of  the  "  adjuster" 
invented  by  Dr.  Jarvis,  of  Portland,  Connecticut.  They  consist  of 
two  bars  movable  upon  each  other  by  a  rack  and  pinion,  one  of  which 
is  made  fast  by  a  leather  bracelet  to  the  lower  part  of  the  arm,  and  the 
other  to  a  ring  or  crutch  that  fits  against  the  scapula.  A  dynamom- 
eter indicates  the  force  exerted,  and  a  catch  sets  it  instantly  free  at 
will.  The  instruments  are  expensive,  the  occasions  for  their  use  are 
rare,  and  the  method  is  dangerous. 

Eeduction  by  Manipulation.  (Rotation.)  It  has  been  already  men- 
tioned that  rotation  of  the  arm  has  long  been  used  in  connection 
with  the  various  methods  of  extension  to  effect  reduction,  and  it  also 
appears  that  from  time  to  time  men  have  sought  to  reduce,  and  some- 
times with  success,  by  moving  the  limb  in  various  directions  without 
the  aid  of  much  traction,  but  it  is  only  within  the  present  century  that 
methods  of  manipulation  founded  upon  a  correct  appreciation  of  the 
obstacles  and  of  the  means  by  which  they  may  be  overcome  have  been 
devised  and  practised  with  intelligence  and  success.  Rotation  inward 
was  long  employed  as  the  final  manoeuvre  to  turn  the  head  of  the  bone 
into  the  socket  after  it  had  been  brought  opposite  it  by  traction,  and  it 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


655 


till  constitutes  the  final  step  in  the  pure  manipulative  method.  Exter- 
nal rotation  during  traction  was  first  employed  under  the  influence  of 
various  ideas  concerning  the  part  taken  by  the  muscles  in  opposing  the 
return  of  the  bone,  or  to  dislodge  the  head  from  its  position  behind  the 
lip  of  the  glenoid  fossa;  then,  in  the  light  of  more  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  influence  of  the  uutorn  portion  of  the  capsule,  it  became  the  first 
step  in  the  methods  of  reduction  without  traction. 

Of  these  methods  the  one  that  is  most  highly  esteemed  and  generally 
practised  is  that  recommended  by  Prof.  Kocher,^  of  Bern.  The  fol- 
lowing description  is  taken  from  one  given  at  the  Surgical  Congress  in 
London,  and  published  by  his  pupil  Ceppi  in  the  Revue  de  Chirurgie, 
1882,  p.  831.  "  In  the  subcoracoid  dislocation  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  capsule  and  the  tendons  of  the  posterior  scapular  muscles  which 
cover  and  strengthen  it  are  untorn  and  are  stretched  over  the  glenoid 
fossa.  The  inferior  portion  of  the  capsule  which  forms  the  lower  border 
of  the  rent  is  also  very  tense.  But  the  tension  is  greatest  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  capsule,  and  especially  between  the  long  tendon  of 
the  biceps  and  the  upper  border  of  the  subscapularis,  where  it  is 
reinforced  by  the  fibres  of  the  coraco-humeral  ligament.     This  portion 


Fig.  265. 


Koeher's  method  of  reduction  by  manipulation ;  1st  movement,  outward  rotation.    (Ceppi.) 

of  the  capsule  is  twisted  in  the  dislocation,  and  stretched  in  the  form 
of  a  solid  cord.  If  now  the  humerus  is  rotated  externally  until  the 
flexed  forearm  is  turned  directly  outward,  this  cord  will  be  at  the  same 
time  rotated  outward,  the  posterior  part  of  the  capsule  will  be  widely 
removed  from  the  fossa,  and  the  rent  in  the  capsule  will  gape;  but  the 
head  of  the  humerus  will  still  remain  solidly  fixed  against  the  anterior 
edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa  because  the  upper  and  lower  portions  of  the 
capsule  have  not  been  relaxed  by  this  movement.  It  is  only  when 
the  elbow  is  carried  forward  and  raised  in  the  sagittal  plane,  while  the 
arm  is  still  held  in  external  rotation,  that  the  upper  part  of  the  capsule 
is  seen  to  relax,  and  the  head  of  the  humerus,  thanks  to  the  tension  of 


1  Kocher :  Berlin,  klin.  Wochenschrift,  1870,  No.  9,  and  Volkmann's  Sammlung  klin.  Vortrage, 
No.  83,  p.  611. 


556 


DISLOCATIONS. 


the  lower  portion  which  keeps  it  from  moving  forward,  to  enter  its 
socket.      Rotation  inward  then  completes  the  reduction." 

The  method  may  be  formulated  in  detail  as  follows  (Figs.  265,  266, 
and  267).     Dislocation  of  the  left  shoulder.     The  patient  is  seated, 


Fig.  266. 


Kocher's  method  of  reduction ;  2d  movement,  elevation  of  elbow.    (Ceppi.) 

and  the  surgeon,  kneeling  beside  him,  flexes  his  elbow  at  a  right  angle 
and  presses  it  with  his  right  hand  against  his  side;  then,  holding  the 
elbow  firmly  in  place,  he  slowly  and  steadily  moves  the  wrist  outward 

with  his  left  hand  (external  rota- 
^i«-  267.  tion   of    the  humerus)   until  the 

forearm  stands  directly  outward 
from  the  side  of  the  body;  if  this 
is  strongly  resisted  the  pressure 
must  be  steadily  maintained  until 
the  resistance  yields.  The  evi- 
dence that  the  movement  has  ac- 
complished what  was  expected  of 
it  is  the  appearance  of  greater  ful- 
ness of  the  outer  deltoid  region; 
if  this  does  not  appear  the  attempt 
will  fail.  Then,  still  maintaining 
the  external  rotation  of  the  arm 
and  the  flexion  of  the  elbow,  the 
surgeon  moves  the  elbow  forward, 
or  forward  and  slightly  inward, 
until  the  arm  is  horizontal;  dur- 
ing this  movement  the  fulness  of 
the  outer  deltoid  region  becomes 
more  marked,  and  at  its  termi- 
nation the  manoeuvre  is  completed 
by  rotating  the  arm  inward  and  bringing  the  hand  to  the  opposite 
shoulder.  The  bone  may  slip  into  place  during  the  second  move- 
ment, elevation  of  the  elbow.     Direct  traction  outward  of  the  upper 


Kocher's  method  of  reduction  ;  3d  movement: 
invyard  rotation  and  lowering  of  elbow.  (Ceppi.' 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  557 

end  of  the  bone  by  a  bandage  in  the  axilla  is  sometimes  helpful,  and 
1  have  sometimes  found  it  advantageous  to  make  firm  pressure  down- 
ward at  the  elbow  (traction  in  the  long  axis  of  the  arm)  during  the 
movement  of  outward  rotation. 

The  method  as  thus  described  is  applicable  to  those  cases  in  which 
the  displacement  is  neither  very  far  inward  nor  low  down,  in  short, 
to  the  higher  forms  of  the  subcoracoid  variety;  and  as  it  depends  for 
its  success  upon  the  resistance  of  the  untorn  portion  of  the  capsule  it 
will  also  fail  whenever  the  capsule  is  very  extensively  torn.  When 
the  displacement  is  far  inward  or  low,  traction  upon  the  abducted  limb 
is  more  likely  to  succeed. 

Konig^  modifies  it  for  the  lower  anterior  and  subglenoid  dislocations 
by  making  traction  in  abduction,  rotating  outward,  and  then  adduct- 
ing.  This  is  practically  the  same  as  the  method  described  as  traction 
downward  and  outward  and  generally  known  as  Lacour's  method  by 
manipulation. 

Farabeuf  -  studied  Kocher's  method  experimentally  with  a  view  to 
determine  the  mechanism  by  which  its  result  was  accomplished,  and 
reached  the  conclusion  that  the  efficient  agent  was  the  untorn  posterior 
portion  of  the  capsule,  and  that  the  upper  portion,  the  coraco-humeral 
ligament,  had  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  it.  He  showed,  experi- 
mentally, that  when  this  latter  had  been  divided  and  the  posterior  por- 
tion left  intact  the  manoeuvre  would  still  effect  reduction,  but  that  when 
the  posterior  portion  was  divided  and  the  upper  portion  left  whole  it 
failed,  and  that  then  the  head  of  the  humerus  instead  of  being  moved 
outward  by  the  external  rotation  simply  revolved  about  the  longitu- 
dinal axis  of  the  shaft.  His  explanation  is  clear  and  intelligible. 
According  to  it  the  approximation  of  the  elbow  to  the  side  tightens  the 
posterior  portion  of  the  capsule  where  it  extends  between  the  posterior 
lip  of  the  glenoid  fossa  and  the  under  and  back  part  of  the  neck  of 
the  humerus;  this  prevents  the  posterior  surface  of  the  humerus  from 
moving  inward  when  the  arm  is  rotated  outward,  and  consequently  its 
attachment  to  the  humerus  serves  as  the  fixed  point  or  centre  about 
which  the  bone  rolls  outward,  winding  itself,  as  it  were,  upon  the  cap- 
sule. The  elevation  and  adduction  of  the  elbow,  turning  upon  the 
same  fixed  point,  then  throws  the  head  backward  and  further  outward, 
and  finally  the  internal  rotation  unwinds  the  capsule  and  leaves  every- 
thing in  place. 

The  method  is  applicable  to  old  as  well  as  to  recent  cases,  but  the 
danger  of  breaking  the  humerus  during  the  second  step — outward  rota- 
tion— must  be  borne  in  mind,  especially  in  elderly  patients. 

Schinzinger's  method,  the  introduction  of  which  appears  to  have  ante- 
dated Kocher's,  was  in  like  manner  based  upon  the  persistence  of  the 
posterior  portion  of  the  capsule,  but  differed  from  Kocher's  in  the 
second  and  third  steps  of  the  manoeuvre.  He  rotated  the  arm  outward 
until  the  hand  was  as  far  back  as  the  elbow,  and  then  either  pressed 
the  bone  upward  and  outward  into  place  by  direct  pressure,  or  turned 
it  in  by  slow  internal  rotation  while  an  assistant  made  pressure  on  the 

1  Kiinig:  Speciel.  Chirurgie,  3d  ed.,  vol.  iii.  p.  40. 

2  Farabeuf:  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  la  Chir.,  1885,  p.  395* 


558  DISLOCATIONS. 

inner  side  of  its  head  to  prevent  it  from  slipping  back  into  the  position 
from  which  it  had  been  removed  by  the  outward  rotation.  The  method 
is  favorably  spoken  of  by  several  of  the  later  German  writers,  and  is 
thought  to  be  especially  useful  in  rupturing  the  adhesions  of  old  dislo- 
cations without  the  risk  of  injury  to  the  vessels  or  nerves. 

Circumduction,  sometimes  known  as  Heine's  method,  in  which,  after 
fixation  of  the  scapula  as  for  traction,  the  arm  is  slowly  abducted,  raised 
to  the  side  of  the  head,  inclined  slightly  backward,  and  then  brought 
forward  and  downward  across  the  face  and  chest,  has  been  recom- 
mended and  used  in  old  dislocations;  it  is  undoubtedly  efficient  in 
breaking  up  the  adhesions,  but  it  is  a  rough,  uncertain,  and  dangerous 
plan,  and  should  be  condemned. 

To  recapitulate,  the  treatment  of  a  recent  anterior  dislocation  of 
average  displacement  may  be  thus  summed  up  :  Kocher's  method  may 
first  be  tried;  if  that  fails,  traction  downward  and  outward  should  be 
tried,  the  elbow  not  being  raised  higher  than  the  shoulder,  combined 
with  direct  pressure  upon  the  head,  or  followed  by  adduction  over  the 
fist  in  the  axilla.  If  these  also  fail,  the  patient  should  be  etherized, 
and  the  attempts  repeated.  When  those  rare  conditions  are  present 
which  make  reduction  otherwise  impossible — interposition  of  capsule 
or  tendon  of  biceps  or  subscapularis — an  open  arthrotomy  is  justifiable 
if  it  can  be  done  with  proper  precautions  against  infection. 

In  older  dislocations  the  same  plan  should  be  followed,  and  resort 
should  be  had  to  forcible  traction  only  after  other  measures  have  failed. 

The  signs  of  a  successful  reduction  are  the  sound  that  is  usually 
heard  when  the  bone  slips  into  place,  the  restoration  of  form  and  func- 
tion, and  the  diminution  or  cessation  of  pain.  The  sound  is  not  always 
heard,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  a  similar  sound  may  be  caused  by  the 
rupture  of  adhesions  or  by  the  slipping  of  the  bones  upon  each  other. 
Complete  restoration  of  form  is  the  best  evidence;  this  is  to  be  deter- 
mined by  an  examination  similar  to  that  employed  in  making  the 
diagnosis  of  a  dislocation  and  by  attention  to  the  same  signs.  The 
reduction  may  be  incomplete  because  of  the  interposition  of  a  portion 
of  the  capsule,  or  because  of  the  presence  of  tissues  of  new  formation 
in  the  glenoid  cavity.  This  incompleteness  is  shown  by  the  abnormal 
projection  forward  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  under  the  acromion. 

After-treatment. 

After  reduction  has  been  obtained  it  is  highly  desirable  that  the 
arm  should  be  immobilized  for  two  or  three  weeks  in  a  position 
that  will  favor  the  speedy  repair  of  the  lacerations  of  the  capsule, 
tendons,  and  muscles;  otherwise  the  joint  may  remain  in  a  con- 
dition that  favors  recurrence,  and  the  patient  may  suffer  much  in- 
convenience or  even  disability  in  consequence.  As  the  rent  in  the 
capsule  is  on  the  inner  side,  and  as  its  edges  are  separated  by  external 
rotation  of  the  limb,  the  head  of  the  humerus  should  be  directed 
toward  the  outer  side  (adduction  of  the  elbow)  and  the  arm  should  be 
kept  rotated  inward.  These  two  indications  are  met  by  binding  the 
limb  to  the  body  with  the  hand  resting  just  below  the  opposite  clavicle. 
Fixation  may  be  made  by  a  silicate-of-soda  or  plaster-of -Paris  dressing 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  559 

or  even  by  simple  bandages,  but  the  most  convenient  and  effective 
dressing  is  a  strip  of  adhesive  plaster  arranged  as  follows  :  beginning 
in  front  at  the  clavicle  it  is  carried  over  the  shoulder  and  down  the 
back  of  the  arm,  then  under  the  elbow  to  the  back  of  the  forearm,  and 
along  the  latter  and  the  back  of  the  hand  to  and  over  the  top  of  the 
opposite  shoulder.  A  small  pad  of  absorbent  cotton  or  lint  should  be 
placed  in  the  axilla  and  between  surfaces  of  skin  that  are  in  contact. 
If  the  patient  is  unruly  a  second  band  may  be  placed  circularly  about 
the  body  and  lower  part  of  the  arm.  This  dressing  should  be  retained 
for  two  or  three  weeks,  and  the  arm  carried  in  a  sling  for  a  fortnight 
longer.  If  passive  motion  is  made,  abduction  and  external  rotation 
should  be  avoided. 

For  complications,  accidents,  prognosis,  and  the  treatment  of   old 
dislocations,  see  Chapter  XLIV. 


i*C"f 


CHAPTER    XLIII. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF  THE  SHOULDER.— (CoNxmuED.) 
DOWNWARD  DISLOCATIONS. 

I.  Subglenoid. 

Under  this  title  are  here  included  those  rare  cases  in  which  the 
head  of  the  humerus  is  displaced  directly  downward  upon  the  tendon 
of  the  long  head  of  the  triceps,  and  those  more  frequent  ones  in  which 
it  is  engaged  under  the  lower  and  inner  edge  of  the  glenoid  cavity, 
and  rests  against  the  flattened  upper  portion  of  the  axillary  border  of 

the  scapula  on  the  inner  side  of 
^^<^  268.  ii^Q  tendon  of  the  triceps.     As 

explained  in  connection  with 
the  classification  given  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  the  name  is 
here  restricted  to  a  portion  of 
those  cases  which  are  termed 
subglenoid  by  most  English 
and  American  authors,  to  those, 
namely,  in  which  the  head  of 
the  bone  is  low  in  the  axilla. 
By  some  the  term  is  still  further 
restricted  in  use,  and  is  applied 
only  to  the  first  of  the  two 
forms  above  mentioned,  those 
in  which  the  head  is  displaced 
directly  downward  upon  the 
tendon  of  the  triceps.  Although 
it  is  denied  by  some  on  theo- 
retical grounds  that  this  form 
can  exist,  yet  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted not  only  as  possible,  but  as  having  been  actually  observed,  on 
the  evidence  of  several  observers  who  fully  understood  the  point  in 
dispute.  Yon  Pitha  (quoted  by  Bardenheuer)  says  that  he  had  seen 
it  only  in  cases  in  which  he  had  the  opportunity  to  examine  the  patient 
immediately  after  the  accident,  and  before  any  movements  had  been 
communicated  to  the  limb  or  attempts  made  to  reduce.  He  believes 
that  the  head  can  be  easily  displaced  from  its  new  position,  and  moved 
upward  and  forward,  the  dislocation  being  thus  transformed  into  a  sub- 
coracoid,  by  involuntary  or  communicated  movements  of  the  arm,  or 
even  by  muscular  action.  Tillaux^  observed  this  transformation  in  a 
case  while  he  was  preparing  to  make  a  cast  of  the  limb. 


V 


V 


Subglenoid  dislocation. 


1  Tillaux :  Anat.  topographique,  p.  536, 


DISL  0 CA  TIONS  OF  THE  SHO  ULDER.  561 

Two  varieties,  representing  extreme  displacements,  and  characterized 
by  exceptional  symptoms,  the  luxatio  erecta  and  the  subtridpital  {'^),  will 
be  separately  described. 

This  form  of  dislocation  was  studied  experimentally  by  Malle,^ 
Goyrand,^  and  Panas.^  They  found  that  if  the  scapula  was  fixed  and 
the  arm  was  forcibly  elevated,  the  head  of  the  humerus  j)resented 
through  a  large  rent  in  the  capsule  between  the  subscapularis  and  the 
long  head  of  the  triceps,  and  that  if  the  arm  was  then  lowered  the 
head  would  often  return  to  its  socket,  but  that  if  it  was  twisted  out- 
ward while  being  lowered  the  dislocation  would  persist.  The  lower 
border  of  the  subscapularis  was  always  found  torn  and  its  untorn  por- 
tion rested  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  head;  and  Malle  claimed  that 
in  order  to  produce  the  dislocation  upon  the  cadaver  it  was  necessary 
to  divide  the  portion  of  the  capsule  between  the  acromion  and  the 
lesser  tuberosity. 

The  cause,  with  the  single  exception  of  Desault's  doubtful  case,  in 
which  the  injury  was  said  to  have  been  produced  by  a  fall  upon  the 
shoulder,  has  always  been  the  forcible  elevation  of  the  arm,  as  in  a  fall 
through  a  narrow  opening  or  upon  the  extended  elbow,  by  a  horse 
throwing  up  his  head  while  being  led  by  the  bridle,  or  as  in  Goyrand's 
case  of  a  woman  who,  having  fallen  to  the  ground,  had  her  arm  dislo- 
cated by  a  passer-by  who  sought  to  raise  her.  In  one  of  Tillaux's 
cases  a  young  girl  dislocated  her  shoulder  by  suddenly  raising  her  arm 
while  playing  at  raquettes. 

The  rent  in  the  capsule  in  the  specimens  produced  experimentally 
has  always  been  comparatively  small,  and  situated  in  the  lower  and 
inner  portion  between  the  triceps  and  the  subscapularis,  and  differs 
from  that  of  the  subcoracoid  form  in  not  extending  so  far  upward 
along  the  anterior  edge  of  the  glenoid  cavity.  In  a  specimen  presented 
by  Leroy*  to  the  Society  Anatomique  the  lesions  were  identical  with 
those  produced  exijerimentally.  The  upper  part  of  the  capsule,  includ- 
ing the  insertion  of  the  supraspinatus  and  infraspinatus  muscles,  was 
torn  away  from  the  humerus,  from  the  anterior  border  of  the  bicipital 
groove  to  the  tendon  of  the  teres  minor,  a  distance  of  four  centimetres; 
in  the  lower  portion  was  the  usual  rent,  two  and  three-quarters  inches 
long,  extending  from  the  tendon  of  the  teres  minor  inward  and  then 
upward  along  the  anterior  border  of  the  glenoid  cavity.  The  head  of 
the  humerus  lay  upon  the  axillary  border  of  the  scapula  one  inch  below 
the  anterior  border  of  the  coracoid  process,  the  limb  being  so  far  rotated 
outward  that  the  internal  epicondyle  was  directed  forward,  and  the 
greater  tuberosity  rested  against  the  anterior  lip  of  the  axillary  border 
and  the  adjoining  portion  of  the  neck  of  the  scapula.  The  subscapu- 
laris was  pushed  upward  and  overlapped  the  head.  In  another  reported 
to  the  same  society  by  Bouygues,^  the  head  of  the  humerus  lay  below 
and  in  front  of  the  glenoid  fossa  and  beneath  the  untorn  subscapularis, 
the  anatomical  neck  resting  on  the  axillary  border  of  the  scapula  and 

1  Malle:  Bull,  de  I'Acad.  de  M6d.,  Paris,  1838,  vol.  ii.  p.  941. 

2  Goyrand  :  Mem.  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1847,  vol.  i.  p.  21. 

3  Panas :  Diet,  de  Med.  et  Chir.  pratiques,  art.  Epaule,  p.  462. 

4  Leroy  :  Bull  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1844,  p.  102. 
6  Bouygues:  Ibid.,  1888,  p.  581. 

36 


562 


DISLOCATIONS. 


the  lower  part  of  the  fibro-cartilaginous  rim;  the  upper  portion  of  the 
greater  tuberosity  was  broken  off. 

In  a  case  reported  by  JosseP  of  subglenoid  dislocation  caused  by  a 
fall  from  the  second  story  of  a  house,  in  which  death  followed  on  the 
second  day  in  consequence  of  an  associated  fracture  of  the  skull,  the 
following  conditions  were  found  :  The  subscapular  artery  was  entirely 
torn  across.  The  head  of  the  humerus  lay  between  the  partly  torn  sub- 
scapularis  muscle  and  the  triceps  ''  upon  the  triangular  surface  of  the 
lower  border  of  the  scapula  directly  below  the  glenoid  fossa."  The 
capsule  was  entirely  torn  from  the  humerus,  the  subscapularis  was 
pushed  upward,  the  edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa  was  a  little  broken  at  its 
widest  part,  and  the  upper  and  middle  facets  of  the  greater  tuberosity 
were  broken  off,  the  line  of  fracture  running  into  and  opening  the 
bicipital  groove. 

In  S^dillot's  case,  quoted  by  Malgaigne  as  of  this  kind,  the  condi- 
tions were  quite  exceptional;  abduction  was  so  marked  that  the  arm 
was  held  almost  horizontal,  the  head  of  the  humerus  was  situated  half 
an  inch  below  the  glenoid  fossa,  resting  against  the  scapula,  but  also 
engaged  between  the  latissimus  dorsi  and  teres  major  in  front  and  the 
triceps  behind. 


Fig.  269. 


Subglenoid  dislocation.    (From  a  photograph.) 


Apparently  the  failure  of  the  head  to  rise  as  usual  to  the  level  which 
would  make  the  dislocation  subcoracoid  is  due  to  the  resistance  of  the 
antorn  portion  of  the  capsule  on  the  inner  side;  and  the  greater  abduc- 
tion of  the  limb  is  due  to  this  retention  of  the  head  at  a  lower  level, 

1  Jossei :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  filr  Chirurgie,  1874,  vol.  iv.  p.  124. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  563 

for  the  untorn  outer  portion  prevents  the  shaft  from  sinking  unless  the 
head  correspondingly  rises. 

Symptoms.  The  flattening  of  the  outer  portion  of  the  shoulder,  the 
prominence  of  the  acromion,  and  the  abduction  of  the  elbow  are  all 
more  marked  than  in  the  subcoracoid  dislocation;  and  the  axis  of  the 
arm  prolonged  by  the  eye  in  front  passes  below  and  to  the  inner  side 
of  the  glenoid  cavity.  Measured  in  partial  abduction  from  the  acro- 
mion to  the  elbow,  the  arm  appears  longer  than  its  fellow,  and  this 
elongation  may  not  give  place  in  complete  horizontal  abduction  to  as 
much  shortening  as  is  found  in  the  subcoracoid  form.  The  head  of 
the  humerus  can  be  plainly  felt  in  the  axilla,  and  is  separated  from  the 
coracoid  process  by  an  interval  of  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch. 

The  arm  is  widely  abducted,  and  is  usually  directed  forward  and 
rotated  outward,  and  the  elbow  cannot  be  brought  to  the  side;  the 
angle  made  by  the  flat  outline  of  the  deltoid  with  the  axis  of-  the  shaft 
is  very  marked. 

The  differential  diagnosis  from  subcoracoid  dislocation  is  made  by 
recognition  of  the  position  of  the  head  below  the  glenoid  fossa;  the 
corroborative  symptoms  are  the  more  marked  flattening  of  the  deltoid 
and  the  wider  abduction  of  the  elbow. 

Treatment.  Theoretically,  the  position  of  the  head  below  the  glenoid 
fossa  suggests  that  traction  should  be  made  upward  and  outward,  the 
elbow  being  raised  above  the  shoulder,  and  this  plan  is  generally  recom- 
mended and  usually  successful.  The  objection  to  it  is  the  added  risk 
of  doing  injury  to  the  bloodvessels  in  the  axilla  by  overstretching  them 
around  the  head  of  the  humerus,  as  explained  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

It  is  prudent,  therefore,  that  a  trial  should  first  be  made  of  the 
method  of  di7'ect  reposition  (p.  551),  and,  that  failing,  of  traction  in 
the  direction  of  the  arm  as  found,  or  with  a  little  more  abduction,  fol- 
lowed by  adduction  while  pressure  outward  and  upward  is  made  upon 
the  head  of  the  bone,  or  with  the  fist  in  the  axilla.  The  reader  is 
referred  to  the  preceding  chapter  for  the  details. 

2.  Luxatio  Erecta. 

This  striking  dislocation,  first  described  by  Middeldorpf,  and  his 
pupil  Scharm^  who  reported  the  former's  two  cases,  is  characterized 
by  the  marked  elevation  of  the  arm,  the  forearm  usually  resting  on 
the  top  of  the  head,  a  position  from  which  it  cannot  be  lowered  with- 
out causing  great  pain,  and  by  the  prominence  of  the  head  low  in  the 
axilla.  Besides  Middeldorpf  s  two  cases  I  have  met  with  the  descrip- 
tion or  mention  of  six  others  by  Busch,^  Panas,^  Lange,*  Alberti,' 
Hannson,^  and  Jiidd,''  and  a  reference  by  Bardenheuer,^  without 
details,  to  a  case  reported  by  Bertin  and  two  cases  reported  by  Meyer. 

The  only  opportunity  for  direct  examination  of  the  parts  was  fur- 

1  Middeldorpf:  Clinique  EuropSenne,  1859,  vol.  ii.,  and  Scharm,  De  nova  humeri  luxationis 
specie.    Dissert.  Inaug.  Breslau,  1859  :  quoted  by  Albert!,  vide  infra. 

2  Busch  :  Archiv  fur  klin.  Chir.,  1863,  vol.  iv.  p.  30. 

3  Panas :  Diet,  de  M(5d.  et  Chir.  pratiques,  art.  Epaule,  p.  405. 
*  Lange  :  New  York  Medical  Record,  1879,  vol.  xvi.  p.  400. 

5  Albert! :  Deutsche  Zeitschrifi  fur  Chir.,  1884,  vol.  xx.  p.  475. 

6  Hannson  :  Centbl  fur  Chir.,  1892,  p.  18. 

'  Judd  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  October  19,  1895.  '  Bardenheuer  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  303. 


564  I>ISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

nished  in  one  of  Middeldorpf's  cases;  the  patient's  right  arm  was 
caught  in  some  machinery  and  he  was  whirled  arouud,  receiving  in 
addition  to  the  dislocation  a  wound  of  the  deltoid;  he  died  of  pyaemia. 
The  greater  tuberosity  had  been  torn  off,  remaining  attached  to  its 
three  muscles,  and  the  acromion  was  broken.  Scharm  produced  the 
dislocation  five  times  upon  the  cadaver;  in  every  case  the  supraspina- 
tus  and  infraspinatus  muscles  were  torn  away,  and  in  two  there  was 
partial  rupture  of  the  subscapularis  and  pectoralis  major.  The  main 
bloodvessels  and  nerves  were  uniujured.  My  only  knowledge  of  Mid- 
deldorpf's cases  and  Scharm' s  experiments  comes  from  the  brief  men- 
tion made  of  them  by  Alberti. 

Dr.  Lange's  case,  in  which  the  dislocation  M^as  intracoracoid  rather 
than  subglenoid,  differs  also  from  the  others  in  the  less  complete  eleva- 
tion of  the  arm.  Bardenheuer^  says  that  in  his  experience,  covering 
about  four  hundred  cases  of  dislocation  of  the  shoulder,  he  had  never 
encountered  a  pure  luxatio  erecta,  but  he  had  met  with  two  cases  in 
which  the  arm  was  abducted  beyond  a  right  angle  with  the  body.  Dr. 
Lange's  case  might  properly  be  regarded  as  an  exceptional  form  of 
intracoracoid  dislocation  intermediate  between  the  usual  form  and  the 
luxatio  erecta. 

The  mechanism  appears  to  have  been  forcible  and  extreme  elevation 
of  the  arm,  combined  in  one  case  (Alberti' s)  with  a  blow  upon  the  ar'm 
from  above  downward,  and  the  elevated  position  after  dislocatioo  was 
plainly  due  to  the  tension  of  the  anterior  soft  parts  created  by  the  shift- 
ing of  the  centre  of  motion  to  a  point  so  far  below  the  glenoid  cavity. 
In  one  of  Meyer's  cases  mentioned  by  Bardenheuer,  a  woman  sixty- 
two  years  old,  it  is  said  that  the  dislocation  occurred  during  an  epileptic 
fit.  It  is  stated  also  that  in  one  of  the  cases  ' '  paralysis  of  the  brachial 
plexus"  persisted  after  reduction. 

The  method  of  reduction  adopted  in  all  the  cases  was  clearly  the 
proper  one,  not  only  because  it  succeeded  but  also  because  it  corre- 
sponded to  the  anatomical  indications.  Traction  in  the  direction 
assumed  by  the  arm  drew  the  head  directly  back  toward  its  socket  by 
the  route  along  which  it  had  escaped. 

3.  Subtricipital  Dislocation  (?). 

Our  knowledge  of  this  very  rare  form  is  limited  to  a  single  doubtful 
case  observed  clinically  by  Farabeuf,^  and  to  subsequent  experiments 
made  by  him  upon  the  cadaver.  As  the  luxatio  erecta  is  produced 
from  a  subglenoid  by  exaggerating  the  descent  of  the  head  of  the 
humerus,  so  the  subtricipital  is  said  to  be  produced  from  the  erecta  by 
a  consecutive  displacement  of  the  head  upward  and  backward,  at  first 
underneath  and  then  behind  and  above  the  long  tendon  of  the  triceps, 
a  displacement  effected  by  the  descent  of  the  elbow  in  front. 

The  case  was  that  of  a  sailor  who  injured  his  shoulder  while  at  sea; 
five  weeks  later  he  landed  at  Bordeaux,  and,  attempts  made  there  to 
reduce  having  failed,  he  went  to  Paris.     The  arm  was  abducted  and 

1  Bardenheuer:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  303. 

2  Farabeuf ;  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgie,  1879,  p.  778,  and  1885,  p.  396. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  565 

carried  forward,  and  the  head  of  the  humerus  rested  on  the  back  of  the 
scapula  two  finger-breadths  below  the  angle  of  the  acromion.  Reduc- 
tion was  not  obtained. 

In  his  experiments  upon  the  cadaver  Farabeuf  found  that  after  rais- 
ing the  arm  forcibly  and  thus  tearing  the  capsule  at  its  lower  part  he 
could,  by  a  vigorous  push  or  a  blow  upon  the  elbow  with  a  mallet, 
make  the  head  of  the  humerus  descend  several  centimetres  below  the 
glenoid  cavity;  if  then  the  arm  was  lowered  in  front  the  head  of  the 
bone  moved  backward  and  became  engaged  under  the  tendon,  which 
then  held  the  arm  abducted  and  directed  forward  and  more  or  less 
rotated  inward. 

Farabeuf  s  case  is  apparently  the  one  mentioned  by  Poinsot^  as  Sebil- 
leau's  and  as  having  been  examined  by  himself  in  1881.  The  limb 
was  then  in  slight  abduction  and  inward  rotation,  the  elbow  and 
fingers  flexed;  movements  at  the  shoulder  were  almost  completely  lost. 
The  case  is  described  by  Poiusot  as  one  of  dislocation  backward  (sub- 
acromial or  subspinous),  and  no  reference  is  made  by  him  to  Fara- 
beuf s  opinion  concerning  it  although  he  is  named  among  the  surgeons 
who  had  examined  it. 

Farabeuf  maintains  that  two  very  similar  cases  observed  by  Richet 
and  Bottey  and  named  by  the  former  retro-axillary  (see  Posterior  Dis- 
locations) were  really  exara'ples  of  this  variety  described  by  him.  It 
seems  more  probable  that  Farabeuf  was  misled  by  his  experiments  and 
that  the  three  cases  were  merely  low  posterior  dislocations. 

Supposing  such  a  case  to  exist,  reduction  should  be  made  by  first 
transforming  the  dislocation  into  a  luxatio  erecta  by  raising  the  elbow 
with  traction  to  the  side  of  the  head,  so  as  to  bring  the  bone  from 
beneath  the  triceps,  and  then  reducing  by  direct  traction  upward. 


POSTERIOR  DISLOCATIONS. 

Subacromial  and  Subspinous. 

Dislocations  backward  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  subacromial 
and  the  subspinous,  according  as  the  head  lies  under  the  projecting 
outer  border  of  the  acromion  or  further  back  below  the  spine  of  the 
scapula,  respectively.  A  variety  of  the  subacromial,  to  which  the 
name  retro-axillary  has  been  given,  has  been  recently  observed  and 
described  by  Richet  and  Bottey. 

Although  I  think  this  division  into  two  groups  is  quite  generally 
accepted  by  the  profession,  yet  English  and  American  systematic 
writers  upon  the  subject  have,  as  a  rule,  refused  to  adopt  it,  giving  as 
a  reason  therefor  the  fact  that  the  two  differ  only  in  an  unimportant 
feature,  the  degree  of  the  displacement,  and  they  apply  the  term  sub- 
spinous to  all.  Flower^  justifies  the  choice  of  this  name  in  preference 
to  subacromial  on  the  ground  that  the  latter  does  not  express  any 
change  from  the  normal  situation  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  under  the 

1  Poinsot :  Translation  of  Hamilton's  Fractures  and  Dislocations,  p.  867. 
-  Flower  :  Holmes's  System  of  Surgery,  Am.  ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  875. 


566  DISLOCA  TIONS. 

acromion.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  fairly  urged  that,  as  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases  the  head  is  not  displaced  so  far  as  to  the  spine 
of  the  scapula,  the  term  subspinous  is  misleading  and  improper.  1 
have  preferred,  in  accordance  with  what  I  believe  to  be  the  general 
practice  of  the  profession,  to  retain  both  terms  with  the  distinc- 
tion between  them  established  by  Malgaigne.  Of  the  two  groups  the 
subacromial  is  much  the  more  frequent,  the  subspinous  being  very 
rare. 

According  to  Malgaigne,  the  earliest  recorded  mention  of  this  dislo- 
cation was  in  1834,  and  when  he  wrote,  in  1855,  he  could  collect  only 
34  cases,  of  which  he  himself  observed  3.  A  very  considerable  num- 
ber of  cases  have  been  recorded  since  that  time  (I  found  7  in  the  Index 
Medieus  for  the  years  1878  to  1882),  and  Panas's  opinion  that  many 
escape  recognition,  by  being  mistaken  for  a  sprain  or  an  articular  frac- 
ture, seems  fairly  justified,  for  not  only  are  the  diagnostic  symptoms 
sometimes  very  obscure,  but  JST^laton  said  that  he  had  within  a  short 
period  of  time  seen  three  cases  that  had  passed  unrecognized  by  sur- 
geons of  merit.  In  Malgaigne' s  statistics  26  were  men  and  5  women; 
and  in  rather  more  than  a  quarter  of  them  the  cause  was  muscular 
action.  Bardenheuer  saw  one  in  which  both  shoulders  had  been  dis- 
located by  a  fall  forward  upon  the  elbows.  (See,  also.  Chapter  XLI V., 
Congenital  Dislocations.) 

Experiment  upon  the  cadaver  shows  that  the  dislocation  can  be 
readily  produced  by  forcible  internal  rotation  of  the  arm,  by  which 
the  posterior  portion  of  the  capsule  is  torn  and  the  passage  backward 
and  outward  of  the  head  is  made  easy.  In  some  of  the  cases  clinically 
observed  also  it  is  plain  that  this  has  been  the  mechanism,  and  in  others 
it  has  undoubtedly  aided.  Thus,  Pi  el,  who  wrote  a  thesis  on  the  sub- 
ject in  1851,  saw  a  woman  in  whom  it  had  been  caused  by  her  husband 
twisting  her  arm  in  a  quarrel.  In  seven  of  Malgaigne' s  cases  and  in 
several  that  have  since  been  reported  the  dislocation  occurred  during 
an  epileptic  fit,  presumably  by  internal  rotation  of  the  limb.  In  other 
cases  the  cause  has  been  a  blow  upon  the  front  of  the  shoulder  (twice 
a  blow  with  the  fist),  pressure  upon  the  back  of  the  shoulder  while  the 
elbow  rested  against  the  ground,  an  attempt  to  control  the  patient  in 
convulsions,  once  the  throwing  of  a  stone  by  a  boy  ten  years  old,  and 
frequently  a  fall.  The  anatomical  features  of  the  joint,  the  results  of 
cadaveric  experiment,  and  such  histories  of  cases  as  are  sufficiently 
complete,  indicate  that  the  common  mode  of  production  is  pressure 
backward  and  outward  upon  the  head  of  the  humerus,  either  directly 
or  through  the  elbow,  combined  with  adduction  of  the  limb  across  the 
front  of  the  chest  and  internal  rotation.  Such  a  combination  is  most 
frequently  found  in  falls  forward  in  which  the  weight  is  received  upon 
the  adducted  elbow.  One  of  Malgaigne' s  cases  is  especially  interesting 
from  this  point  of  view,  as  showing  the  conditions  of  the  production 
almost  as  clearly  as  an  experiment.  A  woman  was  trying  to  take 
down  a  box  placed  high  above  her  head,  it  slipped  suddenly  into  her 
extended  hand,  and  the  dislocation  occurred.  In  other  words,  the  force 
was  exerted  in  a  suitable  direction  upon  an  arm  that  was  elevated, 
adducted,  and  rotated  inward. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  567 

In  a  case  observed  by  Tillaux^  the  patient,  a  man  twenty-four  years 
old,  had  his  right  arm  caught  in  some  machinery  and  was  drawn  sev- 
eral times  about  a  revolving  shaft,  receiving  a  subspinous  dislocation, 
and  in  addition  having  the  arm  almost  completely  torn  away  at  its 
middle  by  being  twisted  several  times  upon  itself. 

Autopsies  have  been  made  in  six  recent  cases  in  which  death  was 
caused  by  associated  injuries.  In  Maisonneuve's  case  (the  specimen 
is  pictured  in  Malgaigne's  Atlas,  Plate  XXII,,  figs.  5  and  6)  the 
patient  fell  from  a  height  of  thirty  feet.  The  capsule  was  torn  above, 
below,  and  on  its  outer  side;  the  greater  tuberosity  was  torn  off,  broken 
into  two  pieces,  and  drawn  back  below  the  acromio-clavicular  arch  by 
the  supraspinatus  and  infraspinatus  muscles  to  which  it  remained 
attached.  The  teres  minor  and  subscapularis  were  still  attached  to  the 
humerus;  the  long  tendon  of  the  biceps  had  been  torn  out  of  its  groove. 
The  circumflex  nerve  Avas  uninjured.  The  head  of  the  humerus  lay 
just  below  the  posterior  augle  of  the  acromion  and  was  not  in  contact 
with  either  the  spine  or  the  neck  of  the  scapula,  but  rested  against  the 
posterior  edge  of  the  glenoid  cavity. 

In  Laugier's^  case  the  subscapularis  and  supraspinatus  were  torn 
from  their  insertions,  and  the  head  of  the  humerus  had  passed,  as  in 
Maisonneuve's  case  also,  between  the  infraspinatus  and  teres  minor 
and  was  covered  only  by  the  deltoid. 

Two  cases  were  reported  by  J5ssel,^  one  a  subacromial,  the  other  a 
subspinous  dislocation.  In  the  first  the  injury,  together  with  a  frac- 
ture of  the  skull,  was  caused  by  a  fall  into  a  cellar.  The  head  of  the 
humerus  had  torn  through  the  teres  minor  and  lay  under  the  acromion; 
the  limb  was  so  far  rotated  inward  that  the  articular  surface  looked 
directly  outward.  The  supraspinatus  and  infraspinatus  were  unin- 
jured. The  capsule  showed  a  triangular  rent  on  the  outer  side  just 
large  enough  to  let  the  head  through.  The  tendon  of  the  subscapu- 
laris was  still  attached  to  the  humerus,  but  under  it  and  close  by  the 
tendon  of  the  biceps  an  irregular,  movable  piece  of  bone  could  be  felt, 
the  lesser  tuberosity,  the  fracture  by  which  it  was  separated  extending 
into  the  bicipital  groove;  the  tubercle  was  split  into  two  pieces,  both 
adherent  to  the  tendon. 

In  the  second  case  the  patient  fell  from  a  height  of  two  stories, 
dislocated  the  left  shoulder,  and  sustained  a  compound  fracture  of 
the  thigh;  he  died  on  the  fifth  day.  The  head  of  the  humerus  had 
torn  through  the  teres  minor  and  lay  under  the  spine  of  the  scap- 
ula, separated  from  it  by  the  interposed  infraspinatus;  it  was  directed 
backward.  The  long  head  of  the  triceps  was  almost  entirely  torn 
through,  and  a  piece  was  broken  from  the  axillary  border  of  the  scap- 
ula just  below  the  glenoid  fossa.  The  subscapularis  and  the  adjoining 
part  of  the  capsule  were  torn  away  from  the  humerus,  bringing  with 
them  the  lesser  tuberosity,  the  fracture  of  which  was  broader  than  in 
the  preceding  case. 

In  the  remaining  two  cases  the  dislocations  were  subspinous;  in  one 

1  Tillaux  :  Anatornie  topographique,  p.  536. 

"  Laugier  :  Gaz.  des  Hopitaux,  1846,  p.  60. 

3  Jijssel :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fiir  Chir.,  1874,  vol.  iv.  p.  125. 


568  DISLOCATIONS. 

of  them,  quoted  by  Malgaigne/  the  patient,  a  man  sixty-two  years  old, 
fell  backward,  and  the  wheel  of  his  wagon,  which  carried  a  load  of 
three  and  a  half  tons,  passed  obliquely  across  the  right  side  of  his 
chest,  causing  injuries  which  resulted  in  his  death  thirty  hours  later. 
Several  ribs  were  fractured,  as  were  also  the  body  of  the  scapula  and 
the  inner  portion  of  its  spine.  The  deltoid,  pectoralis  major,  teres 
major,  and  teres  minor  were  torn  or  crushed,  and  the  capsule  was 
almost  entirely  detached.  When  the  arm  was  lowered  the  head  of  the 
humerus  lay  below  the  spine  of  the  scapula  in  the  outermost  part  of 
the  subspinous  fossa,  the  lesser  tuberosity  corresponding  to  the  edge 
of  the  glenoid  fossa. 

In  the  other,  reported  by  Collins,^  a  man  sixty  years  old  was  knocked 
down  and  run  over,  sustaining,  in  addition  to  the  dislocation  of  his 
right  shoulder,  fracture  of  several  ribs;  he  died  in  a  few  days  of  pneu- 
monia. The  capsule  was  torn  on  all  sides;  the  supraspinatus  and 
subscapularis  were  torn  away  at  their  insertions,  and  the  long  tendon 
of  the  biceps  was  detached  from  the  bicipital  groove.  The  head  of 
the  humerus  lay  between  the  teres  minor  and  the  infraspinatus  ''  imme- 
diately beneath  the  scapular  spine." 

The  important  complication  of  fracture  of  the  anatomical  neck  has 
been  reported  in  two  cases,  one  by  Delpech,  the  other  by  Malgaigne;* 
in  each  the  cause  was  a  fall  upon  the  shoulder.  In  Delpech' s  case  the 
fall  was  due  to  an  apoplexy  which  soon  proved  fatal;  the  head  had 
passed  entirely  through  a  large  rent  in  the  postero-external  part  of  the 
capsule,  its  fractured  surface  lay  against  the  subspinous  fossa,  and  its 
articular  surface  was  directed  backward  and  covered  by  the  infraspi- 
natus muscle.  The  muscular  attachments  to  the  humerus  were  all 
preserved,  and  the  long  tendon  of  the  biceps  was  intact. 

Malgaigne's  case  was  not  seen  by  him  until  eleven  months  after  the 
receipt  of  the  injury;  the  head  of  the  humerus  could  be  felt  as  an 
immovable,  hemispherical  body,  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  half  an 
inch  below  the  posterior  angle  of  the  acromion.  The  arm  was  short- 
ened half  an  inch,  the  elbow  slightly  abducted  and  not  rotated.  The 
upper  end  of  the  shaft  corresponded  to  the  glenoid  cavity.  The  arm 
was  slightly  movable;  the  head  did  not  share  in  its  movements. 

The  results  obtained  by  experiments  upon  the  cadaver  are  in  har- 
mony with  these  post-mortem  records.  In  the  subacromial  variety  the 
head  of  the  humerus  is  found  under  the  acromion  looking  backward 
and  inward,  with  its  anatomical  neck  engaged  against  the  posterior 
edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa,  and  the  lesser  tuberosity  lying  on  the  latter. 
The  tendon  of  the  subscapularis  covers  the  anterior  and  inner  part  of  the 
fossa,  and  is  usually  more  or  less  detached  from  its  insertion  upon  the 
humerus.  The  dislocation  can  be  transformed  into  a  subspinous  one 
by  diminishing  the  internal  rotation  sufficiently  to  free  the  lesser  tuber- 
osity, and  then  forcing  the  humerus  backward  toward  the  dorsum  of 

1  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  541.  According  to  Soyez  (These  de  Paris,  1880,  No.  179')  the  case  was 
treated  by  Denonvilhers,  who  deposited  the  specimen  in  the  Musee  Dupuytren.  It  is  reported  by 
Malgaigne  as  if  he  had  himself  observed  it.  Hence  has  arisen  the  error  of  supposing  that  they 
were  different  cases. 

-  Collins  :  Dublin  Journal  Med.  Sci.,  1879,  vol.  ii.  p.  166. 

3  Soyez :  ThSse  de  Paris,  1880,  No.  179,  p.  28. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  569 

the  scapula,  tearing  the  capsule  more  extensively,  lacerating  the  infra- 
spinatus, increasing  the  separation  of  the  subscapularis,  and  tearing 
off  also  the  supraspinatus  from  its  insertion.  The  dividing  line 
between  the  two  varieties  is  necessarily  an  arbitrary  one,  and  in  some 
cases  it  must  be  difficult  to  determine  to  which  variety  the  case  belongs. 
Malgaigne's  definitions  are  as  follows:  The  subacromial  is  one  in  which 
the  head  of  the  humerus  lies  under  the  posterior  angle  of  the  acromion; 
the  subspinous,  one  in  which  it  has  been  displaced  behind  the  angle  of 
the  acromion  and  lies  under  the  spine  of  the  scapula. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  in  recent  cases  are  not  very  marked,  and 
the  characteristic  ones  may  be  masked  by  the  swelling.  In  the  sub- 
acromial variety  the  shoulder  seems  full  behind  and  flattened  in  front. 
The  arm  hangs  by  the  side,  the  elbow  usually  directed  somewhat  for- 
ward, and  is  rotated  inward.  The  coracoid  process  can  be  plainly  felt, 
and  perhaps  seen;  the  acromion  is  prominent  in  front.  The  absence 
of  the  head  of  the  humerus  from  its  socket  is  recognized  by  pressure 
made  in  front,  and  its  presence  behind  and  to  the  outer  side  is  deter- 
mined by  palpation  combined  with  gentle  movements  of  the  limb.  In 
the  older  cases  the  subsidence  of  the  inflammatory  swelling  and  the 
atrophy  of  the  deltoid  consequent  upon  disuse  make  the  deformity 
more  marked.  Voluntary  movements  are  abolished,  and  communicated 
movements  restricted  and  painful.  Comparative  measurements  have 
not  shown  constant  or  notable  differences  in  length.  In  a  case  of  my 
own,  a  man  forty-five  years  old,  the  arm  was  rigidly  held  close  to  the 
side,  and  communicated  movements  were  extremely  painful.  Reduc- 
tion by  traction,  under  ether,  was  easy,  and  full  use  of  the  limb  was 
promptly  regained. 

The  anteversion  and  adduction  are  probably  due  to  the  persistence 
of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule,  which  is  noted  in  most  of  the 
autopsies  and  all  the  experiments  upon  the  cadaver. 

In  the  subspinous  variety  the  attitude  of  the  arm  in  the  few  reported 
cases  has  not  been  always  the  same;  sometimes  the  elbow  has  been 
held  close  to  the  trunk  and  projected  forward;  in  Malgaigne's  it  was 
rotated  inward,  but  otherwise  freely  movable,  and  remained  in  such 
position  as  was  given  to  it.  In  Desclaux's  it  was  held  horizontally  in 
front  of  the  upper  part  of  the  chest,  and  as  any  attempt  to  lower  it 
caused  great  pain,  the  patient  sought  to  keep  it  immovable  by  placing 
the  hand  on  the  top  of  his  head.  The  local  symptoms  at  the  shoulder 
are  much  the  same  as  those  in  the  subacromial  variety;  there  is  the 
same  prominence  of  the  coracoid  process  and  acromion,  the  flattening 
of  the  front  and  the  fulness  of  the  back  of  the  shoulder,  the  absence 
of  the  head  of  the  humerus  from  its  socket  and  its  presence  behind, 
in  this  case,  of  course,  further  back  behind  the  angle  of  the  acromion 
and  below  the  spine  of  the  scapula. 

Richet,  in  1882,  treated  a  case  which  differed  widely  in  one  respect 
from  both  the  subacromial  and  subspinous  forms,  namely,  in  that  the 
head  of  the  humerus,  instead  of  being  in  contact  with  the  acromion,  lay 
at  a  distance  of  two  finger-breadths  below  it,  close  behind  the  glenoid 
fossa.  He  considered  it  a  new  variety,  representing  the  first  stage  in 
the  production  of  the  subacromial,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  retro- 


570  DISL  0  OA  TIONS. 

axillary.  The  case  was  published  by  Bottey,  his  interne,  in  the  Pro- 
grh  Medical,  August  5,  1882,  and  subsequently  republished  with 
another  also  observed  by  Bottey  iu  his  graduating  thesis.^  The  two 
cases  resembled  each  other  very  closely;  the  patients  were  women,  aged 
seventy-eight  and  seventy-two  years,  respectively,  and  the  injury  was 
caused  in  each  case  by  a  fall  upon  the  shoulder;  in  one,  while  walking 
in  the  street;  in  the  other,  from  her  bed,  against  a  chair.  The  elbow 
was  directed  forward  and  held  near  the  body,  and  in  the  second  case 
the  patient  supported  the  limb  with  the  other  hand  because  of  the  pain 
its  weight  caused.  As  both  patients  were  thin  and  there  was  no  swell- 
ing, the  head  of  the  humerus  could  be  very  distinctly  felt  behind  the 
posterior  edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa  and  slightly  separated  from  it,  and 
distant  from  the  acromion  by  two  good  finger-breadths.  External 
rotation  of  the  limb  was  marked.  Reduction  was  easily  effected  by 
direct  impulsion,  and  both  patients  recovered  promptly. 

The  position  of  the  head  may  be  explained  by  assuming  that  the 
rent  in  the  capsule  was  exceptionally  low,  and  did  not  extend  upward 
along  the  posterior  border  of  the  glenoid  fossa. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  is  favorable  as  regards  the  probability  of 
effecting  reduction  (in  two  or  three  cases  the  head  has  been  unexpect- 
edly returned  to  its  place  by  the  manipulations  employed  to  make  the 
diagnosis),  but  it  is  very  unfavorable  if  the  dislocation  is  left  unre- 
duced, for  then  the  range  of  motion  is  usually  very  slight.  In  a  case 
reported  by  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  in  which  the  dislocation  immediately 
recurred  after  every  reduction  and  was  finally  abandoned;  the  patient 
survived  seven  years  but  remained  unable  to  use  or  even  move  the 
arm  to  any  extent.  The  tendency  to  recurrence  was  attributed  to  the 
separation  of  the  tendon  of  the  subscapularis  from  the  humerus,  and 
to  the  consequent  lack  of  support  on  that  side.  The  same  tendency 
has  been  noted  in  other  cases.  Bardenheuer  says  it  existed  in  three  of 
his  four,  and  that  in  two  of  them  movements  of  the  joint  gave  rise  to 
crepitus.  In  some  of  the  cases  the  full  use  of  the  limb  has  been 
regained  in  a  very  short  time  after  reduction,  a  week  or  ten  days. 

Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis,  as  has  been  already  said,  may  be  difficult, 
especially  if  there  is  much  swelling.  The  injury  appears  to  have  been 
not  infrequently  mistaken  for  a  sprain  or  a  contusion.  The  attitude 
and  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  arm,  except  in  the  rare  subspinous 
cases,  are  not  sufficiently  characteristic  even  to  suggest  the  existence  of 
the  injury,  and  unless  the  examination  is  systematically  made  with  a 
view  to  determine  the  position  of  the  head  of  the  humerus,  as  should 
be  done  in  all  cases  of  injury  in  this  region,  the  dislocation  may  be 
overlooked.  If  the  head  of  the  bone  can  be  felt  and  its  relations  to 
the  acromion  determined,  all  doubts  would  be  removed. 

Treatment.  Reduction  has  been  easily  effected  in  both  recent  and 
old  cases  by  a  variety  of  methods.  The  one  that  has  furnished  the 
largest  number  of  successes  is  direct  pressure  from  behind  forward 
upon  the  head  of  the  humerus  with  counter-pressure  upon  the  front  of 
the  acromion,  usually  associated  with  traction  upon  the  arm,  forward 

1  Bottey  :  Deux  cas  de  luxation  de  I'^paule  en  arriere  et  en  bas  (luxation  retro-axillaire).    These 
de  Paris,  1884,  No.  13. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  571 

or  backward,  or  with  gentle  movements  of  the  limb  in  various  direc- 
tions. Sedillot  successfully  reduced  a  dislocation  that  had  existed  for 
a  year  and  fifteen  days. 

The  position  and  relations  of  the  untorn  portion  of  the  capsule  indi- 
cate that  the  best  manipulations  would  be  elevation  of  the  elbow  in 
front  and  toward  the  median  line,  combined  with  inward  rotation  to 
relax  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule,  and  followed  by  direct  pro- 
pulsion of  the  head  from  behind  toward  its  socket,  or  by  traction  in 
the  direction  of  the  long  axis  of  the  arm.  Simple  external  rotation 
might  succeed  when  the  articular  surface  of  the  head  rests  against  the 
edge  of  the  glenoid  cavity,  as  it  sometimes  does,  for  by  making  the 
front  of  the  capsule  tense,  it  would  rotate  the  posterior  surface  of  the 
bone  inward  and  forward,  but  the  success  of  this  manipulation  might 
easily  be  prevented  by  the  increased  friction  between  the  two  bones. 

In  a  case  of  subspinous  dislocation  reported  by  Dr.  J.  E.  MichaeP 
reduction  made  on  the  fifty-ninth  day  remained  incomplete.  The 
patient  was  a  boy  sixteen  years  old,  who  had  received  the  injury  by  a 
fall  from  a  horse;  the  head  of  the  humerus  lay  at  the  junction  of  the 
middle  and  outer  thirds  of  the  spine  of  the  scapula,  the  arm  was  slightly 
rotated  inward,  and  the  hand  could  be  raised  only  to  the  nipple.  After 
trying  elevation  and  rotation  without  success,  the  head  was  brought  by 
traction  so  nearly  into  place  that  the  hand  could  be  placed  upon  the 
opposite  shoulder,  but  the  form  of  the  shoulder  remained  imperfect 
because  of  the  undue  prominence  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  behind 
and  on  the  outer  side.  Six  months  later  the  deformity  persisted  and 
there  was  considerable  emaciation  of  the  region;  there  was  slight 
mobility,  rotation  was  entirely  lost,  and  the  hand  could  be  brought  to 
the  head  only  with  an  effort. 


UPWARD  DISLOCATIONS. 

Supraglenoid,  Supracoracoid. 

The  possibility  of  the  occurrence  of  this  rare  form  of  dislocation, 
which  has  often  been  denied,  has  at  last  been  established  by  the  clin- 
ical observation  of  several  cases  and  the  post-mortem  examination  of 
two. 

The  first  alleged  case  was  reported  by  Laugier^  in  1834  as  an  incom- 
plete dislocation  upward;  the  second  was  by  Malgaigne.^  In  1858 
Bourget  submitted  to  the  Societe  de  Chirurgie  a  paper  upon  the  subject 
containing  the  accounts  of  three  cases  observed  by  himself,  two  of 
which  he  diagnosticated  as  complete  dislocations,  and  one  as  incomplete, 
and  reproducing  the  cases  of  Laugier,  Malgaigne,  and  Avrard.  Upon 
this  paper  Morel-Lavallee*  made  an  elaborate  report,  denying  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  diagnosis  in  all  the  reported  cases  and  attributing  the 
observed  deformity  to  a  prolonged   arthritis,  and  he  supported  this 

1  Michael :  The  Medical  News,  1884,  p.  621. 

2  Laugier :  Arch.  gen.  de  Med.,  18.34,  vol.  x.  p.  65  ;  also  in  Dictionnaire  en  30  vols.,  vol.  xiii.  p.  81. 

3  Malgaigne:  Rev.  mudico-chirurg.,  1849,  vol.  v.  p.  30,  and  Luxations,  p.  530. 
^  Morel-La vallee  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1858,  vol.  vili.  p.  490. 


572  DISLOCATIONS. 

opinion  by  quoting  the  case  of  Soden/  in  which  the  symptoms  were 
the  same  as  in  Laugier's  case,  but  the  autopsy,  five  months  later, 
showed  the  changes  of  a  dry  arthritis.  He  seems  to  have  attached  no 
importance  to  the  dislocation  inward  of  the  long  tendon  of  the  biceps. 
The  alleged  cases  on  record  are  Malgaigne's,  two  of  Bourget's,  and 
those  of  Chassaignac,^  Holmes,^  Prescott  Hewett  (quoted  by  Holmes), 
Denonvilliers,*  Albert,^  Busch,^  Verneuil,''  Le  Dentu,  Tuffier,^  Rob- 
son,^  and  Streeter,'"  fourteen  in  all,  in  one  of  which  (Albert)  both 
shoulders  were  dislocated  in  the  same  manner  and  at  the  same  time. 

The  cases  that  furnished  autopsies  are  Holmes's,  Albert's,  and  Tuf- 
fier's.  Holmes's  patient  was  a  man  fifty  years  old,  who  had  fallen 
from  a  height  of  about  thirty  feet,  striking  upon  his  head,  the  left  side 
of  his  chest,  and  left  elbow,  and  receiving  in  addition  to  the  dislocation 
in  question  a  compound  dislocation  of  the  radius  and  a  comminuted 
fracture  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  ulna  of  the  same  side.  The  head 
of  the  humerus  formed  a  large  prominence  in  front  of  the  outer  part 
of  the  clavicle  ;  movements  of  the  arm  gave  rise  to  crepitus.  No 
attempt  to  reduce  was  made,  and  the  patient  died  on  the  fifteenth  day. 

At  the  autopsy  the  head  of  the  humerus  was  found  immediately 
under  the  skin,  having  passed  through  the  deltoid  near  its  inner  ante- 
rior margin;  its  articular  surface  was  entirely  above  the  glenoid  fossa 
and  rested  upon  the  stump  left  by  fracture  of  the  coracoid  process 
near  its  base.  The  coracoid  process  lay  on  its  inner,  the  acromion  on 
its  outer  side  and  somewhat  posteriorly;  the  coraco-acromial  ligament 
appears  to  have  been  in  part  torn.  The  subscapularis  was  intact,  but 
the  muscles  attached  to  the  greater  tuberosity  were  torn  through, 
except  a  part  of  the  teres  minor.  The  long  tendon  of  the  biceps  lay 
below  the  head  on  its  outer  side;  it  was  still  attached  to  the  upper 
margin  of  the  glenoid  fossa,  but  some  of  its  inner  fibres  had  been 
broken  away  from  the  muscle.  The  capsule  was  torn  at  its  upper  and 
inner  part. 

Albert's  case  was  first  seen  by  him  several  years  after  the  injury  was 
received.  The  patient  had  dislocated  both  shoulders  by  holding  on  to 
the  reins  of  a  pair  of  runaway  horses  and  being  drawn  along  the 
ground.  The  deformity  was  more  marked  on  the  left  than  on  the 
right  side,  and  there  consisted  of  a  marked  rounded  prominence  on 
the  front  and  upper  part  of  the  shoulder.  Both  arms  hung  close  by 
the  side,  the  axis  being  directed  obliquely  from  below  upward  and  for- 
ward in  front  of  the  glenoid  fossa.  The  prominence  formed  by  the 
head  of  the  humerus  was  situated  in  front  of  the  acromion,  rising 
about  two  centimetres  above  its  upper  surface,  and  this  elevation  could 
be  increased  by  pressing  the  elbow  upward;  the  arms  were  so  far  rotated 
outward  that  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus 

1  Soden  :  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions  vol.  xxiv.  p.  212. 

2  Chassaignac:  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir..  1858,  vol.  vili.  p.  472. 

3  Holmes  :  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,  1858,  vol.  xli.  p.  447. 
*  Panas :  Diet,  de  Mt>d.  et  Chir.  pratiques,  art.  Epaule,  p.  469. 

5  Albert :  Chirurgie,  2d  ed.,  1881,  vol.  ii.  p.  287  ;  also  in  Wiener  med.  Blatter,  1879,  p.  453. 

6  Busch  :  Arch,  tur  klin.  Chir.,  1876,  vol.  six.  p.  400. 

7  Pellier  :  These  de  Paris,  1878. 

«  Tuffler  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anat.,  1886,  p.  292. 

8  Rohson :  Annals  of  Surgery,  1888,  p.  175. 

10  Streeter  :  Medical  Record,  February  26, 1887. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


573 


Supraglenoid  disloca- 
tion.   (Albert.) 


coincided  with  the  transverse  axis  of  the  trunk.     The  outer  deltoid 
region  was  not  noticeably  flattened,  but  posteriorly  the  fibres  of  that 
muscle  were  greatly  relaxed  and  the  posterior  edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa 
could  be  distinctly  felt  through  them.      The   ])oint 
of  the  finger  could  be  pressed  in  between  the  head  fig.  270. 

and  the  coracoid  process.  Slight  voluntary  rotation 
and  movement  of  the  elbow  forward  and  back  were 
possible;  very  slight  passive  abduction.  The  left 
elbow  could  be  flexed  only  to  a  right  angle,  further 
flexion  being  arrested  by  the  triceps.  On  the  right 
side  the  deformity  was  the  same  in  character,  but 
less  in  degree,  and  there  was  the  same  limitation  of 
motion.  If  pressure  was  made  upon  the  elbow  di- 
rectly upward  the  movement  could  be  distinctly  felt 
to  be  arrested  by  bony  contact,  and  this  demonstrably 
occurred  between  the  head  of  the  humerus  and  the 
clavicle,  but  if  the  elbow  was  first  carried  back- 
ward the  head  could  then  be  pushed  up  higher. 

At  the  autopsy  the  capsule  was  found  attached 
throughout  to  the  anatomical  neck  of  the  humerus 
and  adherent  also  to  the  upper  part  of  its  articular 
surface;  thence  it  extended  without  interruption  to  the  margin  of 
the  glenoid  fossa,  but  its  cavity  was  considerably  enlarged.  The 
coraco-acromial  and  coraco-clavicular  ligaments  were  uninjured.  The 
upper  third  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  lay  above  the  level  of  the 
coraco-acromial  ligament,  and  this  overlapping  could  easily  be  in- 
creased to  half  the  head.  The  glenoid  fossa  was  filled  with  a  thick 
layer  of  fibrous  tissue. 

In  the  fuller  account  given  in  the  Wiener  medicinische  Blatter,  1879, 
p.  453,  quoted  by  Poinsot,  it  is  said  that  the  long  tendon  of  the  biceps 
on  the  left  side  was  ruptured  and  its  end  adherent  to  the  bone  in  the 
bicipital  groove,  and  that  an  osteophyte  an  inch  long  had  grown  from 
the  base  of  the  coracoid  process. 

Tufiier's  specimen  was  found  in  the  dissecting-room.  The  acromion 
was  broken  off  near  its  base  and  turned  up  and  out;  the  head  of  the 
humerus  was  in  direct  contact  with  the  acromion  and  coracoid,  and 
the  joint  showed  old  changes  of  dry  arthritis,  including  ossification  of 
the  long  head  of  the  triceps. 

To  these  may  be  added  Robson's  observations  made  during  an  arth- 
rotomy.  His  patient  was  a  boy  sixteen  years  old  who  had  received 
his  injury  six  weeks  earlier  by  the  forcible  dragging  of  his  right  arm 
upward  and  backward.  The  description  of  the  symptoms  is  not  very 
clear,  but  the  head  of  the  humerus  ' '  lay  about  a  finger-breadth  in 
front  of  the  right  acromion  and  immediately  to  the  outer  side  of  the 
coracoid  process."  Motion  of  the  arm  was  limited  in  every  direction 
except  backward.  The  bone  was  exposed  by  a  curved  incision  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  shoulder,  and  ^'  it  was  then  discovered  that  in  addi- 
tion to  the  dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  there  was  a  longi- 
tudinal fracture  separating  the  greater  tuberosity  from  the  head  and 
extending  down  the  shaft  for  some  distance  beyond  the  line  of  incision. 


674 


DISLOCATIONS. 


Reduction  could  not  be  effected  in  consequence  of  the  glenoid 
fossa  being  filled  with  callus  and  plastic  material  thrown  out  around 
the  fracture." 

The  other  cases  are  as  follows  : 

Malgaigne.  A  man  sixty  years  old  was  thrown  from  a  wagon, 
striking  upon  his  shoulder  while  his  arm  was  held  close  to  his  side. 
There  was  much  pain  and  he  was  unable  to  move  the  limb.  A  "  bone- 
setter"  handled  him  roughly  and  sent  him  away  with  his  arm  in  a 
sling.  Two  and  a  half  months  later  he  consulted  Malgaigne.  The 
head  of  the  humerus  was  dislocated  upward  and  forward  above  the 
coracoid  process,  reaching  the  under  surface  of  the  clavicle,  and  stretch- 
ing the  overlying  deltoid  so  that  on  perforation  with  a  pin  the  latter 
proved  to  be  only  eight  millimetres  in  thickness;  shortening  one-fifth 
of  an  inch.  Traction  to  the  extent  of  more  than  four  hundred  pounds, 
combined  with  pressure  upon  the  head  downward,  outward,  and  back- 
ward and  counter-pressure  on  the  acromion,  failed  to  effect  reduction, 
although  it  made  the  head  so  movable  that  it  could  be  drawn  down  a 
finger-breadth  below  the  clavicle.  Malgaigne  meditated  division  of 
the  coraco-acromial  ligament,  which  seemed  to  be  the  obstacle,  but 
refrained. 

Bourget's  cases  resembled  Malgaigne' s  closely. 
Busch.     (Fig.  271.)     A  horse  reared  and  struck  the  patient,  who 
was  holding  him  by  the  bridle,  upon  the  inner  and  anterior  part  of 
the  shoulder  with  his  hoof.     The  head  of  the  humerus  was  displaced 

upward  and  forward,  the  deformity  closely 
resembliog  that  in  Malgaigne' s  case;  the 
infraclavicular  fossa  was  deepened,  the  arm 
hung  close  by  the  side,  the  posterior  deltoid 
region  was  hollowed,  the  coracoid  process 
could  not  be  felt  in  its  place.  Reduction 
failed. 

Denonvilliers.  A  man  fell  upon  his  arm, 
but  was  unable  to  give  the  details  of  the 
fall.  The  limb  hung  by  the  side  and  was 
strongly  rotated  outward.  Ecchymosis,pain, 
loss  of  function.  The  head  of  the  humerus 
projected  forward  and  upward  between  the 
coracoid  and  the  acromion  and  in  front  of 
the  clavicle.  Oblique  traction,  combined 
with  a  slight  movement  of  leverage,  effected 
reduction. 

Chassaignac.  A  man  fell  from  the  third 
story  of  a  building.  The  head  of  the  hu- 
merus projected  directly  outward  and  ex- 
tended above  the  coraco-acromial  ligament. 
Movements  of  the  elbow  forward  were  impossible,  backward  they  were 
more  free  than  normal.  The  dislocation  was  easily  reduced  by  exag- 
gerated elevation  of  the  arm,  but  recurred  when  the  arm  was  lowered. 
Hewett.  The  patient  was  a  middle-aged  woman;  the  head  of  the 
humerus  lay  on  the  upper  and  inner  side  of  the  glenoid  cavity;  there 


Fig.  271. 


Supraglenoid  dislocation ;  Busehi's 
case.    (Bardenheuee.) 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  575 

was  distinct  crepitus  which  ceased  after  reduction  had  been  made  by- 
traction  with  the  heel  in  the  axilla.  Apparently  the  patient  made  a 
complete  recovery. 

Streeter.  ^'A  man  of  middle  age  fell  down  stairs,  striking  on  his 
elbow.  The  coracoid  process  was  evidently  fractured,  and  the  articular 
head  of  the  humerus  was  plainly  felt  above  the  clavicle,  the  patient 
being  very  thin.  At  the  present  time  he  is  making  good  progress 
toward  recovery." 

Fracture  of  the  coracoid  process  existed  in  Holmes's  and  Streeter' s 
cases,  and  possibly  also  in  He  welt's  and  Busch's. 

Rupture  or  displacement  of  the  long  tendon  of  the  biceps  must 
occur,  and  rupture  of  the  muscles  attached  to  the  greater  tuberosity 
is  noted  by  Holmes;  it  seems  not  unlikely  that  the  impossibility  of 
reduction  in  several  of  the  cases  was  due  to  the  interposition  of  the 
tendon  of  the  biceps  or  the  stump  of  the  supraspinatus. 

The  mode  of  production  cannot  be  determined  with  an  approach  to 
precision  except  in  the  cases  of  Holmes  and  Streeter,  in  both  of  which 
the  arm  was  driven  upward  by  a  blow  upon  the  elbow.  Tuffier's  frac- 
ture of  the  acromion  suggests  a  similar  cause. 

Panas's  experiments  upon  the  cadaver  show  that  if  the  arm  is  strongly- 
rotated  outward  while  held  close  to  the  body,  and  then  pressed  bodily 
upward  and  forward,  the  capsule  will  tear  at  its  upper  part  and  the 
dislocation  will  be  produced  without  fracture  of  the  coracoid  process, 
the  head  of  the  humerus  rising  not  more  than  oue  centimetre  above  its 
normal  position. 

The  symptoms  consist  in  the  presence  of  the  head  of  the  humerus 
in  the  interval  between  the  coracoid  process  and  the  acromion  above 
its  proper  level.  The  coracoid  process  can  be  felt  with  difficulty, 
if  at  all.  Usually  voluntary  movements  are  almost  or  quite  impos- 
sible, and  passive  movements  greatly  restricted,  and  this  restriction 
exists  in  old  as  well  as  in  recent  cases. 

In  three  cases  seen  while  the  injury  was  recent,  Denonvilliers,  Chas- 
saignac,  and  Hewett,  reduction  was  easily  effected  by  traction  in  two 
and  by  elevation  of  the  elbow  in  one,  but  the  dislocation  recurred  in 
the  latter;  Yerneuil  reduced  on  the  thirty-sixth  day  by  traction  aided 
by  angesthesia.  In  Holmes's  case  the  associated  injuries  were  so  severe 
that  reduction,  for  which  the  aid  of  chloroform  was  thought  to  be 
necessary,  was  not  attempted.  Malgaigne,  Bourget,  and  Busch  failed, 
the  duration  of  the  dislocation  at  the  time  of  the  attempt  being  two 
and  a  half,  six,  and  five  months  respectively.  The  details  of  Bourget' s 
second  case  are  not  given,  and  the  result  in  Le  Dentu's  I  do  not  know. 
In  Albert's  the  dislocation  had  existed  for  many  years,  and  no  mention 
is  made  of  any  attempt  to  reduce.  In  Streeter' s  reduction  seems  to 
have  been  made.  The  persistent  displacement  in  Tuffier's  cannot  be 
accounted  for  except  by  supposing  that  the  arm  was  too  well  supported 
in  a  sling  while  the  injury  was  recent. 


CHAPTEK    XLIV. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDEE.— (Cootinued.) 

ASSOCIATED  INJURIES.  ACCIDENTS.  PROGNOSIS.  HABITUAL 
DISLOCATIONS.  OLD  DISLOCATIONS.  CONGENITAL  AND 
PATHOLOGICAL  DISLOCATIONS. 

The  complications  which  may  coexist  with  a  dislocation  have  been 
described  in  Chapter  XXIX. ,  and  will  therefore  be  treated  but  briefly 
here,  and  mainly  with  the  view  of  adding  some  details  to  the  account 
already  given.  In  like  manner  the  accidents  which  may  be  caused  by 
attempts  to  reduce  a  dislocation  have  been  described  in  Chapter 
XXXIY. 

The  injaries  which  are  more  or  less  frequently  associated  with  dis- 
locations of  the  shoulder,  but  which  are  without  such  special  bearing 
upon  the  prognosis  or  treatment  as  would  make  them  actual  complica- 
tions, have  been  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  different  forms  of 
dislocation  in  the  preceding  chapters.  The  most  important  are  the 
lacerations  of  the  different  muscles  and  tendons  or  their  equivalent 
avulsion  from  the  humerus  with  more  or  less  of  the  tuberosities  to 
which  they  are  attached. 

Laceration  of  the  subscapularis  is  frequent,  and  avulsion  of  the 
lesser  tuberosity  to  which  it  is  attached  is  very  rarely  substituted  for 
it,  apparently  only  in  some  of  the  backward  dislocations.  The  extent 
of  the  laceration  of  the  muscle  can  only  be  inferred  from  the  extent 
and  direction  of  the  displacement,  and  it  is  believed  to  be  without 
important  influence  upon  the  completeness  of  the  repair  and  the  subse- 
quent security  of  the  joint.  The  position  of  adduction  and  inward 
rotation  in  which  the  limb  is  habitually  kept  during  the  period  of  con- 
valescence favors  the  repair  of  the  muscle,  and  since  the  rupture  is 
usually  incomplete  the  torn  portions  do  not  widely  retract. 

With  the  muscles  attached  to  the  greater  tuberosity  it  is  somewhat 
different.  The  muscles  themselves  are  rarely  torn,  but  the  upper  and 
middle  facets  of  the  greater  tuberosity  to  which  the  supraspinatus  and 
infraspinatus  muscles  are  attached  are  frequently  broken  off  and  more 
or  less  retracted  under  the  acromion,  or  the  tendons  are  torn  away  from 
them  and  retracted.  The  importance  of  this  associated  injury,  through 
its  effect  upon  the  subsequent  usefulness  and  security  of  the  joint,  may 
be  great;  not  only  may  the  power  of  voluntary  external  rotation  be 
diminished  thereby,  but  the  consequent  loss  of  support  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  joint  favors  recurrence  of  anterior  dislocation,  and  the  great 
lengthening  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  capsule  and  the  enlargement 
of  its  cavity  which  are  effected  by  the  retraction  of  the  supraspinatus 
and  the  establishment  of  free  communication  between  the  joint  and  the 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  577 

subacromial  bursa  make  the  joint  much  less  secure,  and  this  condition 
is  thought  to  be  the  cause  of  the  marked  tendency  to  recurrence 
observed  after  some  anterior  dislocations  (see  Chapter  XXIX.).  Sim- 
ilarly the  avulsion  or  rupture  of  the  subscapularis  in  backward  dislo- 
cations is  responsible  for  the  tendency  to  recurrence  that  has  been  so 
frequently  noted  in  them. 

The  tendon  of  the  long  head  of  the  biceps  appears  habitually  to  escape 
rupture;  its  sheath  may  be  opened  by  the  avulsion  of  either  tuberosity, 
and  then  it  may  slip  over  the  corresponding  portion  of  the  head,  and, 
becoming  engaged  between  the  latter  and  the  glenoid  cavity,  thus  con- 
stitute a  serious  obstacle  to  reduction.  When  ruptured,  its  end  is 
retracted  into  its  sheath  in  the  bicipital  groove  and  there  becomes 
united  with  the  bone. 

Fracture  of  the  greater  tuberosity  appears  to  be  not  often  capable 
of  demonstration;  at  least  it  has  often  been  found  post  mortem  when 
it  had  not  been  recognized  during  life,  although  the  proper  explanation 
of  the  failure  to  recognize  it  may  be  that  it  w^as  not  sought  for.  If 
the  fragment  is  retained  in  contact  with  the  humerus  by  the  untorn 
periosteum,  crepitus  may  perhaps  be  obtained  by  manipulation;  and 
when  the  fragment  is  widely  withdrawn  it  may  perhaps  be  felt  under 
the  acromion,  or  its  absence  may  be  recognized  by  the  change  in  the 
shape  of  the  corresponding  part  of  the  humerus,  or  the  fracture  may 
be  indicated  by  exceptional  symptoms  accompanying  the  dislocation, 
such  as  greater  mobility  of  the  limb  or  the  absence  of  fixed  abduction 
of  the  elbow,  or  local  pain  on  pressure. 

Fracture  of  the  lesser  tuberosity  is  much  less  frequent.  To  the  three 
cases  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  fractures  of  the  tuberosities  of  the 
humerus  (p.  218)  may  be  added  the  two  reported  by  Jossel  and  quoted 
in  the  preceding  chapter  in  the  section  on  posterior  dislocations 
(p.  567). 

Fracture  of  the  Anatomical  or  Surgical  Neck.  This  serious  complica- 
tion of  the  humerus  is  fortunately  rare;  McBurney^  was  able  to  collect 
only  117  reported  cases,  although  his  search  was  aided  by  those  of 
Oger^  and  Porrier  and  Mauclaire.^ 

The  fracture  may  occupy  the  anatomical  or  the  surgical  neck,  or  may 
extend  through  the  tuberosities,  or  may  be  extensively  comminuted. 
Of  68  cases  collected  by  Thamhayn"*  the  fracture  in  14  was  of  the 
anatomical  neck;  in  2  of  these  reduction  was  effected.  The  displace- 
ment in  the  great  majority  of  cases  is  forward  and  inward,  the  head 
lying  under  or  on  the  inner  side  of  the  coracoid  process;  in  a  few  cases 
it  has  been  backward  under  the  acromion.  The  upper  fragment  may, 
in  addition,  undergo  rotation  that  will  widely  separate  its  broken  sur- 
face from  that  of  the  shaft.  Cases  of  the  rare  form  in  which  the  head, 
after  fracture  of  the  anatomical  neck,  has  undergone  complete  reversal 
while  remaining  within  the  cavity  of  the  joint  have  been  quoted  in 
Chapters  XIX.  and  XXIX.  The  upper  end  of  the  lower  fragment 
is  usually  drawn  upward  toward  the  glenoid   fossa,  overlapping  the 

1  McBurney:  Annals  of  Surgery,  April,  1894,  and  May,  1896. 

2  Oger  :  Luxations  scapulo-hum6rales  compliquees  de  fracture.    These  de  Paris,  1884,  No.  361. 

3  Porrier  and  Mauclaire  :  Rev.  de  (;bir.,  October,  1892. 

*  Tliamhayn  :  Schmidt's  Jahrbuch,  1861,  vol.  cxl.  p.  194. 

37 


578  DISLOCATIONS. 

upper  fragment  on  the  outer  side^  and  it  may  unite  in  this  position  by 
fibrous  or  bony  union  with  the  other  fragment,  or  with  the  scapula. 

The  upper  fragment  usually  preserves  its  vitality  and  establishes  new 
vascular  connections;  in  rare  instances  it  has  become  necrotic  and  has 
been  eliminated  after  prolonged  suppuration. 

The  diagnosis  appears,  in  some  cases,  to  have  presented  serious 
difficulties,  because  the  fracture  removed  some  of  the  most  character- 
istic symptoms  of  the  dislocation,  such  as  the  fixation  and  attitude 
of  the  limb,  and  the  indication  of  the  position  of  the  head  of  the 
bone  that  is  furnished  by  the  direction  of  its  long  axis.  In  general 
terms,  it  may  be  said  that  when  the  dislocation  of  the  head  has  been 
recognized  the  coexistence  of  a  fracture  may  be  suggested  by  the 
mobility  of  the  limb,  its  shortening,  and  the  greater  extent  of  the 
ecchymosis,  and  proved  by  the  independent  mobility  of  the  shaft  and 
head  with  crepitus.  When  the  signs  of  fracture  are  apparent  the  coex- 
istence of  a  dislocation  can  only  be  recognized  by  determining  the 
absence  of  the  head  from  its  socket,  and  this  may  be  made  very  diffi- 
cult by  the  swelling  of  the  soft  parts.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
the  same  exceptional  mobility  may  be  given  to  the  limb  by  extensive 
laceration  of  the  capsule  without  fracture.  The  two  positive  signs, 
which  the  surgeon  should  spare  no  pains  to  recognize,  are  the  absence 
of  the  head  of  the  humerus  from  its  socket,  which  proves  the  disloca- 
tion, and  its  failure  to  share  in  movements  communicated  to  the  shaft, 
which  proves  the  fracture. 

The  treatment  presents  grave  difficulties  because  the  existence  of 
the  fracture  deprives  the  surgeon  of  that  control  over  the  move- 
ments of  the  head  of  the  bone  which,  in  a  simple  dislocation,  can  be 
exerted  through  its  shaft.  Reduction  in  a  recent  case  may  some- 
times (36  out  of  80  cases,  Oger)  be  effected  by  direct  impulsion  of  the 
head  back  into  place.  This  should  always  be  attempted,  with  the  aid 
of  anaesthesia  and  gentle  traction  upon  the  abducted  shaft  in  order  to 
utilize  such  periosteal  connection  between  the  fragments  as  may  remain. 
In  two  cases  of  fracture  of  the  anatomical  neck  I  made  reduction  in 
this  manner  very  easily,  holding  the  limb  in  full  abduction  and  press- 
ing directly  upon  the  head  with  the  fingers  deeply  placed  in  the  axilla. 

This  failing,  the  alternative  plans  were  to  seek  consolidation  of  the 
fracture  and  then  to  reduce  the  dislocation,  or  to  prevent  union  of  the 
fracture  and  thus  obtain  a  false  joint  at  its  seat  (Riberi),  or  to  excise 
the  fragment.  Nine  reported  cases  of  the  first  plan  gave  seven  failures 
and  two  successes,  and  even  in  one  of  the  latter  reduction  was  made  in 
the  third  week.  Seven  cases  of  the  second  plan  have  been  reported, 
but  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  from  the  reports  the  measure  of  the 
functional  success.  In  cases  in  which  the  displacement  was  unrelieved 
the  usefulness  of  the  arm  was  even  more  impaired  than  when  an 
uncomplicated  dislocation  was  left  unreduced,  because  of  the  additional 
adhesions  created  by  the  fracture,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  patients 
appear  to  have  suffered  from  the  pressure  effects  of  the  dislocated  head. 
The  complication,  therefore,  remained  a  serious  reproach  to  surgery, 
the  only  means  of  relief  being  excision  of  the  head. 

In  this  juncture  Dr.  McBurney  devised  and  successfully  used  a 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  579 

method  of  reduction  which  seems  perfect  in  its  efficiency  and  which, 
at  least  when  the  fracture  is  through  tlie  surgical  neck,  involves  less 
risk  than  primary  excision  of  the  fragment.  He  makes  an  incision  on 
the  outer  anterior  aspect  down  to  the  upper  fragment,  drills  a  hole  in 
the  latter,  inserts  the  end  of  a  stout  hook  (Fig.  272),  and  with  its  aid 
makes  the  needed  traction  and  rotation.  After  reduction  has  been  thus 
made,  he  sutures  the  fragments  together  with  catgut,  and  then  treats 
the  limb  as  for  fracture.  He  has  used  the  method  in  four  cases,  two 
each  of  the  surgical  and  anatomical  necks,  all  the  wounds  healing  pri- 
marily, and  with  a  functional  result  as  good  as  that  following  an 
uncomplicated  dislocation  or  fracture. 

Fig.  272. 


McBurney's  hook  for  making  traction  upon  the  dislocated  upper  fragment. 

For  statistics  of  various  methods  of  treatment  after  failure  to  reduce, 
see  SouchoQ,  Transactions  of  the  American  Surgical  Association,  1897, 
p.  322. 

Fracture  of  the  shaft  associated  Avith  dislocation  of  the  shoulder  has 
also  been  observed  several  times.  It  is  a  less  serious  complication  than 
fracture  of  either  the  anatomical  or  the  surgical  neck,  because  the 
greater  length  of  the  upper  fragment  makes  it  easier  to  effect  reduction. 

Fracture  of  the  coracoid  process  has  been  observed  in  connection 
with  dislocation  of  the  humerus,  not  only  in  the  cases  of  supracoracoid 
dislocation  mentioned  above,  but  also  in  dislocation  forward. 

Fracture  of  the  acromion  has  also  been  occasionally  observed. 
Kronlein's  unique  case  in  which  a  bloAv  received  upon  the  top  of  the 
shoulder  first  broke  the  acromion  and  then  dislocated  the  humerus  into 
the  axilla  has  already  been  mentioned;  also  Tuffier's,  in  an  upward 
dislocation. 

Fracture  of  the  Glenoid  Fossa.  Probably  the  chipping  of  the  edge 
of  the  glenoid  fossa  is  not  infrequent  in  dislocation,  and  passes  un- 
recognized because  of  the  lack  of  symptoms.  Fracture  of  a  large  por- 
tion has  been  occasionally  observed,  both  clinically  and  after  death, 
and  is  of  great  importance  in  favoring  recurrence  of  the  dislocation. 
Malgaigne  represents  in  his  Atlas  (plate  XXII.,  fig.  4)  a  case  in  which 
the  anterior  third  of  the  fossa  was  broken  off  and  had  been  displaced 
backward  and  become  united  with  the  neck  of  the  scapula;  the  symp- 
toms in  the  case  were  that  the  shoulder  was  less  full  and  rounded 
than  normal,  and  that  the  head  of  the  humerus,  while  still  in  relation 


580  DISLOCATIONS. 

with  the  anterior  part  of  the  acromion,  projected  a  few  lines  in  front 
of  the  inner  border  of  the  coracoid  process. 

The  special  indication  for  treatment  is  to  prevent  recurrence  of  the 
dislocation  by  fixation  of  the  limb  and  pressure  upon  the  head  from 
the  side  on  which  the  fracture  has  taken  place. 

Nerves.  Injury  to  the  nerves,  except  of  a  slight  and  transitory  char- 
acter, is  rare,  and  in  most  of  the  cases  reported  as  such  the  injury  has 
been  inflicted  during  reduction.  In  two  cases  in  which  the  injury  was 
demonstrated  by  post-mortem  examination,  Hilton's^  and  Parise's,^ 
there  was  only  a  partial  laceration  of  the  circumflex  nerve  in  the 
former,  and  in  the  latter  rupture  at  different  levels  of  the  fibres  com- 
posing it,  only  recognizable  on  minute  dissection;  the  nerve  trunk  was 
extensively  infiltrated  with  blood;  the  dislocation  was  subglenoid,  and 
the  nerve  was  tightly  stretched  around  the  head  of  the  humerus.  In 
Bourgues's^  (subglenoid)  the  main  nerves  were  so  compressed  between 
the  surgical  neck  and  the  fascia  that  they  showed  multiple  grooves  and 
punctate  hemorrhages.  In  Miiller's  (p.  307)  the  nerves  and  artery 
were  compressed  by  a  cicatricial  band. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  in  unreduced  dislocations  that  the  sensi- 
bility of  the  skin  over  most  of  the  deltoid  region,  which  is  supplied 
by  the  circumflex  nerve,  is  diminished  or  lost,  and  that  in  others  after 
reduction  the  deltoid  is  paralyzed.  This  paralysis  of  the  deltoid  is 
thought  frequently  to  be  the  result  of  direct  bruising  of  the  muscle 
by  the  violence  that  caused  the  dislocation,  but  that  explanation  does 
not  satisfactorily  account  also  for  the  loss  of  sensibility  in  the  skin, 
and  we  must,  in  such  cases,  assume  that  the  trunk  of  the  circumflex  has 
been  stretched  in  the  dislocation. 

In  many  of  the  reported  cases  it  cannot  be  determined  whether  the 
injury  to  the  nerve  was  caused  by  the  dislocation  or  by  the  manoeuvres 
made  to  effect  reduction;  in  others  it  is  clearly  due  to  the  dislocation. 
Illustrative  examples  have  been  quoted  in  Chapter  XXIX, 

The  cause  of  the  paralysis,  when  it  involves  more  than  the  circum- 
flex nerve,  is  very  obscure.  It  has  been  attributed  to  compression  of 
the  main  trunks  in  the  axilla,  but  this  explanation  is  not  satisfactorily 
supported  by  post-mortem  examination  or  experiment,  and  the  fact 
that  similar  symptoms  may  follow  blows  that  neither  produce  a  dislo- 
cation nor  directly  involve  the  nerves  adds  to  the  difficulty.  X^laton 
sought  to  explain  it  by  supposing  a  compression  of  the  nerves  between 
the  clavicle  and  the  first  rib,  and  some  cases  have  been  reported  which 
indicate  that  this  explanation  may,  sometimes  at  least,  be  the  correct 
one.  On  the  other  hand,  the  prompt  disappearance  of  the  symptoms 
in  some  cases  after  reduction  clearly  points  to  pressure  by  the  head  or 
neck  of  the  humerus  upon  the  nerves  as  the  cause. 

The  paralysis  may  appear  immediately  or  may  develop  gradually 
during  the  first  two  or  three  days,  and  it  may  be  complete  or  partial. 
In  some  cases  (see  Chapter  XXIX.)  it  has  been  followed  by  serious 
changes  in  the  appearance  and  nutrition  of  the  limb,  presumably  the 

1  Hilton :  Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  1847,  vol.  v.  p.  93. 

2  Parise  :  Gaz.  M(5clicale  de  Paris,  1863,  p.  210. 

3  Bourgues  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anat.,  1888,  p.  581. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  581 

effect  of  an  ascending  neuritis.  In  one  case  Bardenheuer^  demonstrated 
the  existence  of  neuritis  and  perineuritis  h>y  exposing  the  nerves,  and 
worked  a  gradual  cure  by  stretching  their  trunks. 

Whatever  doubt  may  exist  as  to  the  direct  cause  of  the  paralysis, 
the  first  step  in  the  treatment  is  to  reduce  the  dislocation;  after  that 
has  been  accomplished,  or  even  if  it  should  fail,  electricity  should  be 
persistently  employed.  Some  cases  respond  promptly  to  treatment,  the 
contractility  of  the  muscle  sometimes  reappearing  after  even  the  single 
application  of  a  blister,  while  others,  after  weeks  or  months  of  treat- 
ment, will  show  no  improvement.  So  long  as  the  muscle  reacts  to 
electrical  stimulation  the  prognosis  is  good. 

Bloodvessels.  The  complication  of  serious  injury  to  the  bloodvessels 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  joint  is  not  frequent,  and  in  the  recorded 
cases  there  is  often  a  doubt  whether  the  injury  was  caused  by  the  dis- 
location or  by  the  attempt  to  reduce  it.  The  subject  has  been  discussed 
in  detail  in  Chapters  XXIX.  and  XXXIV. 

Chest.  A  unique  case  reported  by  Prochaska,  in  which  the  head  of 
the  humerus  was  forced  into  the  chest  between  the  second  and  third 
ribs,  is  quoted  in  Chapter  XXIX.,  p.  409. 

Compound  dislocations  are  rare;  the  wound  in  the  skin  is  commonly 
in  the  axilla,  sometimes  further  inward  through  the  pectoralis  major, 
sometimes  behind  the  joint.  It  is  a  very  serious  complication,  although 
there  is  reason  to  hope  that  a  larger  proportion  of  successes  will  be 
obtained  in  the  future  under  the  improved  methods  of  treating  wounds 
than  was  possible  in  the  past.  The  essentials  of  such  treatment  are 
immobilization  of  the  joint,  drainage,  and  surgical  cleanliness;  excision 
of  the  head  of  the  humerus  may  also  be  required  under  certain  circum- 
stances, such  as  difficulty  of  reduction  or  retention,  coincident  fracture, 
uncleanliness  of  the  wound,  and  imperfect  drainage  of  the  joint.  The 
prudent  course  is  to  provide  abundantly  for  drainage,  by  not  closing 
the  skin  wound  except,  perhaps,  in  part,  and  by  packing  with  iodoform 
gauze  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours.  The  last-named  precaution  pro- 
vides a  prompt  and  ready  means  of  escape  for  the  blood  and  exuda- 
tions, and  at  the  same  time  does  not  prevent  the  wound  from  being 
closed  a  day  or  two  later  with  sutures  and  then  healing  as  rapidly  and 
kindly  as  if  it  were  entirely  fresh. 

Simultaneous  dislocation  of  both  shoulders  is  deemed  a  rare  occurrence; 
possibly  it  is  more  frequent  than  is  generally  supposed,  for  I  found 
five  cases  mentioned  in  the  Index  Medious  for  the  years  1880  to  1885. 
It  is  of  interest  only  as  a  curiosity,  for  the  combination  does  not  seri- 
ously affect  the  prognosis  or  treatment.  The  causes  in  the  five  cases 
referred  to  were  as  follows.  In  one^  the  patient  was  seized  in  the  street 
by  two  thieves  who  drew  his  arms  upward,  outward,  and  backward, 
producing  subcoracoid  dislocations;  both  joints  had  previously  been 
repeatedly  dislocated.  In  the  second^  the  patient,  while  standing  on 
a  platform,  was  caught  under  one  arm  by  a  chain  and  thrown  to  the 
ground.     In  the  third''  a  woman,  eighty-six  years  old,  fell  out  of  bed, 

1  Bardenheuer:  Loe  cit.,  p.  335. 

2  G.  E.  Moore :  New  York  Medical  Record,  1880,  vol.  xviii.  p.  96. 
8  Caskie :  British  Medical  Journal,  1881,  it.  p.  854. 

^  GUterbock :  Berlin,  klin.  Wochenschrift,  1885,  vol.  xii.  p.  346. 


582  DISLOCATIONS. 

receiving  an  intracoracoid  and  a  subcoracoid  dislocation.  In  the  fourth^ 
a  girl^  twenty-one  years  old,  was  knocked  down  by  a  falling  wall;  and 
in  the  fifth,^  a  girl,  the  injuries  occurred  during  an  epileptic  convulsion. 
In  a  personal  case  both  shoulders  were  dislocated  by  lifting  the  patient 
by  his  hands  out  of  the  water  into  a  boat.  All  of  them  were  anterior 
dislocations.  Mention  has  been  made  in  the  preceding  chapter  of  Bar- 
denheuer's  case  in  which  both  shoulders  were  dislocated  backward  by 
a  fall  forward  upon  the  elbows. 

Associated  dislocation  of  the  elbow  has  been  twice  reported.  Morel - 
Lavallee's^  patient  was  injured  in  a  railway  accident;  the  head  of  the 
humerus  was  driven  out  through  the  skin  of  the  outer  part  of  the 
shoulder  and  projected  so  far  that  the  elbow  was  in  contact  with  the 
axilla;  the  elbow  also  was  dislocated. 

Moxhay's*  patient  was  a  man,  fifty-six  years  old,  who  was  struck  on 
the  back  of  the  arm  by  the  handle  of  a  wrench  and  sustained  a  back- 
ward dislocation  of  both  bones  of  the  forearm  and  a  subcoracoid  disloca- 
tion of  the  shoulder;  the  latter  injury  was  not  discovered  by  the  surgeon 
until  the  seventh  week  after  the  accident;  it  was  then  successfully 
reduced. 

Injuries  caused  by  attempts  made  to  reduce  dislocations  have  been 
described  in  Chapter  XXXIV. 

Prognosis  and  After-treatment. 

Since  our  knowledge  of  the  pathology  of  dislocations  and  of  the 
common  obstacles  to  reduction  has  become  so  much  more  accurate 
and  complete,  and  especially  since  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  ether 
and  chloroform,  failure  to  reduce  a  recent  dislocation  of  the  shoulder 
has  become  very  exceptional.  Bardenheuer  says  that  of  400  such 
cases  treated  by  him  within  ten  years  he  has  not  failed  in  any,  and 
only  once  has  he  had  any  difficulty.  I  have  been  obliged  to  resort 
to  the  knife  in  only  one.  The  prognosis,  therefore,  so  far  as  the 
reduction  of  recent  dislocations  is  concerned,  is  eminently  favorable. 
It  is  also  more  favorable  for  the  older  dislocations  than  it  formerly 
was,  for  the  same  reasons  and  because  of  the  greater  safety  of  opera- 
tive interference;  and  at  the  same  time  such  cases  have  become  more 
uncommon,  for,  as  a  rule,  they  are  now  only  those  in  which  the  dislo- 
cation has  been  overlooked  or  not  treated. 

The  prognosis  is  also  favorable  as  regards  the  complete  restoration 
of  the  functions  and  security  of  the  joint,  but  this  restoration  may  be 
delayed  or  prevented  by  inflammation  or  partial  anchylosis  of  the 
joint  or  by  paralysis  of  some  of  the  muscles,  and  the  security  may  be 
seriously  diminished  by  partial  failure  of  repair  or  by  permanent 
changes  in  the  joint  surfaces. 

The  after-treatment  is  directed  to  the  retention  of  the  head  of  the 
bone  in  its  place  until  such  time  as  the  repair  of  the  injuries  to  the 

1  Zinker  :  Idem,  p.  418. 

2  FrJinkel :  Verhandl.  Berlin,  med.  Gesellschaft,  1885,  xiii.  p.  150. 

3  Morel-LavaU(5e :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1858,  vol.  viii.  p.  490. 
*  Moxhay  :  Lancet,  1882,  ii.  p.  938. 


DISLOGATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  583 

capsule  and  periarticular  tissues  is  sufficiently  advanced,  and  to  the 
prevention  or  cure  of  inflammation  and  anchylosis. 

It  occasionally,  though  very  rarely,  happens  that  the  dislocation  is 
reproduced  within  a  few  minutes  of  the  reduction,  without  such  move- 
ment of  the  arm  (abduction  or  elevation  of  the  elbow)  as  would  explain 
it,  and  it  is  then  presumably  due  to  muscular  contraction,  perhajjs  aided 
by  the  interposition  of  a  portion  of  the  capsule.  It  suggests  the  de- 
sirability of  immediately  and  .securely  fixing  the  arm  to  the  side  of  the 
body  before  the  patient  is  allowed  to  move  after  reduction  has  been 
made,  and  of  inspecting  the  limb  shortly  afterward. 

The  traumatism  is  always  followed  by  some  inflammatory  reaction 
and  the  evidences  of  a  more  or  less  prolonged  arthritis,  but  it  seldom 
happens  that  this  is  sufficiently  violent  to  cause  apprehension  or  require 
other  treatment  than  immobilization  of  the  limb.  The  severer  cases 
are  those  in  which  the  limb  has  been  too  early  or  too  freely  used. 
The  fear  that  prolonged  immobilization  of  a  joint  would  lead  to  its 
permanent  stiffness  is,  or  has  been,  too  prevalent  and  has  led  to  much 
untimely  passive  or  active  motion  of  joints  that  have  been  injured,  and 
this  in  turn,  by  keeping  up  the  irritation,  has  increased  the  stiffness 
which  it  was  designed  to  diminish.  After  the  soreness  has  ceased, 
about  the  third  week,  the  patient  should  be  encouraged  to  try  gently 
to  increase  the  range  of  motion  and  freely  to  use  the  limb  within  the 
limits  of  pain.  The  retraction  of  the  capsule,  the  loss  of  its  pliability, 
is,  except  in  the  case  of  prolonged  inflammation  and  in  some  highly 
arthritic  individuals,  only  temporary  and  will  ordinarily  yield  to  the 
natural  daily  use  of  the  limb. 

If  the  inflammation  is  more  severe  or  if  it  has  been  prolonged  by 
imprudent  use  of  the  limb  the  immobilization  should  be  supplemented 
by  traction  downward.  Bardenheuer^  l^ighly  recommends  in  addition 
that  the  upper  end  of  the  humerus  should  be  kept  pressed  outward 
and  backward  by  a  pad  in  the  axilla  attached  to  a  weight  above  and 
behind  the  shoulder.     This  necessitates  the  recumbent  posture. 

For  late  changes  in  the  bone  see  the  following  section  :  Habitual 
Dislocation. 

Paralysis  of  the  deltoid  causes  the  loss  of  voluntary  abduction  of 
the  arm,  and  if  prolonged  leads  to  permanent  shortening  of  the  lower 
and  inner  portion  of  the  capsule  with  consequent  limitation  of  even 
passive  abduction.  It  may  also  be  followed  by  the  sinking  of  the 
humerus  downward  through  lack  of  the  support  normally  given  by 
the  deltoid,  and  by  consequent  loss  of  security  in  the  joint.  Usually 
these  paralyses  get  well  spontaneously  or  under  treatment  by  blisters 
or  electricity,  but  sometimes  they  are  permanent. 

If  the  dislocation  remains  permanently  unreduced  the  periarticular 
muscles  become  wasted  and  the  deformity  of  the  region  is  thereby 
increased.  The  head  forms  a  new  socket  for  itself,  but  its  availability 
for  motion  is  slight,  and  the  use  of  the  limb  is  confined  as  a  rule  to 
the  "  underhand"  movements.  In  some  cases  the  compensatory  mo- 
bility of  the  scapula  is  such  that  the  hand  can  be  raised  to  the  head, 

1  Bardenheuer:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  412. 


584  DISLOCATIONS. 

and  in  some  a  degree  of  usefulness  has  been  exceptionally  obtained 
that  is  far  in  excess  of  what  is  usual.  Thus,  Prochaska's  patient,  the 
head  of  whose  humerus  was  lodged  in  the  chest  after  having  passed 
between  the  second  and  third  ribs,  earned  his  living  for  many  years 
as  a  woodchopper. 

Habitual  Dislocation. 

Habitual  dislocation,  by  which  is  meant  a  marked  tendency  to  the 
reproduction  of  the  dislocation  by  slight  causes,  such  as  the  abduction 
of  the  arm,  is  not  infrequent  and  may  constitute  a  serious  disability; 
it  is  most  frequently  observed  after  anterior  dislocations,  but  appears 
to  be  relatively  more  common  after  the  posterior  ones. 

This  tendency  has  generally  been  attributed,  though  without  anatom- 
ical proof,  to  laxity  of  the  capsule,  itself  the  consequence  of  imper- 
fect repair  of  the  rent  made  in  it  at  the  time  of  the  dislocation,  but 
the  recent  researches  of  JosseP  show,  for  the  forward  dislocation,  that 
the  enlargement  of  the  capsule  observed  in  such  cases  sometimes  takes 
place  at  its  upper  portion  in  consequence  of  the  rupture  or  avulsion  of 
the  tendons  of  the  supraspinatus  and  infraspinatus  muscles,  which 
involves  the  rupture  of  the  capsule  at  the  same  level  and  the  creation 
of  a  free  communication  between  its  cavity  and  that  of  the  subcoracoid 
bursa  (see  Chapter  XXIX.,  p.  411).  He  found  this  condition  at  the 
autopsies  of  five  joints  which  had  been  subject  to  habitual  dislocation 
during  life  and  in  four  other  specimens  found  in  the  course  of  an 
examination  made  with  this  object  of  all  bodies  received  in  the  dis- 
secting-room during  two  successive  winters. 

Other  specimens  have  shown  important  changes  in  the  head  of  the 
humerus  and  the  glenoid  fossa.  Lobker^  presented  at  the  Fifteenth 
Congress  of  German  Surgeons  a  specimen  obtained,  post  mortem,  from 
a  case  of  habitual  dislocation,  which  showed  changes  in  the  head  and 
glenoid  fossa  which  were  thought  to  be  the  effect  of  the  frequent  recur- 
rence, and  another  specimen  obtamed  by  Vogt  by  excision  in  a  similar 
case  and  showing  the  same  changes  in  the  head  of  the  humerus.  The 
head  in  each  case  was  normal  only  on  its  inner  anterior  half;  the  other 
half  had  lost  its  roundness,  and  showed  a  depression  one  centimetre 
deep  and  two  centimetres  wide,  extending  from  top  to  bottom,  and 
separated  from  the  normal  inner  half  by  a  sharp  prominent  border. 
The  surface  was  covered  throughout  by  cartilage,  and  the  depression 
was  evidently  not  the  result  of  a  fracture  with  loss  of  substance.  The 
tuberosities  and  bicipital  groove  were  intact;  the  long  tendon  of  the 
biceps  was  torn  from  its  insertion,  and  had  become  adherent  in  its 
groove.  There  M'ere  evidences  of  the  avulsion  of  the  muscles  from 
the  greater  tuberosity.  The  outer  portion  of  the  glenoid  fossa  was 
normal,  and  separated  by  a  sharp  vertical  border  from  the  large  inner 
portion  which  was  angularly  deflected  backward.  Both  portions  w^ere 
covered  w^ith  cartilage,  and  showed  no  sign  of  fracture.  The  head 
and  fossa  fitted  together  in  such  a  way  that  the  inner  half  of  the  head 

1  Tossel :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fiir  Chir.,  1880,  vol.  xiii.  p.  167. 
"  Lobker:  Beilage  zum  Centralblatt  fiir  Chir.,  1886,  p.  90. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  585 

articulated  with  the  inner-half  of  the  fossa,  and  the  sharp  edge  of  the 
latter  occupied  the  depression  in  the  former. 

He  refers  to  the  fact  that  sijeciraens  obtained  by  excision  by  Cramer, 
Kiister,  and  von  Volkmann  showed  similar  losses  of  substance  in  the 
head  of  the  humerus,  and  attributes  them  to  the  frequent  recurrence 
or  to  a  persistent  subluxation  by  which  the  head  is  made  to  rest  against 
the  inner  border  of  the  fossa,  instead  of  squarely  against  its  face. 

The  symptoms  presented  by  Lobker's  case  during  life  are  not  given, 
but  it  does  not  seem  possible  that  they  could  have  been,  at  least  at  the 
last,  such  as  are  found  in  habitual  dislocation,  for  that  is  characterized 
by  complete  restoration  of  form  in  the  intervals  between  the  recur- 
rences, while  in  this  case  the  subluxation  must  have  been  persistent. 

Three  cases  of  habitual  dislocation  in  which  the  head  of  the  humerus 
was  excised  are  referred  to  by  Lobker  as  showing  similar  losses  of  sub- 
stance in  the  humerus,  but  a  reference  to  the  original  reports^  shows 
that  in  all  three  the  loss  was  thought  to  be  the  result  of  a  fracture, 
although  in  the  discussion  on  one  of  them  (Kiister' s),  Riedinger 
expressed  the  opinion  that  it  was  due  to  absorption.  As  the  cases 
illustrate  also  the  method  of  treatment  by  excision,  I  quote  two  of 
them  briefly. 

Cramer's  patient  was  a  woman  thirty  years  old,  who  dislocated  her 
shoulder  forward  and  inward  during  an  epileptic  fit,  and  again  in 
another  two  months  later;  the  arm  was  then  immobilized  for  several 
months,  and  a  special  dressing  was  worn  most  of  the  time  afterward, 
especially  at  the  menstrual  periods,  when  the  attacks  of  epilepsy  were 
most  likely  to  occur,  but  nevertheless  the  dislocation  recurred  nineteen 
times  within  five  years,  each  time  during  a 
fit;  reduction  was  sometimes  easy,  sometimes  ^^^-  ^"^• 

quite  difficult,  and  the  patient  was  eager  to 
be  relieved  of  the  annoyance  and  the  dread. 
The  head  was  excised  through  an  anterior 
incision,  and  the  patient  made  a  good  recov- 
ery. The  functional  result  was  fairly  satis- 
factory and  was  still  improving  two  years 
after  the  operation. 

The  articular  surface  of  the  head  of  the 
humerus  showed  a  shallow  loss  of  substance 
on  its  outer  side  four  centimetres  long,  two 

broad,    and    about    three-fourths    of    a    Centi-  Horizontal  section  of  the  head 

metre  in  depth  at  the  centre  (Fig.  273),  and     °^  ^he  humerus  in  Cramer's  case 

.1  /         -,  11    1      1         c    •  1  of  habitual  dislocation.     A,  loss 

there  was  found  a  small  body  of  irregular     ^f  substance;  b.  greater  tuber- 
shape,  one  centimetre  in  its  greatest  diame-     osity ;  c,  lesser  tuberosity. 
ter,  with  a  smooth  surface,  and  attached  by 

a  long,  thin  pedicle  to  the  posterior  margin  of  the  glenoid  fossa.  It 
was  composed  of  bone  covered  by  fibrous  tissue  with  bits  of  cartilage 
between  them  in  places,  and  was  thought  to  be  a  fragment  broken 
from  the  head. 

1  Cramer:  Berlin,  klin.  Wochenschrift,  1882,  p.  21.  Volkmann,  reported  by  Popke  :  Zur  Kasuis- 
tik  und  Therapie  der  inveterirten  und  habituellen  Schulterluxationen,  Halle,  1882.  Abstract  in 
Centralblatt  fur  Chir.,  1883,  p.  28.    Kuster  :  Beilage  zum  Centralblatt  fur  Chir.,  1882,  p.  73. 


586  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  Volkmann's  the  posterior  third  of  the  head  showed  a  smooth 
surface  not  covered  by  cartilage,  which  had  been  "  undoubtedly"  pro- 
duced by  the  breaking  off  of  a  wedge-shaped  piece.  No  such  fragment 
could  be  found  in  the  cavity,  and  it  was  thought  to  have  been  absorbed. 
The  glenoid  articular  fossa  was  altered  in  shape,  having  become  nar- 
rower below  than  above.  The  capsule  was  torn  away  from  the  inner 
and  lower  margin  of  the  glenoid  fossa,  thus  creating  an  opening  which 
communicated  with  the  subscapular  bursa.  On  the  thickened  edge  of 
this  opening  was  attached,  by  a  sort  of  pedicle,  a  piece  of  cartilage- 
covered  bone,  "  which  was  evidently  the  remains  of  a  fragment  broken 
from  the  edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa."  (This,  if  so,  would  be  a  suffi- 
cient explanation  of  the  recurrence.)  The  patient  recovered  from  the 
operation,  and  subsequently  reported  by  letter  that  the  condition  of  his 
arm  was  much  more  satisfactory  than  before  the  operation. 

These  changes  in  the  bones  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  described 
in  cases  of  chronic,  non-suppurative  inflammation,  in  some  of  which  it 
is  evident  that  the  process  originated  in  a  dislocation.  (See  Gurlt, 
Path.  Anat.  der  GelenkkranJcheiten,  pp.  250-267,  and  especially  Curl- 
ing's case,  280,  also  described  in  the  Medico- Chirurgical  Transactions, 
1837,  vol.  XX.  p.  336,  as  a  partial  dislocation  forward.)  It  seems  not 
improbable  that  the  series  of  observed  changes  may  be  started  by  an 
ordinary  dislocation,  that  is,  by  one  that  is  not  distinguished  by  any 
exceptional  lesion  such  as  partial  fracture  of  the  head  or  of  the  edge 
of  the  glenoid  cavity;  this  is  followed  by  a  non-suppurative  arthritis 
wdiich  so  modifies  the  capsule  and  the  shape  of  the  surfaces  that  a 
recurrence  of  the  dislocation  is  made  easy.  The  pedunculated  bodies 
composed  of  bone  and  cartilage,  sometimes  found  in  the  joint  and 
thought  to  have  been  broken  from  the  head  of  the  humerus  or  the 
edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa,  may  be  of  new  formation.  In  three  of  four 
cases  reported  by  Burrell  and  Lovett,^  some  of  the  muscles  of  the 
shoulder  were  notably  atrophied. 

The  frequency  of  recurrence  varies  greatly  in  the  different  cases ;  in 
some  the  intervals  are  long,  in  others  the  dislocation  is  produced  every 
time  the  elbow  is  raised,  and  in  some  the  bone  can  be  voluntarily  thrown 
out  of  place  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles. 

Ordinarily  redaction  is  very  easy,  and  the  patient  learns  to  effect  it 
himself;  in  others  it  is  at  times  difficult. 

The  treatment  by  injections  of  iodine  and  by  narrowing  the  capsule 
on  the  inner  side  has  been  mentioned  in  Chapter  XXXIII.,  p.  435. 
The  latter  has  been  employed  successfully  by  its  introducer,  Ricard, 
in  two  cases  and  by  myself^  in  one.  The  incision  occupies  the  interval 
between  the  deltoid  and  pectoralis  with  an  extension  from  its  upper 
end  outward  close  to  the  acromion;  the  corresponding  portion  of  the 
deltoid  is  detached  and  turned  outward.  In  the  anterior  portion  of 
the  capsule  thus  exposed  two  or  three  sutures  of  stout  silk  are  passed 
so  as  to  take  up  a  fold  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide  and  run- 
ning downward  and  outward. 

BurrelP  obtained  an  excellent  result  in  two  cases  by  excising  from 

1  Burrell  and  Lovett :  Transactions  of  the  American  Surgical  Association,  1897,  p.  296 
^  Stlmson :  Annals  of  Surgery,  March,  1898,  p.  364.  ^  Burrell :  Loc.  cit. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  TEE  SHOULDER.  587 

the  anterior  inner  portion  of  the  capsule  a  piece  four  centimetres  long 
and  one  wide,  and  closing  the  gap  with  catgut  sutures.  For  better 
exposure  of  the  field  of  operation  he  divided  the  upper  three-quarters 
of  the  tendon  of  the  pectoralis  major  close  to  its  insertion,  and  part  of 
the  tendon  of  the  subscapularis. 

Excision  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  has  been  resorted  to  in  at  least 
six  cases,  and  the  reported  results  in  some  of  them  were  good.  I 
should  think  the  disability  would  have  to  be  great  to  justify  so  radical 
a  measure,  one  which  may  in  itself  be  so  disabling. 

Yeates^  describes  an  apparatus  which  he  had  worn  with  comfort  and 
advantage  to  limit  the  range  of  motion  and  thus  prevent  recurrence. 

Another  class  of  cases  in  which  the  tendency  to  recurrence  is  the 
result  not  of  a  primary  traumatic  dislocation  but  of  pathological 
changes  in  the  joint  or  of  paralysis  of  the  muscles  will  be  considered 
in  a  subsequent  section. 

Treatment  of  Old  Dislocations  that  Cannot  be  Reduced  by  Manipulation 
and  Forcible  Traction.- 

The  urgent  desire  of  patients  to  be  relieved  of  their  disability  or  of 
the  pain  caused  by  the  persistence  of  the  displacement  has  led  surgeons 
to  resort  with  increasing  frequency  to  cutting  operations  in  the  hope  of 
restoring  the  bone  to  its  place  or  improving  its  position,  or  to  excise 
the  head.  Others  sought  to  improve  the  position  of  the  limb  or  to 
create  a  false  joint  by  subcutaneous  fracture  or  division  with  the  saw. 
It  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  from  the  histories  of  the  cases  the 
measure  of  success  or  improvement,  for  in  some  the  report  ends  with 
the  operation,  and  in  others  although  the  result  is  called  a  success  the 
description  leaves  the  reader  in  doubt  as  to  the  completeness  of  the 
reduction  or  as  to  the  improvement  in  function.  With  our  more  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  the  changes  in  the  condition  of  the  glenoid  fossa 
and  in  its  relations  with  the  capsule  that  follow  the  prolonged  absence 
of  the  head  of  the  humerus  from  it,  we  may  well  doubt  the  complete- 
ness of  any  reputed  reduction  in  old  cases  obtained  by  subcutaneous 
measures  or  feel  justified  in  believing  that  the  benefit  attributed  to  the 
use  of  the  tenotome  was  a  delusion,  and  that  the  really  efficient  agents 
were  the  manipulation  and  the  traction.  In  this  criticism  I  do  not 
include  those  tenotomies  or  divisions  of  muscles  which  in  the  earlier 
days  took  the  place  now  filled  so  much  more  easily  and  safely  by  anaes- 
thetics. It  is  addressed  mainly  to  a  method  employed  by  Polaillon^ 
in  1882,  and  subsequently  used  by  some  and  highly  recommended  by 
others  on  his  authority. 

Subcutaneous  Section.  Polaillon's  patient  had  an  intracoracoid  dis- 
location, produced  during  an  epileptic  fit,  that  had  existed  for  four 
months.  An  attempt  to  reduce  with  the  pulleys,  aided  by  chloroform, 
failed,  but  brought  the  head  of  the  humerus  near  its  socket  and  directly 

1  Yeates :  Lancet,  June  30, 1888. 

-  For  bibliography  see:  KnaiJp,  Beitrage  zur  klin.  Chir.,  1888,  vol.  iv. ;  Smital,  Wiener  med. 
Wochen.,  1890,  No.  52 ;  Gwyer,  New  York  Medical  Journal,  March  28,  1891 :  Delbet,  Arch.  giJn.  de 
Med.,  1893  ;  Souchon,  Transactions  of  the  American  Surgical  Association,  1897. 

3  Polaillon  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1882,  p.  129. 


588  DISLOCATIONS. 

under  the  coracoid  process.  Eleven  days  later  the  patient  was  again 
chloroformed,  a  blunt-pointed  tenotome  introduced  through  a  small  cut 
made  through  the  skin  and  muscle  a  finger-breadth  below  the  tip  of 
the  acromion,  and  carried  horizontally  inward  between  the  deltoid  and 
the  point  of  the  humerus,  its  edge  turned  backward,  and  then  with- 
drawn so  as  to  divide  the  tissues  lying  upon  the  bone;  the  point  of  the 
knife  was  then  carried  through  the  same  incision  to  the  back  of  the 
humerus,  and  a  similar  cut  made  along  the  outer  aspect  of  the  head. 
Two  days  later  the  traction  was  renewed  under  chloroform,  and  the 
dislocation  reduced.  A  week  later,  the  bone  having  meanwhile  shown 
a  constant  tendency  to  become  displaced  forward  and  inward,  a  tourni- 
quet was  applied  about  the  shoulder  to  keep  it  in  place.  A  month 
later  the  patient  was  able  to  raise  his  hand  to  his  mouth  and  to  put  it 
behind  his  head,  and  "  the  movements  were  daily  gaining  in  extent." 

It  is  not  so  uncommon  for  a  second  or  third  attempt  to  reduce  by 
traction  to  succeed  after  the  first  has  failed  that  the  success  in  this 
case  can  be  unhesitatingly  attributed  to  the  subcutaneous  division,  and, 
furthermore,  it  seems  doubtful  whether  an  incision  made  from  the 
outer  side  in  this  manner  could  divide  anything  that  offered  any  seri- 
ous obstacle  to  the  return  of  the  bone.  The  additional  cases,  in  which 
this  method  was  successfully  employed  by  Polaillon,  are  briefly  men- 
tioned in  a  thesis  by  Bardon-Lacroze.^ 

An  open  arthrotomy,  by  which  the  surgeon  is  enabled  to  see  and 
remove  the  obstacles  to  reduction,  is  not  only  more  likely  to  be  suc- 
cessful than  subcutaneous  division,  but,  if  carefully  done  when  the 
tissues  have  not  been  lacerated  and  inflamed  by  recent  forcible  attempts 
to  reduce  by  traction  and  manipulation,  is  also,  in  my  opinion,  not  more 
dangerous.  If  the  conditions  prove  during  the  operation  to  be  unfa- 
vorable, excision  of  the  head  can  be  easily  substituted.  Souchon's 
statistics  show  69  per  cent,  of  the  results  classed  as  "  fair,"  '^  good," 
and  ''very  good"  after  reduction  by  arthrotomy.  Among  unfavorable 
conditions  are  to  be  counted  fracture  of  the  glenoid  cavity  or  its  occu- 
pation by  a  mass  of  fibrous  tissue,  fracture  and  marked  displacement 
of  the  greater  tuberosity,  and  the  need  of  extensive  dissection  to  return 
the  head  to  its  place.  The  effect  of  the  latter  is  shown  in  the  com- 
paratively frequent  (16  per  cent.,  Souchon)  necrosis  of  the  head  after 
reduction.  Possibly  this  could  be  avoided  by  keeping  the  liberating 
incisions  well  away  from  the  bone.  Knapp,  reviewing  twelve  cases  of 
reduction  by  arthrotomy  and  twenty  of  excision  of  the  head,  advises 
reduction  only  in  comparatively  recent  cases,  excision  in  the  old  ones. 
In  a  number  of  cases  the  surgeon  has  resorted  to  excision  after  having 
failed  to  reduce  by  arthrotomy. 

In  anterior  dislocations  reduction  by  arthrotomy  is  best  done  by  an 
anterior  incision  along  the  border  of  the  deltoid,  aided  if  necessary  by 
a  horizontal  extension  outward  and  detachment  of  the  corresponding 
part  of  the  deltoid  from  the  acromion.  This  gives  free  access  to  the 
outer  part  of  the  head  and  capsule  and  permits  the  removal  of  the 
latter  from  the  glenoid  fossa  if  it  has  become  adherent  to  it,  an  abso- 

1  Bardon-Lacroze :  Des  sections  sous-cutaniSes  comme  moyen  de  reduction  des  luxations  anciennes 
du  coude  et  de  Fepaule.    These  de  Paris,  1882,  No.  209. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  589 

lately  necessary  step  in  many  cases.  The  liberation  of  the  head  on  the 
inner  side  and  behind  is  much  more  difficult,  and  the  inability  prop- 
erly to  accomplish  it  appears  to  have  been  the  cause  of  the  rather  fre- 
quent abandonment  of  the  attempt  and  the  substitution  of  excision. 

The  after-treatment  requires  maintenance  of  a  position  that  effectu- 
ally opposes  recurrence  and  a  rather  early  resort  to  very  limited  passive 
motion. 

Excision  of  the  head  is  almost  always  to  be  preferred  when  the  dislo- 
cation has  been  complicated  by  fracture  of  either  the  anatomical  or  the 
surgical  neck,  because  the  resultant  conditions — faulty  position,  increase 
of  adhesions — greatly  increase  the  difficulty  of  reduction  and  render 
the  functional  result  poor  if  reduction  is  effected.  It  has  been  done 
by  an  axillary  incision,  especially  in  cases  complicated  by  fracture  of 
the  anatomical  neck.  This  method  is  of  comparatively  easy  execution 
and  may  properly  be  used  when  there  is  no  thought  of  attempting 
reduction;  otherwise  the  anterior  incision  should  be  used. 

Fracture  of  the  surgical  neck  of  the  humerus,  which  has  not  infre- 
quently been  caused  by  the  attempts  made  to  reduce,  has  sometimes 
been  taken  advantage  of  to  place  the  limb  in  a  better  position,  and 
Despres^  recommends  that  it  should  be  intentionally  produced.  Others 
have  done  it  with  the  object  of  subsequently  preventing  its  reunion  and 
establishing  a  false  joint  between  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  and  the 
glenoid  fossa.  Despres's  first  operation'  was  done  with  the  object  of 
obtaining  a  pseudarthrosis  at  the  seat  of  fracture,  but  bony  union  took 
place.  The  usefulness  of  the  limb  was,  however,  so  much  increased 
by  the  change  in  its  position  that  he  repeated  the  operation  upon 
another  patient  merely  to  effect  this  change,  and  was  in  this  case  also 
well  satisfied  with  the  result.  The  proposal  to  generalize  the  practice 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  received  with  much  favor  by  his  col- 
leagues in  the  Society. 

Other  features  of  this  subject  have  been  considered  in  the  first  part 
of  this  chapter. 

Dr.  J.  Ewing  Mears^  divided  the  surgical  neck  subcutaneously  with 
an  Adams's  saw  and  obtained  an  excellent  result  by  pseudarthrosis. 
His  patient  was  a  man,  thirty-nine  years  of  age,  and  the  dislocation 
was  of  two  years'  standing.  The  saw  was  entered  on  the  outer  side, 
and  the  division  was  easily  effected  in  about  five  minutes.  The  case 
deserves  to  be  remembered,  and  the  method  is  to  be  preferred  to  frac- 
turing as  less  dangerous  and  more  precise.  The  establishment  of  a 
false  joint  would  be  more  certainly  effected  by  the  removal  of  a  piece 
of  the  shaft. 

Congenital  Dislocations. 

This  term  as  commonly  employed  embraces  all  dislocations  which 
are  recognized  at  birth  or  which  probably  existed  then,  and  which 
have  no  recognizable  traumatic  cause.  They  present  three  distinct 
forms:  1,  one  due  apparently  to  irregular  development  of  the  joint;  2, 
one  in  which  the  bones  are  normally  formed  and  in  which  the  displace- 

1  Desprfes :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1879,  p.  742.  "  Desprfis  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  22. 

3  Mears:  Philadelphia  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter,  1877,  vol.  xxxvii.  p.  287. 


590 


DISLOCATIONS. 


ment  may  have  occurred  during  delivery;  3,  a  third,  also  with  normal 
bones,  in  which  the  displacement  is  the  late  result  of  a  paralysis 
antedating  birth  or  caused  during  delivery.  While  this  supposed 
etiology  is  not  completely  established,  yet  the  condition  of  the  parts, 
the  displacements,  and  the  symptoms  of  each  group  are  so  distinct  that 
the  grouping  is  justified  even  if  the  etiology  should  prove  to  be  differ- 
ent. There  are,  in  addition,  cases  of  traumatic  dislocation  during 
delivery  in  which  the  nature  of  the  traumatism  is  evident  and  the  cim- 
dition  is  immediately  recognized  and  corrected.  Some  of  the  paralytic 
forms  have  been  described  as  '^obstetrical  paralyses"  [vide  infra). 
The  forms  that  have  been  observed  are  the  subcoracoid  and,  much 
more  frequently,  the  subacromial  or  subspinous. 

The  condition  is  a  rare  one;  its  relative  frequency  is  shown  by  Kron- 
lein's  collection  of  98  congenital  dislocations  treated  in  Von  Langen- 
beck's  clinic,  of  which  90  were  of  the  hip,  5  of  the  shoulder,  2  of  the 
head  of  the  radius,  and  1  of  the  knee.  I  have  seen  four  cases,  all 
backward  dislocations;  three  of  them,  possibly  all,  belonged  in  the 
second  group  above  named. 

In  support  of  the  theory  of  a  pre-natal  origin  are  the  facts  that  the 
lesion  is  sometimes  double  or  associated  with  other  congenital  defects, 


Fig.  274. 


Fig.  275. 


The  same ;  left  humerus. 


and  that  in  one  case^  two  chil- 
dren of  the  same  family  were 
similarly  affected;  and  yet  it  is 
not  impossible  that  both  shoul- 
ders or  two  successive  children 
could  receive  the  same  trauma- 
tism. 

]  st  Group.    Irregular  develop- 
ment.   For  our  knowledge  of  the 
pathological  changes  we  are  in- 
debted to  R.  W.  Smith. ^     In  his  case  of  double  subcoracoid  disloca- 
tion, a  lunatic  woman  twenty-nine  years  old,  ''  there  existed  on  the 


R.  W.  Smith's  case  of  double  congenital  subcor- 
acoid dislocation  of  the  shoulder.  Scapula  of  left 
side. 


1  Scudder :  Archives  of  Pediatrics,  April,  1890. 
-  R.  W.  Smith :  Fractures  and  Dislocations,  1847.  | 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  591 

left  side  scarcely  any  trace  of  an  articulating  surface  in  the  situation 
which  the  glenoid  cavity  occupies  in  the  normal  state;  but  there  had 
been  formed  upon  the  costal  surface  of  the  scapula  a  socket  of  a  gle- 
noid shape,  measuring  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  its  vertical  di- 
rection and  an  inch  and  a  quarter  transversely  (Fig.  274).  It  reached 
upward  to  the  under  surface  of  the  coracoid  process,  from  which 
the  head  of  the  humerus  was  merely  separated  by  the  capsular  liga- 
ment." The  glenoid  ligament,  perfect  in  every  respect,  extended  all 
around  it.      The  capsule  was  perfect. 

The  head  of  the  humerus  (Fig.  275)  "  was  of  an  oval  shape,  its  long 
axis  corresponding  with  the  shaft  of  the  bone.  The  oval  shape  was 
principally  due  to  the  deficiency  of  its  posterior  part,  and  there  existed 
between  the  greater  tubercle  and  the  margin  of  the  head  of  the  bone, 
where  the  investing  cartilage  terminated,  a  broad,  shallow  depression 
corresponding  to  the  edge  which  separated  the  normal  from  the  abnor- 
mal portion  of  the  glenoid  cavity.  The  shaft  of  the  humerus  was 
small  and  seemingly  atrophied." 

Upon  the  right  side,  although  the  condition  of  the  bone  was  some- 
what different,  the  characteristic  features  of  the  deformity  were  similar. 

In  his  double  subacromial  case,  a  lunatic  woman  forty-two  years 
old,  ^' there  was  no  trace  of  a  glenoid  cavity  in  the  natural  situation; 
but  upon  the  external  surface  of  the  neck  of  the  scapula  there  was  a 
well-formed  socket  which  received  the  head  of  the  humerus.  It  was 
an  inch  and  three-quarters  in  length,  and  an  inch  in  breadth;  it  was  a 
little  broader  above  than  below,  and  its  summit  was  less  than  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  from  the  under  surface  of  the  acromion  process.  It  was 
directed  outward  and  forward,  was  covered  with  cartilage,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  perfect  glenoid  ligament.  The  tendon  of  the  biceps 
muscle  arose  from  the  most  internal  part  of  its  superior  extremity, 
whence  it  passed  downward  and  outward  very  obliquely,  in  order  to 
reach  the  bicipital  groove  of  the  humerus.  The  axillary  margin  of  the 
scapula,  if  prolonged  upward,  would  have  passed  nearly  altogether 
internal  to  the  abnormal  socket.  .  .  .  The  capsular  ligament  was 
jjerfect.  The  scapula  was  smaller  than  natural,  and  its  muscles  badly 
developed." 

"  The  head  of  the  humerus,  upon  the  right  side,  was  of  an  oval  or 
oblong  form,  somewhat  broader  above  than  below;  its  anterior  half 
alone  was  in  contact  with  the  glenoid  cavity.  This  portion  w^as  cov- 
ered with  cartilage,  the  remaining  half  being  rough  and  scabrous,  and 
totally  destitute  of  articular  cartilage.  The  inner  edge  of  the  humerus, 
if  prolonged  upward,  would  have  passed  between  these  two  portions  of 
the  head  of  the  bone." 

"  The  greater  tubercle  was  natural,  but  the  lesser  was  elongated  and 
curved,  forming  a  most  remarkable  process;  it  was  an  inch  in  length, 
and  bore  some  resemblance  to  the  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula.  At 
its  root  it  presented  a  smooth,  convex,  pulley-shaped  surface,  round 
which  passed  the  tendon  of  the  biceps  muscle."  The  left  humerus 
differed  from  the  right  only  in  the  smaller  size  of  the  lesser  tuberosity. 
Both  these  cases  were  first  seen  by  Smith  upon  the  autopsy-table,  and 
he  gives  no  history  as  to  the  length  of  time  the  deformity  had  lasted. 


592  DISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

Both  individuals  had  been  for  many  years  inmates  of  the  lunatic  asy- 
lum, and  the  second  one  was  subject  to  epileptic  convulsions,  in  one  of 
which  she  died.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  appearances  are  not 
incompatible  with  the  theory  of  a  post-natal  origin,  perhaps  by  mus- 
cular action  in  an  epileptic  convulsion,  as  in  Frankel's  case  of  double 
simultaneous  dislocation  quoted  above,  p.  582. 

The  three  cases  of  single  subcoracoid  dislocation  observed  during 
life  by  Smith  seem  to  have  been  paralytic  dislocations. 

2d  Group.  Subacromial  or  subspinous,  probably  caused  during 
delivery.  These  appear  to  be  much  the  most  frequent;  Gaillard, 
quoted  by  Malgaigne,^  reported  one,  Kiister'^  one  of  both  shoulders, 
Scudder^  two,  I  have  seen  three,  possibly  four,  and  A.  M.  Phelps* 
reported  one  case,  and  tells  me  he  has  seen  six  others.  My  reasons  for 
thinking  this  group  probably  traumatic  are  that  the  limitations  of 
motion  closely  resemble  those  of  the  similar  traumatic  dislocation  in 
adults,  and  that  the  bones  as  shown  in  a  few  operations  and  in  the 
radiographs  of  two  of  my  cases  (Plate  XX.)  differ  from  the  normal  only 
in  being  smaller.  In  my  three  cases  and  in  Scudder's  two  the  right 
arm  was  affected,  in  Gaillard' s  the  left;  and  it  seemed  possible  that  as 
the  right  shoulder  is  in  front  in  the  great  majority  of  births,  the  cause 
might  be  its  pressure  against  the  arch  of  the  pubis.  Against  this,  or 
at  least  limiting  it,  is  the  double  dislocation  in  Klister's  and  the  breech 
presentation  in  one  of  mine.  Of  four  cases  of  head  presentation  deliv- 
ery was  instrumental  in  one,  easy  in  one,  difficult  in  two. 

Kiister,  operating  upon  one,  found  the  glenoid  fossa  normally  placed 
but  small,  and  the  humerus  rested  on  its  posterior  border.  In  a  case 
I  operated  upon  the  conditions  were  the  same.  Dr.  Phelps  tells  me 
he  has  found  the  fossa  defective  at  its  posterior  margin,  as  if  a  piece 
had  been  broken  off.  Both  of  my  radiographs  show  an  apparently 
normal  glenoid  fossa  and  humerus^,  but  all  the  bones  of  the  limb,  in 
all  three  cases,  were  smaller  than  those  of  the  other.  My  patients 
when  examined  were  nine,  nine,  and  eleven  years  old;  Scudder's  were 
seven  and  nine,  Gaillard's  sixteen;  four  of  the  six  were  girls. 

The  head  of  the  humerus  can  be  seen  and  felt  beneath  and  behind 
the  acromion  (Fig,  276),  sometimes  quite  close  to  its  normal  position, 
sometimes  much  further  back;  in  Gaillard's  at  about  an  equal  distance 
from  the  two  ends  of  the  spine  of  the  scapula.  The  elbow  is  directed 
forward  and  a  little  outward  and  is  markedly  rotated  inward.  This 
position  is  noted  in  all  and  is  evidently  characteristic.  Motion,  active 
and  passive,  is  limited  in  all  directions,  especially  outward  rotation  and 
adduction.  Scudder's  electrical  examination  of  the  muscles  showed 
little  difference  between  the  two  sides;  in  one  of  mine  the  muscles  sup- 
plied by  the  musculo-spiral  and  musculo-cutaneous  nerves  were  mark- 
edly paretic;  in  the  other  two  all  were  normal.  In  all  my  cases  the 
condition  was  noticed  at  birth;  in  one  the  child  cried  whenever  the 
limb  was  handled,  but  after  two  months  moved  it  voluntarily.  In  my 
fourth  (doubtful)  case,  seen  in  1886,  the  delivery  was  instrumental  and 

1  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  569. 

-  Kuster :  Ein  Chirurg.  Triennium.  1882,  p.  256. 

3  Scudder :  Archives  of  Pediatrics,  April,  1890. 

*  Phelps :  Transactions  American  Peediatric  Association,  1895. 


X 
X 

< 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


593 


very  difficult;  the  child,  now  dead,  was  four  years  old  when  I  saw  him; 
the  attitude  of  the  limb  was  similar  to  that  above  described,  and  all 
voluntary  motion  at  the  shoulder  was  lost;  I  classed  it  at  the  time  as 
an  "■  obstetrical  paralysis." 


Fig.  276. 


Congenital  subspinous  dislocation  of  the  shoulder. 


The  treatment  in  Gaillard's  case  is  interesting  :  Four  times  in  the 
course  of  a  week  he  made  horizontal  traction  on  the  arm  by  means  of 
a  weight  of  sixteen  pounds,  continued  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes, 
and  reinforced  occasionally  by  traction  with  his  hands.  On  the  last 
occasion  the  head  moved  an  inch  and  a  half  along  the  scapula  to  the 
edge  of  the  glenoid  fossa  and  was  then  thrown  into  it  by  a  movement 
of  leverage.  It  almost  immediately  came  out  again.  The  next  day 
it  was  again  reduced  and  kept  in  place  for, an  hour.  Ten  days  later  it 
was  again  reduced,  aud  the  arm  fixed  by  a  bandage;  this  time  the 
reduction  persisted.  Two  years  later  the  limb  was  found  to  have 
gained  half  an  inch  in  length;  the  patient  could  move  it  inward,  out- 
ward, forward,  and  backward,  could  lace  her  clothes  behind  her  back, 
carry  a  chair,  feed  herself,  and  play  on  a  guitar. 

Kiister  operated  (excision)  upon  one  shoulder  in  his  double  case, 
but  the  patient,  who  was  fourteen  months  old,  died.  I  operated  upon 
one  by  an  incision  along  the  anterior  border  of  the  deltoid  with  a 
horizontal  outward  extension  from  its  upper  end  and  detachment  of 
the  anterior  half  of  the  deltoid  from  the  acromion.     The  tendon  of 

38 


594  DISLOCATIONS. 

the  subscapularis,  which  was  tightly  stretched  across  the  glenoid  fossa, 
was  divided,  and  the  head  brought  into  place.  The  change  in  position 
made  the  divided  deltoid  too  short,  and  it  was  left  unsutured.  The 
wound  healed  primarily,  and  reduction  was  maintained.  The  patient, 
who  had  been  brought  from  a  distance,  passed  from  observation  at  the 
end  of  a  month.  In  the  other  two  cases  the  usefulness  of  the  limb 
was  such,  although  the  attitude  was  awlcM^ard,  that  I  advised  against 
operation.     Nothing  was  done  in  Scudder' s  cases. 

Pathological  Dislocations  and  Subluxations. 

Subluxation  or  complete  dislocation  may  be  made  easy  by  changes 
effected  in  the  articular  surfaces  or  the  capsule  by  disease,  or  by  paral- 
ysis of  the  deltoid  or  rotator  muscles  which  normally  aid  in  maintain- 
ing the  close  contact  between  the  bones.  The  reported  instances  are  not 
very  numerous,  and  even  in  some  of  these  the  evidence,  clinical  or  post- 
mortem, has  left  not  only  the  character  and  extent  of  the  displacement 
in  doubt,  but  also  its  essential  cause.  Such  cases  do  duty  with  the 
different  writers  as  supposed  examples  of  widely  different  lesions,  such 
as  partial  traumatic  dislocations,  new  forms  of  dislocations,  and  chronic 
arthritis.  Gurlt^  gives  to  Adams  (Todd's  Cyclopcedia,  article  Shoulder- 
joint)  and  Canton  [London  Medical  Gazette,  1848,  vol.  vi.  p.  410,  and 
vol.  viii.  p.  Ill)  the  credit  of  having  first  shown  that  cases  described 
as  partial  dislocation  by  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  Hargrave,  and  others  were 
actually  examples  of  chronic  non-suppurative  arthritis.  In  his  own 
description  of  the  changes  effected  by  this  disease  in  the  quoted  cases 
he  does  not  always  discriminate  between  those  which  were  the  effect  of 
the  prolonged  inflammation  and  those  which  should  probably  be  attrib- 
uted to  an  antecedent  traumatic  dislocation  which  originated  the  pro- 
cess, such  as  rupture  of  the  tendons  of  the  supraspinatus  and  infra- 
spinatus and  subscapularis  muscles,  and  the  establishment  of  a  large 
opening  between  the  cavity  of  the  joint  and  the  subacromial  bursa.  A 
dislocation  recurring  after  such  injuries  should  be  classed  with  the 
"  habitual  dislocations." 

Of  the  three  classes  made  by  Volkmann — dislocations  by  distention, 
by  destruction,  and  by  deformity  (see  Chapter  XXXYI.) — the  sec- 
ond is  by  far  the  most  rare,  and  the  third  apparently  the  most  common, 
although  the  distinction  between  the  latter  and  the  first  cannot  always 
be  determined  clinically.  Indeed,  I  know  of  only  one  recorded  case 
in  which  the  history  clearly  shows  an  acute  non-traumatic  effusion  in 
the  joint  promptly  followed  by  an  abrupt  appearance  of  the  deformity 
with  instant  relief  of  the  pain,  such  as  has  been  observed  at  the  hip 
and  knee  in  the  course  of  acute  rheumatism  or  the  eruptive  fevers. 
The  case  was  reported  by  Hannou  and  is  quoted  by  Malgaigne.'  A 
man  forty-five  years  old,  who  had  previously  suffered  with  acute  rheu- 
matism in  the  knee  and  hip,  became  feverish,  and  on  the  following  day 
had  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  shoulder-joint.  The  pain  increased, 
and  on  the  night  between  the  fifth  and  sixth  days  became  suddenly 

1  Gurlt :  Patholog.  Anat.  der  Gelenkkrankheiten,  1853,  p.  250. 

2  Malgaigne:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  562. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  595 

very  severe;  the  next  morning  a  subcoracoid  dislocation  was  found, 
and  was  reduced  with  some  relief  of  the  pain.  The  next  day  the  dis- 
location was  found  to  have  partially  recurred;  it  was  again  reduced, 
and  the  limb  fixed  with  a  bandage.     Recovery  followed. 

Malgaigne  thinks  the  over-distended  capsule  is  ruptured  on  the  inner 
side,  and  thus  the  dislocation  made  possible;  the  view  seems  insuffi- 
cient to  explain  the  easy  partial  recurrence.  When  the  effusion  is 
more  slowly  produced  and  is  large  the  head  of  the  humerus  is  sepa- 
rated from  direct  contact  with  the  glenoid  cavity  by  a  layer  of  liquid, 
the  depth  of  which  may  amount  to  one  centimetre,^  under  which  cir- 
cumstances it  is  evident  that  a  slight  force  would  be  sufficient  to  dis- 
place the  humerus  to  either  side  and  without  rupture  of  the  capsule, 
just  as  one  easily  produces  a  dislocation  in  a  freshly  dissected  shoulder 
after  making  a  small  opening  in  the  capsule  to  admit  the  air.  This 
requires  relaxation  of  the  scapular  muscles  which  normally  hold  the 
bones  close  together,  and  such  relaxation  would  not  be  found  when  the 
arthritis  is  acute  and  painful. 

A  class  of  cases,  of  which  quite  a  number  have  been  reported,  are 
sometimes  described  as  traumatic  dislocations  upward,  but  Malgaigne's 
opinion  that  they  are  the  result  of  arthritis  is  now  generally  accepted 
for  most  of  them.  They  are  characterized  by  the  projection  of  the 
head  upward  and  forward  and  rigidity  of  the  limb.  Malgaigne  quotes 
a  case  to  show  that  the  displacement  may  be  caused  by  carrying  the 
arm  in  a  sling  that  is  too  short  and  tight. 

Most  of  the  specimens  of  dislocation  by  deformity  are  open  to  the 
doubt  whether  they  may  not  actually  be  nearthroses  following  trau- 
matic dislocations,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  those  in  which  the  dis- 
location is  forward.  Gurlt^  describes  seventeen  specimens  concerning 
which  this  doubt  exists,  and  I  think  he  might  well  have  added  to  them 
several  of  those  which  he  describes  as  examples  of  chronic  inflammation. 

Dislocations  Due  to  Paralysis. 

This  variety,  rare  in  the  adult,  has  been  shown  by  the  investigations 
of  Duchenne  de  Boulogne^  to  be  much  more  common  in  new-born  chil- 
dren, the  paralysis  being  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  forceps  or  to  trac- 
tion in  delivery.  In  consequence  of  the  lack  of  support  which  ensues 
upon  the  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  the  weight  of  the 
limb  causes  it  to  sink  downward,  the  only  remaining  support,  that  of 
atmospheric  pressure,  being  presumably  overcome  gradually  by  the 
accumulation  of  liquid  within  the  capsule.  The  condition  of  the  joint 
then  resembles  that  of  hydrarthrosis,  plus  the  relaxation  of  the  mus- 
cles, and,  as  has  been  above  described,  any  slight  force  is  then  sufficient 
to  displace  the  head  of  the  humerus  to  one  side.  Malgaigne  says  that 
when  all  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder  are  paralyzed  the  displacement  is 
always  downward  and  forward,  and  usually  incomplete;  and  that  when 
the  paralysis  is  partial  the  displacement  is  always  effected  by  the  action 

1  Albert :  Chirurg.  und  Operat.,  vol.  ii.  p.  320. 
-  Gurlt :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  274. 

3  Duchenne  de  Boulogne:  De  I'Electrisatioiilocalis^e,  ]871,  2d  ed.;  and  Panas:  Diet,  de  M6d.  et 
Chir.  pratiques,  art.  Epaule,  p.  514. 


596  DISLOCATIONS. 

of  the  unparalyzed  muscles  and  is  reduced  by  the  weight  of  the  hmb;  in 
the  only  cases  of  the  latter  kind  of  which  he  had  knowledge,  two  in 
number,  the  displacement  was  backward.  He  saw  in  a  man,  thirty- 
four  years  old,  a  double  paralytic  dislocation. 

In  new-born  children  the  dislocation  is  said  to  be  always  backward, 
subacromial.  Duchenne  saw  in  ten  years  eight  cases  of  this  kind. 
In  all  the  cases  of  obstetrical  paralysis  which  he  had  seen  the  same 
group  of  muscles  was  affected,  namely,  the  deltoid,  infraspinatus, 
biceps,  and  brachialis  anticus;  in  some  there  was  also  paralysis  of  the 
muscles  in  the  forearm  and  hand  supplied  by  the  musculo-spiral  or 
ulnar  nerve.  I  have  seen  paralysis  of  the  same  muscles  (the  deltoid, 
biceps,  and  brachialis  anticus)  appear  spontaneously  at  the  age  of  one 
year,  with  consequent  laxity  of  the  joint  that  permitted  dislocation 
forward  and  backward.  When  the  paralysis  is  caused  by  the  applica- 
tion of  the  forceps  the  mechanism  appears  to  be  the  pressure  of  the 
edge  of  the  instrument  upon  the  brachial  plexus  on  the  side  of  the 
neck;  in  other  cases  it  is  the  pressure  of  the  finger  used  as  a  hook  in 
the  axilla  or  to  bring  down  the  arm  when  raised  beside  the  head. 

In  one  of  Duchenne' s  cases,  treated  by  Chassaignac,  a  permanent 
cure  was  obtained  by  a  fixation  dressing,  worn  for  five  or  six  weeks. 

Occasionally  the  disability  of  the  muscles  is  due  to  a  traumatism 
(myopathic  dislocation).  In  a  case  reported  by  Wolff, ^  in  which  the 
head  of  the  humerus  had  sunk  almost  three  centimetres  below  the  acro- 
mion, and  the  disability  was  very  great,  the  functions  of  the  limb  were 
much  improved  by  an  operation;  the  joint  was  opened  posteriorly  along 
the  margin  of  the  glenoid  fossa,  the  articular  cartilage  removed,  and 
the  bones  fastened  together  with  strong  silver  wire.  The  control  over 
the  limb  thus  obtained  through  the  scapula  was  such  that  it  could  be 
raised  and  lowered  and  even  a  little  adducted  and  abducted. 

1  Wolff:  Berl.  klin.  Wochenschrift,  1886,  No.  52.    Abstract  in  Centralblatt  fur  Chir.,  1887,  p.  637. 


CHAPTER    XLV. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW. 

DISLOCATIONS    OF    BOTH  BONES;    BACKWARD,  FORWARD, 
LATERAL,  DIVERGENT. 

Anatomy.  On  either  side  of  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  is  a 
prominence,  the  epicondyle,  which  can  be  easily  felt,  and  is  of  great 
importance  in  the  recognition  of  any  change  in  the  relations  of  the 
bones  that  constitute  the  elbow-joint.  The  inner  one,  commonly  called 
the  epitrochlea,  is  more  prominent  and  well-de6ned  than  the  outer  one, 
and  its  upper  margin  joins  the  shaft  of  the  humerus  by  a  sharp  curve, 
while  on  the  outer  side  of  the  shaft  the  supinator  ridge  connects  the 
side  of  the  shaft  with  the  epicondyle  by  a  gradual  slope.  Below  the 
epitrochlea  is  the  flattened  circular  side  of  the  trochlea,  projecting 
downward  and  forward  about  half  an  inch,  with  a  sharp,  well-defined 
margin,  which  is  masked  by  the  olecranon  and  ulna  when  the  bones 
are  in  place.  From  this  edge  the  articular  surface  of  the  trochlea 
passes  outward  like  a  cone,  its  diameter  becoming  rapidly  smaller  for 
about  half  an  inch,  and  then  enlarges  again,  but  less  abruptly,  for 
nearly  an  equal  distance.  Above  it,  posteriorly,  is  a  deep  depression, 
the  olecranon  fossa,  into  which  the  tip  of  the  olecranon  is  received  in 
full  extension  of  the  joint,  and  above  it,  anteriorly,  is  a  corresponding, 
smaller  one,  to  receive  the  tip  of  the  coronoid  process  in  full  flexion. 
On  the  outer  side  of  the  anterior  and  lower  part  of  the  trochlea,  and 
separated  from  it  by  a  shallow  vertical  groove,  is  the  capitellum,  or 
radial  head,  of  the  humerus  with  which  the  head  of  the  radius  articu- 
lates, a  rounded  prominence  looking  directly  forward. 

The  ulna  articulates  with  the  trochlea  by  its  greater  sigmoid  cavity, 
which  has  a  central  longitudinal  ridge  fitting  into  the  central  depression 
of  the  trochlea,  and  opposing  displacement  to  either  side. 

The  radius  articulates  with  the  capitellum  by  the  slightly  concave, 
circular  upper  surface  of  its  cylindrical  head,  and  with  the  lesser  sig- 
moid cavity  on  the  outer  side  of  the  ulna  and  coronoid  process  by  the 
side  of  its  head.  This  articular  surface  on  the  side  of  the  head  is  about 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  long  (from  above  downv^ard)  on  the  inner  and 
posterior  side  of  the  bone,  the  part  that  is  in  contact  with  the  ulna  in 
supination,  but  is  shorter  on  the  outer  side  at  the  part  which  comes  in 
contact  with  the  ulna  in  pronation. 

The  long  axes  of  the  trochlear  cones  and  the  ovoid  capitellum  coin- 
cide with  one  another  and  represent  the  axis  of  the  joint  for  flexion 
and  extension;  this  line  crosses  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  from  a 
point  just  below  and  in  front  of  the  external  epicondyle  to  one  that  is 
just  covered  by  the  lower  part  of  the  epitrochlea,  and  is  inclined  down- 
ward and  inward  from  the  transverse  axis  of  the  lower  end  of  the 


598 


DISLOCATIONS. 


humerus,  so  that  the  long  axis  of  the  forearm  does  not  coincide  with 
that  of  the  arm,  but  deviates  to  the  outer  side  as  it  passes  downward. 

When  the  bones  are  in  place  and  the  forearm  fully  extended  the 
uppermost  part  of  the  olecranon,  the  ''point  of  the  elbow,"  lies  on 
or  close  below  a  transverse  line  drawn  behind  the  limb  from  the  epi- 
trochlea  to  the  epicondyle;  and  when  the  elbow  is  flexed  at  a  right 
angle  the  same  point  lies  a  little  more  than  an  inch  directly  below  and 
nearly  midway  between  these  two  prominences  in  the  prolongation  of 
the  long  axis  of  the  shaft  of  the  humerus.  Ordinarily  the  relations 
of  these  three  points  to  one  another  can  be  readily  determined,  even 
when  the  region  is  swollen,  and  they  are  the  most  convenient  and 

trustworthy  aid  in  the  recognition 
of  the  existence  of  a  dislocation  of 
the  ulna. 

The  outer  border  of  the  head  of 
the  radius  can  be  felt  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  below  the  epi- 
condyle in  a  line  drawn  from  the 
latter  to  the  wrist,  and  it  can  be 
felt  to  move  when  the  hand  is 
gently  rotated.  This  is  the  only 
point  where  the  interarticular  line 
is  distinctly  accessible  to  palpa- 
tion; at  all  other  points  it  is  too 
thickly  covered  by  soft  parts  or 
masked  by  the  parallelism  and 
close  contact  of  adjoining  surfaces. 
The  internal  lateral  ligament 
arises  above  from  the  anterior, 
lower,  and  posterior  portion  of  the 
epitrochlea  and  is  broadly  inserted 
below  along  the  inner  margin  of 
the  greater  sigmoid  cavity. 

The  external  lateral  ligament, 
shorter  and  narrower  than  the  in- 
ternal, arises  above  just  below  the 
epicondyle  and  becomes  blended 
below  with  the  orbicular  ligament  that  surrounds  the  head  of  the 
radius,  some  of  its  posterior  fibres  being  continued  to  the  ulna. 

The  anterior  and  posterior  ligaments  are  thin  and  loose,  and  close  in 
the  joint  between  the  lateral  ligaments  in  front  and  behind,  respectively. 
The  orbicular,  or  annular,  ligament,  placed  like  a  ring  about  the 
head  of  the  radius  and  the  adjoining  portion  of  its  neck,  occupies 
three-fourths  of  a  circle  of  which  the  remaining  fourth  is  formed  by 
the  lesser  sigmoid  cavity  of  the  ulna;  it  is  thus  attached  by  its  two 
ends  to  the  ulna  and  encircles  the  head  of  the  radius.  It  is  reinforced 
externally  and  posteriorly  by  the  fibres  of  the  external  lateral  ligament. 
The  synovial  sac  extends  beyond  its  lower  border  for  a  short  distance 
along  the  neck  of  the  radius,  and  is  then  reflected  upward  and  attached 
to  this  bone. 


[ 


TJie  bones  of  the  elbow,    b,  the  axis  of  motion. 

(TlLLADX.) 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW. 


599 


The  ulnar  nerve  passes  close  behind  the  joint  on  the  inner  side 
between  the  olecranon  and  epitrochlea  in  close  relations  with  the  cap- 
sule and  lateral  ligament. 

Frequency.  In  order  of  frequency  the  dislocations  of  the  elbow  come 
next  after  those  of  the  shoulder  and  fingers  (Chapter  XXVII.). 

Kronlein's  109  cases  arranged  according  to  age,  sex,  and  variety  are 
as  follows  : 

Table  of  109  Dislocations  of  the  Elbow  (Kronlein). 


Sex. 

Age. 

Variety. 

M. 

F. 

1-10 

11-20   21-30 

31-40   41-50 

51-60 

61-70 

71-80 

Forearm,  backward 

Radius,  alone        .... 

77 
9 

17 
6 

22 
9 

44 
5 

14 
1 

5 

4 

3 

1 

1 

This  shows  the  same  preponderance  in  males  over  females,  4  to  1, 
that  is  shown  by  dislocations  in  general,  and  that  the  great  majority, 
80  out  of  109,  occur  during  the  first  twenty -four  years  of  life.  Atten- 
tion was  called  in  Chapter  XLII.  to  the  difference  in  respect  of  age 
between  dislocations  of  the  elbow  and  those  of  the  shoulder,  the  latter 
being  rare  at  the  age  when  the  former  are  common,  and  most  frequent 
in  middle  life;  and  Kronlein's  opinion  was  there  quoted  that  fractures 
of  the  clavicle  are  in  childhood  the  equivalent  injury — that  is,  are  pro- 
duced by  the  same  cause — of  dislocations  of  the  shoulder  by  direct 
violence  in  middle  life,  and  that  dislocations  of  the  elbow  are  the 
equivalent  injury  of  dislocations  of  the  shoulder  by  indirect  violence. 
Another  possible  explanation  of  the  frequency  in  childhood  is,  I  think, 
the  hyperextension  of  the  joint  which  is  marked  at  that  age  and  is 
usually  wholly  lost  in  adult  life. 

Classification.  The  different  forms  of  dislocation  of  the  elbow  are 
numerous,  for  the  two  bones  of  the  forearm  may  be  displaced  together 
in  any  one  of  the  four  principal  directions,  or  each  may  take  a  different 
direction,  or  either  may  be  dislocated  while  the  other  remains  in  place. 
The  number  of  named  forms  has  been  still  further  increased  by  making 
in  some  a  distinction  between  "  complete"  and  "  incomplete"  which 
not  only  is  not  justified  by  any  corresponding  important  pathological 
or  clinical  difference,  but  which  also  does  not  even  correspond  with  the 
definition  of  "  incomplete"  given  by  those  who  make  most  use  of  the 
term. 

Many  of  the  varieties  are  closely  allied  to  one  another,  and  produced 
by  causes  that  differ  very  slightly.  Thus,  if  the  joint  is  hyperextended, 
the  ligaments  torn,  and  a  backward  dislocation  of  both  bones  begun, 
the  final  position  taken  will  vary  with  the  direction  in  which  the  force 
continues  to  act,  and  with  the  addition  to  it  of  lateral  flexion  of  the 
joint  or  rotation  of  the  forearm,  so  that  forms  as  widely  different  in 
appearance  as  direct  backward  dislocation,  lateral  dislocation,  and  diver- 
gent dislocation  may  be  produced.  It  will  be  pro|)er,  therefore,  as 
well  as  convenient,  to  describe  under  the  more  common  type,  backward 


Dislocations   of   the 
forearm   on   the 


600  DISL  0  QA  TIONS. 

dislocation  of  both  bones,  much  that  concerns  many  of  the  other  forms, 
and  to  limit  the  descriptions  of  the  latter  mainly  to  the  points  of  differ- 
ence. 

The  classification  which  will  be  here  followed  is  the  same  in  its  prin- 
cipal features  as  those  adopted  by  most  recent  writers.  The  differences 
are  in  the  grouping  and  recognition  of  the  varieties. 

f  1.  Dislocations  backwai'd, 

backward  and  outward. 

backward  and  inward. 

Lateral  dislocations, 

1   .     (  inward, 
incomplete  {       .        -, 
^         i  outward. 

complete  outward. 
Forward  dislocations, 

incomplete,  or  1st  degree. 

complete,  or  2d  degree. 

with  fracture  of  the  olecranon. 
Divergent  dislocations, 

antero-posterior. 
L  transverse. 

f  1,  2.  Backward  and  fl.  Incomplete,  or  1st  degree. 
Dislocations   of  the  J  upward,         \  2.   Complete,  or  2d  degree. 

ulna  alone,  ]   3.   Backward  and  outward,  behind  radius. 

[^  4.   Forward. 

f  1.   Backward. 

T-..  I       ,•  !•  xi,         2.   Outward. 

Dislocations   ot   the       o    r  j 

J.        ,  ■{    6.   l^orward. 

'  I   4.   By  elongation,  or  the  subluxation  of  children. 

[  5.  Associated  with  fracture  of  the  ulna. 

Congenital  and  pathological  dislocations. 

Dislocation  of  the  Forearm  Backward. 

This  is  the  most  common  of  all  dislocations  of  the  elbow.  It  is 
habitually  produced  by  a  fall,  but  although  the  examples  are  so  numer- 
ous the  mechanism  or  mode  of  production  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
controversy,  largely  due  to  the  resort  to  hypotheses  which  was  stimu- 
lated by  the  lack  of  definite  knowledge.  Few  who  fall  are  able  to 
describe  the  circumstances  of  the  fall,  to  say  whether  the  arm  was  fully 
extended  or  partly  flexed,  whether  the  violence  was  received  upon  the 
hand  or  upon  the  elbow,  and  a  preconceived  theory  in  the  mind  of  the 
surgeon  is  a  great  help  to  the  discovery  of  facts  that  favor  it. 

The  theory  of  production  hj  forced  flexion  is  supported,  so  far  as  I 
know,  by  only  one  case,  and  that  a  case  that  has  only  recently  been 
reported.  Stetter^  had  a  patient  who,  while  working  in  a  mine,  was 
caught  under  a  falling  stone  in  such  a  way  that  his  left  elbow  was 
forcibly  flexed  between  the  stone  and  the  wall  and  was  dislocated  back- 
ward. When  seen,  about  an  hour  afterward,  the  joint  was  in  the  posi- 
tion of  extension.  Reduction  was  easily  effected  by  traction,  and 
recovery  took  place  without  incident.  Fracture  of  the  coronoid  process 
could  not  be  recognized. 

The  theory  of  direct  displacement  backward  (''  glissement")  formu- 

1  Stetter :  Compendium  der  Lehre  von  den  Luxationen,  1886,  p.  43. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  TEE  ELBOW.  601 

lated  by  Boyer,  and  at  one  time  widely  held,  has  not  withstood  the 
criticism  of  later  writers  and  is  no  longer  accepted  in  explanation  of 
dislocations  caused  by  falls.  A  case  reported  by  Weber  nearly  fifty 
years  ago,  and  much  quoted  since,  is  an  example  of  production  in  this 
manner,  but  not  in  a  fall:  a  young  man,  wishing  to  show  his  strength, 
held  his  arm  extended  while  another  tried  to  bend  it;  the  latter  not 
succeeding,  struck  the  front  of  the  upper  part  of  the  forearm  violently 
with  his  fist,  at  the  same  time  pressing  the  wrist  forward,  and  caused  a 
dislocation  which  could  not  be  reduced.  In  like  manner,  the  disloca- 
tion can  be  produced  by  a  blow  upon  the  back  of  the  arm  just  above  the 
elbow,  as  in  a  case  quoted  by  Malgaigne  from  Flaubert,  in  which  the 
patient's  arm  was  caught  under  an  overturned  wagon,  and  in  another 
seen  by  Hamilton.  A  similar  mechanism  has  also  been  observed  in 
outward  dislocation. 

The  theory  of  torsion  presented  by  Malgaigne,  according  to  which 
the  patient  in  his  fall  strikes  upon  the  inner  side  of  the  slightly  flexed 
forearm  and  the  elbow,  the  limb  being  somewhat  abducted,  is  perhaps 
true  of  some  cases.  Malgaigne' s  explanation  is  very  brief;  he  simply 
says  the  dislocation  is  effected  by  '^  a  movement  of  torsion  which  brings 
the  coronoid  process  successively  inward,  downward,  and  backward." 
However  obscure  the  explanation  may  be,  and  it  suggests  an  origin  in 
speculation  rather  than  in  observation,  the  fact  remains  that  in  a  few 
well-authenticated  cases  the  violence  has  certainly  been  received  upon 
the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  forearm  and  not  upon  the  palm  of  the 
hand.  Pingaud^  quotes  three  such:  a  rider  falling  with  his  horse  and 
dislocating  his  elbow  while  the  hand  still  held  the  bridle;  a  man  falling 
in  the  gymnasium  with  his  forearm  bent  behind  his  back;  another  fall- 
ing backward  and  rolling  upon  his  side  while  his  hand  held  his  cloak 
together  in  front  of  his  chest. 

Hyperextension  and  Abduction.  It  is  now  generally  believed  that  the 
injury  is  habitually  caused  by  a  fall  upon  the  palm  of  the  outstretched 
hand,  the  elbow  being  in  complete  extension,  and  that  the  primary 
rupture  of  the  ligaments  which  makes  the  dislocation  ])ossible  is 
effected  by  hyperextension  of  the  joint.  That  this  was  a  possible  cause 
was  known  to  Petit,  who  had  seen  a  compound  dislocation  thus  pro- 
duced; and  Desault  and  Bichat,  anticipating  in  this,  as  in  so  many 
other  things,  the  slower  judgment  of  the  profession,  declared  it  to  be 
the  common  mechanism,  but  the  investigations  which  first  satisfactorily 
demonstrated  it  were  made  by  a  young  German  surgeon  in  1844, 
Poser. ^  His  results  are  quoted  and  his  experiments  repeated  and 
extended  to  other  than  backward  dislocations  by  Streubel,^  and  to  these 
two  papers  and  the  articles  by  Denuce*  and  Pingaud,  above  mentioned, 
the  reader  is  referred  for  details  to  which  the  needed  space  cannot  here 
be  given. 

Experiment  upon  the  cadaver  shows  that  when  this  action,  of  a  fall 
upon  the  outstretched  hand,  is  imitated,  the  hand  being  supinated,  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  internal  lateral  ligament  becomes  tense  and  then 

1  Pingaud  :  Diet.  Encyclop.  des  Sc.  Med.,  art.  Coude,  p.  496. 
-  Roser  :  Arch.  fUr  physiolog.  Heilliunde,  1844,  Heft  2,  p.  185. 
3  Streubel :  Prager  Vierteljahrsehrift,  1850,  vol.  i.  p.  1. 
*  Denue6  :  Diet,  de  M6d.  et  Chir.  prat.,  art  Coude. 


602  .  DISLOCATIONS. 

yields,  usually  at  its  upper  insertion;  then,  as  the  movement  is  con- 
tinued, the  rupture  extends  along  the  anterior  ligament,  perhaps 
involving  part  of  the  brachialis  auticus,  the  elbow  bends  inward,  and 
if  pressure  is  made  downward  upon  the  head  of  the  humerus  this  bone 
passes  down  in  front  of  the  coronoid  process  and  radius,  and  a  back- 
ward dislocation  is  produced. 

In  whatever  direction  the  force  may  act  it  is  evident  that  its  first 
effect  must  be  to  rupture  one  or  both  of  the  lateral  ligaments,  for  they 
are  the  ones  which  hold  the  bones  together  and  they  oppose  not  only 
lateral  motion  but  also  hyperextension.  According  as  one  or  the  other 
of  these  is  first,  or  alone,  torn,  and  according  to  the  direction  of  the 
force,  the  details  of  the  position  in  which  the  bones  come  to  rest  will 
vary  and  the  displacement  will  be  directly  backward  or  to  either  side 
or  with  more  or  less  abduction  or  adduction  of  the  forearm. 

The  frequency  with  which  the  tip,  or  more,  of  the  internal  epicon- 
dyle  is  broken  off  and  the  flexors  of  the  hand  detached  from  it  and  the 
adjoining  bone,  and  with  which  the  external  lateral  ligament  remains 
continuous  with  the  periosteum  stripped  up  from  the  back  of  the 
external  condyle,  convinces  me  that  forcible  abductiou  of  the  forearm, 
during  either  extension  or  partial  flexion  of  the  elbow,  is  the  first  step 
in  the  production  of  the  injury  in  a  large  number  of  cases;  this  breaks 
the  internal  lateral  ligament  and  frees  the  ulna,  and  then  the  bones  slip 
past  each  other,  the  external  lateral  ligament  being  torn  or  detached  in 
the  movement,  and  the  head  of  the  radius  tearing  off  the  corresponding 
portion  of  the  capsule  and  adjoining  periosteum  as  it  slips  up  behind 
the  condyle. 

The  cases  in  which  the  coronoid  process  and  the  portion  of  the  head 
of  the  radius  which  is  anterior  at  the  moment  are  broken  off  show  that 
in  them  the  direct  impulsion  of  the  bones  past  each  other  was  effected 
by  great  violence  acting  along  the  axis  of  the  forearm  before  these  two 
parts  had  entirely  cleared  the  lower  surface  of  the  humerus. 

In  one  case  that  came  under  my  observation  the  dislocation  was 
effected  by  hyperextension  and  torsion  without  the  aid  of  the  weight 
of  the  body  to  press  the  humerus  downward.  The  patient,  in  jumping 
down  from  his  wagon,  steadied  himself  by  grasping  the  rail  of  the 
seat,  and,  the  height  being  considerable,  the  wrench  was  sufficient  to 
dislocate  the  elbow. 

Pathology.  The  internal  lateral  ligament  is  always  torn,  usually  at  its 
insertion  upon  the  humerus,  and  the  rent  extends  along  the  anterior 
ligament.  The  external  lateral  ligament  is  usually  torn  or  detached 
from  the  humerus;  its  partial  preservation  in  some  cases  notably  affects 
the  attitude  of  the  limb  and  may  create  considerable  difficulty  in  reduc- 
tion.    The  orbicular  ligament  is  rarely  injured. 

The  tip  of  the  internal  epicondyle  is  frequently  torn  off,  apparently 
by  avulsion  through  the  attached  flexor  muscles;  when  the  fragment 
is  large  it  remains  attached  to  the  internal  lateral  ligament  and  is  dis- 
placed upward  and  backward. 

The  flexor  muscles  of  the  hand  are  sometimes  quite  freely  torn  from 
the  humerus,  the  brachialis  anticus  is  sometimes  lacerated  and  in  ex- 
treme displacements  torn  across;  the  tendon  of  the  biceps  occasionally 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  603 

slips  around  the  outer  side  of  the  external  condyle.  In  the  only  case 
in  which  I  have  seen  all  these  extensive  lesions  the  end  of  the  humerus 
was  stripped  of  all  its  muscles  and  had  passed  through  the  fascia  and 
lay  under  the  skin  in  the  fold  of  the  elbow,  but  the  patient  had  been 
subjected  to  three  attempts  by  different  surgeons  to  reduce  under  ether, 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  lacerations  were  in  part  due  to  those  attempts. 

The  capsule  at  the  back  of  the  external  condyle  is  torn  off  by  the 
edge  of  the  head  of  the  radius  and  seems  frequently  to  maintain  its 
continuity  with  the  adjoining  periosteum,  which  latter  is  stripped  up 
for  some  distance  and  caps  the  head  of  the  radius  in  its  new  position. 
This  stripping-iip  of  the  periosteum  and  its  effect  in  producing  new 
bone  if  tlie  dislocation  remains  unreduced,  which  I  pointed  out  in  the 
first  edition,  T  have  repeatedly  observed  since.    (See  Chapter  XLYII.) 

The  displacement  of  the  bone  varies  greatly,  both  in  extent  and  in 
direction.  The  top  of  the  coronoid  process  may  rest  against  the  lower 
and  posterior  surface  of  the  trochlea,  and  the  radius  still  remain  in 
contact  with  the  under  surface  of  the  capitellum  by  the  anterior  por- 
tion of  its  disk,  or  the  latter  may  be  entirely  dislocated  and  rest  against 
the  posterior  face  of  the  external  condyle. 

When  the  ulna  is  more  and  the  radius  less  displaced  the  deviation  of 
the  wrist  is  to  the  iuner  side;  and  when  both  bones  are  completely  dis- 
placed backward  deviation  of  the  wrist  to  either  side  will  incline  their 
upper  ends  to  the  opposite  side,  and  thus  bring  them  nearer  to  the 
internal  or  the  external  epicondyle  respectively. 

If,  in  the  production  of  the  dislocation,  the  lateral  outward  flexion 
is  more  marked  than  the  hyperextension,  the  capitellum  slips  along 
the  head  of  the  radius  to  its  inner  side,  and  the  latter  lodges  on  the 
outer  surface  of  the  former  just  below  the  epicondyle,  while  the  coro- 
noid process  rests  against  the  posterior  surface  of  the  external  condyle, 
having  been  carried  outward  by  pronation  of  the  forearm.  The  long 
axis  of  the  forearm  is  deviated  to  the  inner  or  the  outer  side;  the 
internal  lateral  hgament  is  freely  torn.  This  is  the  dislocation  back- 
ward and  ouhoard,  classed  by  some  with  the  outward,  by  others  with 
the  backward  dislocations,  and  sometimes  misleadingly  reported  as  a 
pure  outward  dislocation. 

Complications.  Fractures  of  the  olecranon,  the  coronoid  process,  the 
head,  shaft,  and  lower  extremity  of  the  radius,  and  the  epitrochlea  have 
been  observed  in  connection  with  dislocation  backward.  Fracture  of 
the  olecranon  is  effected,  presumably,  by  the  pressure  of  its  tip  against 
the  back  of  the  humerus  when  the  posterior  part  of  the  lateral  liga- 
ments proves  stronger  than  the  bone,  and  a  fracture  is  produced  with 
angular  deformity  and  crushing  of  the  posterior  portion  of  the  bone 
at  the  seat  of  fracture.  In  a  case  reported  by  W.  H.  Daly^  of  frac- 
ture of  the  olecranon,  and  probably  of  the  coronoid  process  also,  the 
coexistence  of  a  Colles's  fracture  at  the  wrist  showed  plainly  that  the 
injury  was  produced  by  a  fall  upon  the  extended  hand. 

Fracture  of  the  coronoid  process  is  probably  produced  when  the 
momentum  of  the  fall  forces  the  humerus  downward  before  the  hyper- 

1  Daly:  Philadelpbia  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter,  1880,  vol.  xliii.  p.  71. 


604  DISLOCATIONS. 

extension  has  quite  carried  the  tip  of  the  process  past  the  trochlea;  and 
Lotzbeck's  experiments  indicate  that  it  can  also  be  caused,  when  the 
elbow  is  slightly  flexed,  by  the  direct  impulsion  of  the  lower  end  of 
the  humerus  in  a  direction  parallel  to  that  of  the  long  axis  of  the 
forearm.  As  the  brachialis  auticus  is  attached,  not  to  the  tip  of  the 
process,  but  to  its  anterior  face  and  the  adjoining  surface  of  the  ulna, 
the  displacement  is  usually  slight. 

Partial  fracture  of  the  head  of  the  radius  has  been  observed  in  a 
number  of  cases,  often  associated  with  fracture  of  the  coronoid  pro- 
cess. It  has  been  described  in  Chapter  XX.  The  portion  broken  off 
is  the  anterior  or  inner  third,  and  the  fracture  is  effected  by  the  direct 
pressure  of  the  condyle  brought  to  bear  upon  the  periphery  of  the  disk 
by  the  displacement  backward  of  the  latter. 

One  case  of  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  the  radius  and  three  of  fracture 
of  its  lower  end,  Colles's  fracture,  complicating  backward  dislocation  of 
the  elbow,  are  reported  in  a  thesis  by  Dupuy.^ 

The  dislocation  may  be  made  compound  by  the  projection  of  the 
trochlea  through  the  skin  in  the  fold  of  the  elbow,  and  the  brachial 
artery,  and  perhaps  even  the  median  nerve,  may  be  ruptured.  In  a 
case  reported  by  Ledderhose,^  in  which  the  dislocation  was  made  com- 
pound by  a  transverse  wound  in  the  fold  of  the  elbow,  the  musculo- 
spiral  nerve  was  torn.  Five  months  later  the  nerve  was  successfully 
reunited  by  suture. 

In  another,  reported  by  Ferret,^  the  median  nerve,  exposed  for  more 
than  three  inches  in  the  wound  and  tightly  stretched,  sloughed  away. 

Symptoms.  The  elbow  is  usually  flexed  at  an  angle  about  midway 
between  complete  extension  and  flexion  at  a  right  angle,  but  it  may  be 
completely  extended,  or  even  hyperextended,  as  in  a  case  reported  by 
Morel-La  valine.*  The  limb  is  shortened,  and  if  viewed  from  behind 
the  shortening  appears  to  be  in  the  arm,  because  of  the  elevation  of  the 
olecranon,  but  if  viewed  from  in  front  in  the  forearm.  If  a  few  hours 
have  passed  since  the  injury  was  received,  the  region  of  the  elbow  is 
occupied  by  a  swelling  which  may  be  so  great  as  completely  to  mask 
the  bony  points  and  the  characteristic  changes  in  outline;  but  if  this 
swelling  is  slight  or  absent  the  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  joint 
appears  increased,  and  the  transverse  diameter  unchanged.  The  lower 
part  of  the  triceps  curves  backward  in  the  median  line  to  the  end  of 
the  olecranon,  creating  a  hollow  on  either  side,  in  the  outer  one  of 
which  may  be  seen  a  slight  elevation  marking  the  position  of  the  head 
of  the  radius. 

The  front  of  the  joint  appears  full,  and  the  forearm  just  below  it  is 
broadened  by  the  shortening  of  the  muscles  that  arise  from  either  con- 
dyle. Sometimes  the  outline  of  the  trochlea  can  be  distinctly  felt  or 
even  seen,  but  ordinarily  it  is  masked  by  the  overlying  muscles. 

The  forearm  may  take  any  attitude  between  pronation  and  supina- 
tion, for,  as  voluntary  rotation  is  possible,  the  patient  places  it  in  the 

1  Dupuy  :  These  de  Paris,  1882,  No.  151. 

2  Ledderhose:  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fiir  Chirurgie,  vol.  xxv.  p.  238,  abstract  in  Centralblatt  fur 
Chirurgie,  1887,  p.  732. 

3  Ferret :  Progres  M(5dical,  May  7,  1887. 

*  Morel-Lavall6e :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1856,  vol.  vii.  p.  9. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW. 


605 


most  convenient  attitude.     The  axis  of  the  forearm  may  be  deviated 
to  either  side  (Fig.  278). 

Flexion  and  extension  are  possible  within  variable,  but  always  nar- 
row, limits  and  painful;  and  when  flexion  is  made  the  prominence  of 
the  olecranon  behind  the  joint  is  increased.  Abnormal  lateral  mobility 
of  the  joint  exists. 

If  now  the  positions  of  the  two  epicondyles  and  the  tuberosity  of  the 
olecranon  can  be  recognized,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  latter  is  displaced 
backward  and  upward,  rising,  if  the  limb  is 
extended,  above  the  horizontal  line  joining 
the  epicondyles,  or  projecting  far  behind  a 
frontal  plane  passing  through  these  two 
points  if  the  limb  is  partly  flexed.  This 
backward  projection  of  the  olecranon  will 
be  increased  by  flexion  of  the  elbow,  and  at 
the  same  time  it  will  descend;  while  by  ex- 
tension it  will  be  moved  to  a  higher  level 
and  brought  nearer  the  back  of  the  humerus. 

The  head  of  the  radius  can  be  felt,  per- 
haps even  seen,  under  the  skin  below  and 
to  the  outer  side  of  the  olecranon  close 
behind  the  external  condyle,  and  can  be 
recognized  by  the  concavity  of  its  upper 
surface  and  felt  to  move  under  the  finger 
when  the  wrist  is  gently  rotated. 

On  the  inner  side,  if  the  swelling  is  not 
too  great,  the  finger  passing  forward  and 
downward  from  the  tip  of  the  olecranon  suc- 
cessively recognizes  the  curved  inner  mar- 
gin of  the  great  sigmoid  cavity,  possibly 
also  the  coronoid  process  and  the  back  of 
the  trochlea,  and  then  moving  around  the 
inner  side  below  the  epitrochlea  to  the  front  may  trace  the  sharp  cir- 
cular margin  of  the  trochlea  and  recognize  its  rounded  surface  and 
groove  in  front. 

Diagnosis.  The  diagnosis  should  be  made  upon  actual  recognition 
by  palpation  of  the  position  of  the  two  epicondyles,  the  olecranon,  and 
the  head  of  the  radius.  The  surgeon  should  never  be  satisfied  with 
less  than  that,  and  if  it  cannot  be  obtained  he  should  refuse  to  make 
a  positive  diagnosis.  No  attitude  of  the  limb,  no  measurements,  no 
apparent  changes  in  its  diameter,  no  considerations  of  abnormal  mo- 
bility or  fixation  are  sufficient,  and  the  surgeon  who  trusts  to  them  will 
be  only  too  likely  to  add  to  the  already  too  long  series  of  limbs  crip- 
pled in  consequence  of  errors  in  diagnosis.  If  the  swelling  is  too 
great  to  permit  the  bony  prominences  to  be  felt,  even  with  the  aid  of 
anaesthesia,  the  examination  must  be  postponed  until  it  shall  have 
subsided. 

Of  the  different  fractures  that  have  been  mentioned  as  complications, 
those  of  the  olecranon  and  epitrochlea  are  easily  recognized  by  manip- 
ulation; that  of  the  coronoid  process  is  indicated  by  easy  recurrence  of 


Dislocation  of  the  elbow  backward. 


606  DISLOCATIONS. 

the  dislocatiou  after  its  reduction,  but  if  the  patient  is  etherized  at  the 
time  this  symptom  is  by  no  means  characteristic,  and,  furthermore,  it 
is  also  present  in  those  fractures  of  the  internal  condyle  which  are  com- 
plicated by  displacement  of  the  fragment  and  dislocation  of  the  radius 
backward.  Fracture  of  the  head  of  the  radius  can  hardly  be  recog- 
nized unless  the  fragment  should  be  so  displaced  that  it  can  be  felt  on 
the  outer  side  of  the  condyle. 

The  records  of  discussions  over  cases  presented  to  the  various  learned 
societies  show  very  clearly  the  great  difficulty  of  making  a  diagnosis  in 
cases  that  have  remained  unreduced  for  any  length  of  time,  especially 
in  children  in  whom  the  injured  or  stripped  up  periosteum  rapidly 
forms  new  bone  which  obscures  the  original  outlines.  Much  of  the 
uncertainty  concerning  the  character  and  results  of  reported  cases  is 
due  to  this  fact. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  is  favorable;  reduction  in  recent  cases  may 
be  confidently  expected,  with  complete  or  almost  complete  restoration 
of  function.  In  old  cases,  of  more  than  six  weeks'  standing,  the  prob- 
ability of  reduction  is  greatly  diminished,  although  successes  have  been 
reported  after  three,  five,  and  even  seven  months.  The  greater  the 
displacement  upward,  the  arm  being  only  slightly  flexed,  the  less  is  the 
probability  of  reduction  after  the  lapse  of  some  time,  for  the  lacerated 
lateral  ligaments  have  then  formed  new  attachments  at  points  so  high 
on  the  humerus  that  they  must  be  again  ruptured  before  the  ulna  and 
radius  can  be  brought  below  the  end  of  the  humerus,  and  in  attempting 
to  rupture  them  by  flexing  the  elbow  the  olecranon  is  liable  to  be 
broken.  In  addition,  the  sigmoid  cavity  fills  up  with  fibrous  tissue 
which  obliterates  its  articular  surface  and  binds  it  to  the  back  of  the 
humerus.  Furthermore,  as  the  injury  is  most  frequent  in  the  young, 
whose  periosteum  is  active  to  produce  bone  when  irritated  or  stripped 
up,  obstacles  may  thus  be  created  which  cannot  be  overcome  except  by 
arthrotomy.  In  some  cases  of  unreduced  dislocation  the  patients  have 
in  time  obtained  a  free  range  of  motion  and  a  useful  limb,  but  usually 
the  mobility  is  very  slight.  In  a  discussion  upon  the  subject  in  the 
Societe  de  Chirurgie  (Bulletins,  1861,  p.  103),  it  was  stated  as  the 
experience  of  several  of  the  members  that,  in  the  older  cases  at  least, 
it  was  not  uncommon  to  fail  to  make  a  complete  reduction  of  the 
radius,  but  that  nevertheless  the  patients  recovered  full  use  of  the 
joint.  Recurrence  of  the  dislocation  of  the  radius  alone  had  also  been 
observed.  Mason^  reported  such  a  case  in  which  the  recurrence  was 
thought  to  have  taken  place  during  the  agitation  accompanying  the 
recovery  from  the  effects  of  the  ether. 

Even  after  an  early  reduction  the  mobility  may  be  diminished  by 
the  results  of  the  arthritis,  especially  in  the  old  and  rheumatic,  or  by 
new  formations  of  bone  about  the  joint  which  mechanically  limit  its 
range  of  motion. 

Compound  dislocations  usually  do  well  if  kept  surgically  clean  and 
well  drained;  primary  resection,  in  the  absence  of  special  indications, 
should  not  be  done. 

1  Mason  :  New  York  Medical  Record,  1880,  vol.  xix.  p.  398. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  607 

Treatment.  Much  less  attention  has  been  paid  in  the  treatment  of 
dislocations  backward  of  the  elbow  to  the  obstacles  created  by  the 
untorn  ligaments  than  in  those  of  the  shoulder  or  hip,  and  methods 
are  in  general  and  successful  use  that  are  directly  opposed  in  character 
to  those  based  upon  a  consideration  of  such  obstacles  and  upon  the 
principle  that  a  dislocated  bone  should  be  returned  along  the  route  by 
which  it  has  been  displaced.  The  explanation  of  this  success  of  faulty 
methods  is  to  be  found  either  in  an  extensive  primary  laceration  of 
both  lateral  ligaments  or  in  the  possible  overcoming  of  the  obstacles 
by  increasing  the  laceration.  The  easy  reduction  of  most  dislocations 
under  ether  by  direct  pressure  in  suitable  directions  upon  the  projecting 
ends  of  the  bones  is  an  indication  that  ligamentous  obstacles  of  impor- 
tance do  not  exist  and  that  the  chief  opposition  is  furnished  by  the 
muscles  spasmodically  contracted  on  all  sides  of  the  joint,  and  the 
inference  is  too  often  drawn  that,  provided  this  opposition  is  overcome 
by  force  or  by  anaesthesia,  the  surgeon  need  not  particularly  concern 
himself  with  the  attitude  of  the  limb  during  his  efforts  to  reduce. 
But  the  success  of  a  faulty  method  should  not  make  us  unmindful  of 
its  defects;  our  work  should  be  done  skilfully,  as  well  as  successfully, 
and  even  if  our  errors  will  pass  undetected  and  their  consequences  be 
promptly  repaired,  we  should  not  lightly  commit  them. 

Such  a  generally  successful  but  faulty  method  is  that  in  which  the 
forearm  is  flexed  as  nearly  as  possible  to  a  right  angle,  drawn  directly 
away  from  the  humerus  in  the  direction  of  the  long  axis  of  the  latter 
until  the  tip  of  the  coronoid  process  is  brought  below  the  trochlea,  and 
then,  the  traction  being  relaxed,  is  moved  forward  and  upward  into 
place.  Many  different  methods  of  effecting  this  manoeuvre  have  been 
employed,  the  one  commonly  known  as  Sir  Astley  Cooper's,  although 
practised  in  exactly  the  same  manner  long  before  his  time,  in  which  the 
surgeon's  knee  is  placed  in  the  bend  of  the  elbow,  being  the  most  com- 
mon. Cooper's  description  of  it  is  as  follows:^  '^  The  patient  is  made  to 
sit  down  upon  a  chair,  and  the  surgeon,  placing  his  knee  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  elbow-joint,  in  the  bend  of  the  arm,  takes  hold  of  the  patient's 
wrist,  and  bends  the  arm.  At  the  same  time  he  presses  on  the  radius 
and  ulna  with  his  knee,  so  as  to  separate  them  from  the  os  humeri,  and 
thus  the  coronoid  process  is  thrown  from  the  posterior  fossa  of  the 
humerus;  and  whilst  this  pressure  is  supported  by  the  knee  the  arm 
is  to  be  forcibly  but  slowly  bent,  and  the  reduction  is  soon  effected. 
It  may  also  be  accomplished  by  placing  the  arm  around  the  post  of  a 
bed,  and  by  forcibly  bending  it  while  it  is  thus  confined." 

The  knee  is  thus  used  as  the  fulcrum  of  a  lever  of  which  the  wrist 
is  at  the  end  of  the  long  arm,  and  the  olecranon  at  that  of  the  short 
one.  The  resistance  to  be  overcome  is  that  of  the  muscles  and  of  the 
soft  parts  which  bind  the  ulna  and  radius  to  the  humerus,  and  it  must 
be  overcome  to  an  extent  that  will  allow  the  ulna  to  be  directly  sepa- 
rated from  the  lower  border  of  the  humerus  to  a  distance  equal  to  the 
height  of  the  coronoid  process,  more  than  half  an  inch;  the  lateral 
ligaments,  the  upper  fibres  of  the  anconseus,  and  the  stout  fascia  on  the 

1  Cooper :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  382. 


608  I>ISL  0  OA  TIONS. 

outer  side  of  the  elbow  must  all  yield  to  this  extent.  That  they  com- 
monly do  so  is  a  proof  of  the  amount  of  the  laceration  and  of  the 
force  employed.  The  method  is  faulty  because  it  requires  for  its 
accomplishment  a  maximum  of  laceration  on  both  sides  of  the  joint 
which  may  have,  and  probably  has,  been  escaped  in  the  original  injury, 
and  because  it  requires  the  simultaneous  elongation  of  the  muscles  of 
the  front  and  back  of  the  arm.  Possibly  forcible  pronation  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  forearm,  facilitated  by  the  rupture  of  the  internal 
lateral  ligament,  would  make  it  easier  thus  to  disengage  the  coronoid 
process  and  avoid  additional  laceration  on  the  outer  side. 

Forced  flexion,  to  break  up  adhesions,  may  be  useful  in  delayed  cases 
as  a  preliminary  to  reduction  by  more  suitable  methods. 

The  specific  objection  made  to  this  method  applies  equally  to  all  in 
which  reduction  is  made  while  the  elbow  is  flexed  at  a  right  angle,  and 
in  a  less  degree  to  those  in  which  the  joint  is  partly  flexed.  In  the 
latter  the  modes  of  application  of  the  force  are  numerous  and  varied  ; 
traction  by  pulleys,  by  the  hand,  or  by  a  loop  placed  above  the  olecra- 
non, and  pressure  by  the  thumbs  upon  the  olecranon  and  head  of  the 
radius  while  the  fingers  are  interlocked  in  front  of  the  lower  end  of 
the  humerus.  The  more  extended  the  limb  the  more  easily  will 
methods  of  this  kind  succeed,  but  they  need  to  be  supplemented  by 
flexion  or  direct  coaptation  after  the  coronoid  process  has  been  brought 
sufliciently  low. 

A  possible  obstacle  in  the  way  of  traction  in  the  extended  or  slightly 
flexed  position  is  the  engagement  of  the  tip  of  the  coronoid  process  in 
the  olecranon  fossa  of  the  humerus  in  such  a  way  that  its  under  sur- 
face rests  directly  against  the  upper  posterior  portion  of  the  trochlea 
and  prevents  the  ulna  from  moving  bodily  in  the  direction  of  its  long 
axis.  It  can  be  disengaged  either  by  pronating  the  upper  part  of  the 
forearm,  hyperextending  the  elbow,  or  by  pressing  the  upper  part  of 
the  forearm  backward  and  the  lower  part  of  the  arm  forward.  Except 
for  this  possible  obstacle  traction  in  complete  extension  meets  the  indi- 
cations sufficiently  and  without  needless  increase  of  the  laceration,  and 
the  obstacle  can  be  readily  overcome,  as  has  just  been  said,  by  slight 
hyperextension  as  suggested  by  Roser  in  1844. 

Traction  may  be  made  by  the  hands  of  the  surgeon  himself,  or  by 
assistants  while  the  surgeon  watches  the  descent  of  the  ulna,  frees  the 
coronoid  process  if  necessary,  and  presses  the  radius  and  ulna  forward 
into  place  at  the  proper  time;  or  it  may  be  made  by  an  India-rubber  cord 
or  by  fastening  a  weight  to  the  wrist  and  allowing  the  arm  to  hang  down. 

This  method, traction  upon  the  fully  extended  or  even  hyperextended 
forearm,  followed  by  direct  pressure  forward  of  the  upper  ends  of  the 
ulna  and  radius  and  counter-pressure  backward  on  the  lower  end  of 
the  humerus,  or  simply  by  flexion,  corresponds  as  nearly  to  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  reduction  as  is  practicable  in  the  usual  uncertainty 
as  to  the  exact  attitude  taken  by  the  limb  at  the  moment  of  dislocation. 

In  all  cases  of  doubt  or  difficulty  anaesthesia  should  be  used;  and,  as 
a  general  rule,  whenever  a  lateral  displacement  is  associated  with  the 
backward  one  the  bones  should  be  pressed  sideways  into  line  before 
they  are  drawn  downward. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  609 

When  the  lateral  element  of  the  displacement  is  very  marked  and  it 
is  probable  that  the  primary  dislocation  was  directly  outward  and  has 
been  followed  by  a  consecutive  displacement  backward,  anaesthesia 
should  not  be  omitted,  and  after  full  relaxation  has  been  obtained  the 
first  attempt  should  be  to  move  the  olecranon  and  head  of  the  radius  to 
the  radial  side  of  the  humerus  and  transform  the  dislocation  into  a  pure 
outward  one.  By  so  doing  the  principle  of  replacing  the  bones  by  the 
route  along  which  they  have  been  displaced  is  followed,  and  the  risk 
of  engaging  the  tendon  of  the  biceps  behind  the  external  condyle  is 
avoided.  (See  also  the  following  section.)  If  the  attempt,  cautiously 
made,  does  not  succeed,  the  surgeon  should  next  seek  to  change  the 
displacement  into  a  pure  backward  one  and  reduce  as  before  described. 

If  some  time  has  elapsed  since  the  accident,  more  than  ten  or  fifteen 
days,  it  may  be  desirable  to  break  up  such  adhesions  as  have  formed 
by  flexion,  extension,  and  lateral  flexion,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  forced  flexion  always  carries  the  risk  of  fracturing  the  olecranon. 
This  is  sometimes  intentionally  done  to  facilitate  reduction  in  old  cases; 
it  is  of  course  followed  by  more  or  less  loss  of  the  power  of  active 
extension. 

Fracture  of  the  coronoid  process  requires  no  special  treatment;  appar- 
ently the  fragment  is  seldom,  if  ever,  much  displaced,  for  it  retains  its 
connection  with  the  capsule  and,  after  reduction,  is  steadied  between 
the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  and  the  tendon  of  the  brachialis  anticus. 
The  special  indication  arising  from  it  is  to  guard  against  a  recurrence 
of  the  dislocation,  which  is  best  done  by  keeping  the  elbow  flexed  at 
or  even  within  a  right  angle.  A  posterior  moulded  splint  is  an  addi- 
tional safeguard. 

Fracture  of  the  olecranon  requires  the  special  treatment  proper  to 
that  injury,  but  as  the  extended  position  of  the  joint,  which  is  most 
favorable  for  the  prompt  and  close  repair  of  the  fracture,  exposes  to  a 
partial  or  even  complete  recurrence  of  the  dislocation,  it  must  be  avoided 
until  after  the  rupture  of  the  lateral  ligaments  has  been  in  great  part 
repaired.  If,  in  the  flexed  position,  the  olecranon  is  separated  from 
the  ulna  it  should  be  drawn  down  and  held  in  contact  by  adhesive 
plaster,  or  the  fracture  should  be  exposed  and  the  fragments  sutured. 

Fracture  of  the  head  of  the  radius  requires  prolonged  rest  of  the 
joint,  with  a  view  to  reunion  if  the  fragment  remains  in  place  ;  if 
displaced  and  readily  accessible  the  fragment  should  be  removed.  If 
the  fragment  should  remain  on  the  inner  side  of  the  joint,  between  the 
radius  and  ulna,  it  would  be  most  easily  reached  through  an  anterior 
incision,  in  making  which,  however,  special  care  would  have  to  be 
taken  to  avoid  injury  to  the  musculo-spiral  nerve  and  its  two  branches, 
the  radial  and  posterior  interosseous. 

Fracture  of  the  epitrochlea  requires  that  the  elbow  should  be  kept 
well  flexed^  to  relax  the  muscles  of  the  forearm  that  arise  from  this 
prominence. 

If  the  dislocation  is  compound,  but  without  laceration  of  the  soft 
parts  so  extensive  as  to  make  amputation  unavoidable,  the  parts  must 
be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  replaced,  efficient  drainage  provided  through 
the  wound  or  through  counter-openings,  and  the  limb  immobilized  in 


610  DISLOCATIONS. 

a  plaster  splint.  Some,  perhaps  extensive,  suppuration  is  probable  in 
the  soft  parts,  but  the  joint  is  likely  to  escape  so  far  as  to  preserve  a 
fair  amount  of  motion.  Even  if  the  brachial  artery  is  torn  the  limb 
may  still  be  saved;  and  although  the  additional  complication  of  rup- 
ture of  the  median  nerve  has  been  thought  to  make  amputation  neces- 
sary, I  think  a  different  view  would  now  be  taken  and  the  attempt 
would  be  made  to  reunite  its  ends.  Fortunately  both  complications, 
especially  the  latter,  are  very  rare. 

After-treatment.  In  uncomplicated  cases  it  is  necessary  only  to 
retain  the  limb  in  a  sling  for  two  or  three  weeks,  or  until  such  time  as 
the  dependent  position  does  not  cause  pain.  Passive  motion,  to  prevent 
anchylosis,  is  not  necessary,  and  is  actually  harmful  during  the  first 
fortnight  if  it  causes  pain.  The  limb  may  safely  be  immobilized  until 
the  injury  to  the  capsule  and  ligaments  has  been  repaired.  It  will  be 
more  or  less  stiff  when  first  taken  out  of  the  dressings,  but  complete 
restoration  of  its  functions  may  be  confidently  expected  under  daily 
use.  Exceptions  to  this  complete  recovery  are  sometimes  found  in  the 
old  and  rheumatic,  in  complicated  cases,  and  in  the  young  if  the  peri- 
osteum has  been  extensively  stripped  up.  In  the  first  class,  the  old 
and  rheumatic,  gentle  passive  motion  strictly  confined  within  the  limits 
beyond  which  persistent  pain  and  tenderness  are  caused,  may  be  of 
service  to  diminish  the  subsequent  stiffness  and  hasten  its  disappear- 
ance, and  in  all  it  may  be  useful  to  change  every  day  or  two  the  angle 
at  which  the  limb  is  immobilized. 

Lateral  Dislocations  of  the  Forearm. 

Both  bones  of  the  forearm  may  be  together  dislocated  to  the  inner 
or  to  the  outer  side,  and  the  dislocation  may  be  complete  or  incom- 
plete. In  the  incomplete  form,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  term  has 
been  generally,  and  will  here  be,  used,  one  of  the  two  bones  still 
remains  below  or  in  front  of  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus,  although 
it  may  have  entirely  left  its  own  corresponding  articular  surface;  thus, 
in  the  incomplete  outward  dislocation  the  sigmoid  cavity  of  the  ulna 
lies  below  and  embraces  the  external  condyle,  and  its  inner  slope  may 
still  correspond  to  the  outer  part  of  the  trochlea  or  may  have  passed 
entirely  to  its  outer  side.  In  the  complete  outward  dislocation,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  sigmoid  cavity  of  the  ulna  is  turned  toward  (pronation) 
and  embraces  the  outer  side  of  the  external  condyle  or  the  supinator 
ridge,  and  the  head  of  the  radius  lies  nearer  the  median  line  in  front 
of  the  humerus.  Much  confusion  has  arisen  from  the  use  of  the  terms 
outward  and  inward  dislocation  to  include  also  the  outward  and  back- 
ward and  the  inward  and  backward  respectively,  both  in  text-books 
and  in  the  reports  of  cases  in  the  journals.  The  terms  will  be  here 
restricted  to  those  cases  in  which  the  primary  dislocation  is  directly 
outward  or  inward,  the  coronoid  process  remaining  in  front  of,  and  the 
olecranon  behind,  the  transverse  longitudinal  (frontal)  plane  of  the 
humerus.  In  some  cases  of  outward  and  backward  dislocation  the 
question  may  arise  whether  the  position  in  which  the  bones  are  found 
is  not  the  result  of  a  consecutive  displacement  following  a  primary 


DISL  0  GA  TIONS  OF  THE  ELB  OW.  611 

outward  displacement.  I  believe  such  consecutive  displacements  to  be 
very  rare,  and  that  the  great  majority  of  backward  and  outward  dis- 
locations belong,  by  their  essential  features,  among  the  backward  ones 
with  which  I  have  above  described  them. 

In  a  dislocation  backward  and  inward  this  question  does  not  arise, 
for  a  complete  in  ^vard  dislocation  has  never  yet  been  reported;  but  the 
confusion  is,  nevertheless,  equally  great,  for  the  epithet  ''  backward 
and  inward"  has  been  indiscriminately  applied  to  all  displacements 
toward  the  inner  side,  including,  as  Trelat  pointed  out,  three  distinct 
varieties:  1st,  dislocations  of  both  bones  inward;  2d,  dislocations  of 
both  bones  backward  and  inward,  and  3d,  dislocations  backward  of  the 
ulna  alone. 

Incomplete  Lateral  Dislocations. 

Doubtless  it  must  be  attributed  to  this  confusion  in  the  use  of  terms 
that  the  frequency  of  incomplete  dislocations  to  the  outer  or  the  inner 
side  passed  unnoticed  until  1863,  when  a  German  surgeon,  Hahn,  who 
had  practised  for  more  than  forty  years  at  Stuttgart,  published  a  paper* 
upon  the  subject  in  which  he  stated  that  he  had  treated  21  cases  of  this 
injury  in  thirty  years,  nearly  as  many  as  those  of  dislocation  back- 
ward observed  during  the  same  period;  of  these  18  were  in  children, 
3  in  adults;  12  of  the  former  and  2  of  the  latter  were  in  males,  and 
in  all  but  one  the  dislocation  was  inward.  The  statement,  which  was 
supported  in  many  points  by  the  observations  of  the  reviewer  of  the 
paper,  Streubel,  at  once  attracted  attention  and  has  been  confirmed  and 
accepted  by  subsequent  writers;  the  principal  contributions  to  the  sub- 
ject have  been  made  by  Hueter,^  Nicoladoni,^  and  Sprengel.*  Hueter 
described  6  specimens  of  outward  dislocation  obtained  by  resection  and 
3  cases  observed  clinically;  Nicoladoni  found  4  incomplete  outward 
dislocations  in  16  dislocations  of  the  elbow  observed  in  four  and  a  half 
years;  and  Sprengel  reported  that  the  records  of  the  Halle  clinic  for 
the  years  1873-1879  contained  32  cases,  of  which  20  were  inward  and 
12  outward.  An  important  feature  of  the  last  communication  is  that 
15  of  the  32  (11  inward,  4  outward)  were  old  cases,  and  in  only  1  of 
them  could  reduction  be  obtained.  Although  it  is  not  so  stated,  it  is 
probable  that  in  many  of  them  an  error  in  diagnosis  had  been  com- 
mitted; Hahn  says  the  injury  is  frequently  mistaken  for  fracture  of 
the  lower  end  of  the  humerus.  In  a  case  seven  months  old  reported 
by  Sprengel  the  injury  had  been  pronounced  by  a  well-known  London 
surgeon,  who  gave  the  patient  a  written  opinion,  an  intercondyloid 
fracture  of  the  humerus,  and  he  added  that  there  was  no  trace  of  the 
dislocation  said  to  have  existed;  Sprengel  excised  the  joint  and  demon- 
strated the  dislocation.  On  the  other  hand,  Kronlein's  94  cases  (p. 
396)  contain  no  examples,  and  in  my  experience  they  are  relatively 
very  few. 

The  cause  is  usually  a  fall  upon  the  outstretched  hand;  exceptional 
causes  are  falls  upon  the  inner  side  of  the  elbow  and  blows  received 

1  Hahn  :  Schmidt's  Jahrbuch,  vol.  cxix.  p.  74,  and  vol.  cxx.  p.  88. 

2  Hueter:  Arch,  fur  klin.  Chirurgie,  1867,  vol.  viii.  p.  153,  and  vol.  ix.  p.  935. 

3  Nlcoladonl :  Wiener  med.  Wochenschrift,  1876,  pp.  570,  599,  640,  and  670. 
i  Sprengel :  Centralblatt  fur  Chirurgie,  1880,  p.  129. 


612  DISLOCATIONS. 

upon  the  forearm.  The  interlocking  of  the  central  ridge  of  the  sig- 
moid cavity  in  the  groove  of  the  trochlea  is  such  that  direct  lateral 
displacement  without  preliminary  separation  of  the  articular  surfaces, 
or  without  their  fracture,  is  impossible,  and  it  is  highly  probable  that 
the  dislocation  is  produced  by  lateral  flexion  outward  of  the  completely 
extended  forearm,  or  possibly  by  its  equivalent  pronation  when  partly 
flexed — that  is,  the  ulna  is  moved  downward  (in  the  prolongation  of 
the  frontal  plane  of  the  humerus)  and  outward,  turning  upon  the 
humero-radial  articulation  as  a  centre,  and  thus  the  internal  lateral 
ligament  is  ruptured.  The  joint  is  thus  opened  upon  its  inner  side, 
the  sigmoid  cavity  and  trochlea  separated  from  each  other,  and  only 
the  radius  and  capitellum  remain  in  contact  at  their  outer  borders.  If 
now  the  capitellum  slips  inward  along  the  upper  surface  of  the  radius 
an  incomplete  outward  dislocation  is  produced;  if,  on  the  contrary,  the 
radius  slips  inward  along  the  capitellum  an  incomplete  inward  disloca- 
tion is  the  result.  This  mechanism  can  be  reproduced  upon  the  cadaver, 
but  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  explanation  is  theoretical;  accurate 
clinical  observations,  for  reasons  often  above  referred  to,  are  not  obtain- 
able, and  it  is  impossible  to  reproduce  all  the  factors  upon  the  cadaver. 

A.  Incomplete  Inward  Dislocations. 

Pathology.  The  autopsies  and  direct  examinations  that  have  been 
reported  and  are  available  to  show  the  new  relations  of  the  bones  are 
few  in  number.  There  are  two  autopsies  reported  by  Broca'^  and 
Jolivet,^  and  the  case  above  referred  to  in  which  Sprengel  excised  the 
joint  seven  months  after  the  injury  was  received.  In  the  latter  the 
head  of  the  radius  rested  against  the  lateral  part  of  the  trochlea,  and 
the  ulna  was  displaced  so  far  inward  that  nearly  half  of  the  sigmoid 
cavity  projected  free  beyond  the  trochlea;  upon  this  free  part,  and 
united  with  it,  lay  the  fractured  tip  of  the  epitrochlea.  There  was 
close  fibrous  union  between  the  opposing  articular  surfaces. 

Broca's  case  was  a  much  older  one;  the  specimen  and  a  plaster  cast 
of  the  limb  are  preserved  in  the  Musee  Dupuytren.  It  differs  from 
the  usual  clinical  form  in  the  very  marked  displacement  downward 
and  backward  of  the  head  of  the  radius.  The  new  joint  permitted  full 
flexion  and  almost  complete  extension,  and  the  axis  of  the  forearm  was 
inclined  downward  and  outward  30  degrees  from  the  prolongation  of 
that  of  the  humerus.  The  distance  between  the  prominences  formed 
by  the  tip  of  the  olecranon  and  the  head  of  the  radius  was  six  centi- 
metres. There  remained  no  trace  of  the  lateral  and  annular  ligaments;  a 
fibrous  capsule  of  new  formation  connected  the  bones  with  one  another. 
Broca  says  there  was  no  sign  of  former  fracture,  but  Denuc^,^  who  ap- 
pears to  have  examined  the  specimen,  says  the  external  condyle  appears 
to  have  been  broken  off  and  displaced  forward.  The  sigmoid  cavity 
embraces  the  epitrochlea,  and  forms  a  new  articulation  with  it;  the 
radius  lies  below  the  inner  part  of  the  trochlea  and  projects  notably  be- 
hind it. 

1  Broca :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1849,  p.  272. 

2  Jolivet :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1865,  p.  184. 

3  Denuc(S :  Diet,  de  Med.  et  Chir.  pratiques,  art.  Coude,  p.  765. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  613 

Joli  vet's  specimen  was  obtained  by  amputation  eighteen  months  after 
the  injury.  The  elbow  was  flexed,  the  forearm  semipronated,  and 
there  was  very  slight  mobility.  The  olecranon,  displaced  inward, 
embraced  the  epitrochlea  by  its  sigmoid  cavity  and  projected  beyond 
its  inner  side.  The  olecranon  fossa  was  empty;  the  anterior  and  inner 
part  of  the  head  of  the  radius  rested  upon  the  outer  articular  half  of 
the  trochlea,  the  sharp  inner  border  of  the  latter  lying  like  a  wedge 
between  the  radius  and  ulna.  The  coronoid  process  lay  in  a  new 
groove  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  epitrochlea  and  the  adjoining  side 
of  the  trochlea.  The  posterior  edge  of  the  head  of  the  radius  could 
be  felt  as  a  prominence  at  the  back  of  the  joint. 

Both  lateral  ligaments  are  necessarily  torn,  and  probably  the  ante- 
rior one  likewise;  the  annular  ligament  may  perhaps  resist,  though  it 
must  at  least  be  put  upon  the  stretch  by  the  interposition  of  the  inner 
anterior  edsre  of  the  trochlea  between  the  head  of  the  radius  and  the 
coronoid  process.  The  clinical  features  indicate  that  the  head  of  the 
radius  lies  rather  below  than  directly  in  front  of  the  trochlea,  even  in 
flexion  of  the  elbow  at  a  right  angle. 

Symptoms.  The  elbow  is  slightly  flexed,  less  so,  Hahn  says,  than  is 
common  in  backward  dislocations,  and  is  pronated.  The  axis  of  the 
forearm  is  parallel  with  that  of  the  arm  and  a  little  to  its  inner  side. 
The  prominence  of  the  epitrochlea  is  lost,  that  of  the  outer  epicondyle 
increased.  Flexion  and  extension  are  quite  free,  and  painless  within 
certain  limits. 

On  palpation,  the  olecranon  can  be  recognized  immediately  behind 
the  position  of  the  epitrochlea  and  extending  so  far  to  the  inner  side 
as  to  mask  this  prominence  completely;  the  triceps  shows  as  a  rather 
prominent  elevation  running  downward  and  inward.  The  external 
condyle  can  be  plainly  felt,  and  the  absence  of  the  head  of  the  radius 
from  its  normal  position  recognized;  the  flatter  can  sometimes  be  felt 
below  the  empty  olecranon  fossa.  Soft  cartilaginous  crepitation  is  felt 
on  making  passive  motion. 

Treatment.  Reduction  in  recent  cases  appears  to  be  easy  by  traction 
in  the  extended  position  and  direct  pressure  upon  the  side  of  the  ulna. 
Theoretically,  outward  lateral  flexion  combined  with  moderate  traction 
and  followed  by  direct  pressure  ought  to  effect  reduction  readily  and 
without  risk  of  fracture,  especially  if  ansesthesia  is  employed. 

Sprengel's  statistics,  quoted  above,  indicate  that  reduction  is  very 
difficult  in  old  cases;  out  of  eleven  only  one  was  reduced,  but  the 
length  of  time  that  had  elapsed  is  not  given  except  in  the  one  case  that 
was  reduced,  eight  weeks. 

Broca's  specimen  and  two  of  Sprengel's  cases  show  that  the  joint, 
even  if  reduction  is  not  made,  may  have  a  free  range  of  motion  and 
the  limb  may  be  useful;  in  his  other  cases  Sprengel's  attempts  to 
increase  the  range  of  motion  failed  more  or  less  completely. 

B.  Incomplete  Outward  Dislocations. 

This  form,  although  apparently  somewhat  less  frequent  than  the  pre- 
ceding, has  been  more  fully  studied.  Its  causes  and  mechanism  have 
been  described  above. 


614 


DISLOCATIONS. 


Fig.  279. 


Pathology.  Fig.  279  represents  a  specimen  from  an  old  case  pre- 
sented to  the  Societe  Anatomiqiie  by  Poumet;  it  is  described  by  Mal- 
gaigne,  Denuc6,  and  Pingaud  as  one  of  the  only  two  cases  known,  the 
other,  Pinel's,  being  very  similar.  The  list  has  since  been  increased  by 
the  five  specimens  obtained  by  Hueter  by  reseotioo,  by  Hutchinson's 
autopsy,  and  by  Sprengel's  case  in  which  the  dislocation  became  com- 
pound. The  last  two  are  the  only  examples  of  the  condition  in  the 
recent  state  of  which  I  have  knowledge,  and  the  information  furnished 
by  the  last  one  relates  only  to  the  position  of  the  bones. 

Sprengel's^  patient  was  a  girl  seven  years  old;  the  injury  was  caused 
by  a  fall,  was  supposed  to  be  a  fracture,  and  was  treated  by  immobili- 
zation in  a  gypsum  dressing.  Five  weeks  later  she  came  under  Spren- 
gePs  observation.  On  removal  of  the  dress- 
ing a  slough  an  inch  in  diameter  was  found  to 
have  formed,  and  through  the  opening  created 
by  it  the  internal  condyle  presented.  The  head 
of  the  radius  could  be  distinctly  felt  below  the 
external  condyle,  the  ulna  was  displaced  out- 
ward so  that  the  outer  half  of  the  sigmoid 
cavity  embraced  the  capitellum  ;  the  forearm 
was  pronated  and  fixed  in  a  position  midway 
between  flexion  and  extension.  Forcible  ab- 
duction was  made  as  a  preliminary  to  reduc- 
tion, and  the  opening  of  the  slough  was  there- 
by so  enlarged  that  the  position  of  the  bones  as 
described  was  verified  by  direct  inspection.  The 
child  made  a  good  recovery. 

Hutchinson's^  specimen  was  of  a  recent  case, 
the  patient  having  died  of  associated  injuries. 
The  dislocation  had  been  reduced  during  life; 
on  the  table  it  could  be  easily  reproduced,  and 
the  bones  could  be  dislocated  to  either  the  outer 
or  the  inner  side.  The  sigmoid  notch  rested 
against  the  external  condyle  and  the  head  of  the  radius  projected  beyond 
the  latter.  The  lateral  ligaments  were  completely  torn,  and  there  were 
several  rents  in  the  anterior  one;  the  orbicular  ligament  was  entire,  but 
much  stretched.  Small  portions  of  cartilage  had  been  broken  from 
the  articular  surfaces  of  all  three  bones. 

Poumet' s  specimen  (Fig.  279)  is  thus  described  by  Pingaud.^  "  The 
ulna,  carried  directly  outward,  has  completely  left  the  trochlea,  which 
projects  on  the  inner  side  and  contains  in  its  groove  a  large  sesamoid 
bone  [evidently  the  broken-off  epitrochlea,  vide  infra].  The  external 
articular  slope  of  the  sigmoid  cavity  is  in  relation  with  the  capitellum, 
which  is  notably  hypertrophied,  as  is  also  the  epicondyle,  while  the 
trochlea  and  epitrochlea  are  atrophied.  The  radius,  displaced  outward 
and  especially  forward,  is  in  indirect  relations  with  the  epicondyle  and 
the  remainder  of  the  condyle,  outside  of  which  is  a  small  sesamoid  bone 
which  completes  the  surface  of  articulation  on  this  side.     It  results 


Incomplete  outward  disloca- 
tion.   (Poumet.) 


1  Sprengel:  Loc.  cit.  2  Hutchinson  :  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1866,  vol.  i.  p.  410. 

3  Pingaud  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  526. 


DISL 0 CA TIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  fj  1 5 

from  these  anatomical  relations  that  the  forearm  is  in  slight  flexion 
with  rotation  inward;  the  ligaments,  especially  the  lateral  ones,  are  in 
great  part  ruptured. 

Hueter's  six  specimens  all  showed  the  same  displacement,  and  the 
epi trochlea  torn  off  and  lodged  in  the  groove  of  the  trochlea.  The 
same  avulsion  of  the  epitrochlea  has  been  observed  clinically  in  five 
other  cases,  Albert  and  von  Dumreicher^  each  one,  and  Hneter^  three, 
in  two  of  which  it  prevented  reduction,  and  in  the  others  made  reduc- 
tion very  difficult.  In  two  other  cases,  also  observed  clinically  by 
Nicoladoni,  in  which  reduction  was  not  attempted  because  of  the  length 
of  time  that  had  passed  since  the  injury  was  received,  fourteen  and  five 
months  respectively,  the  epitrochlea  was  broken  off;  in  one  it  could  not 
be  found,  in  the  other  it  lay  below  and  near  the  sharp  inner  edge  of 
the  trochlea. 

The  complication  appears  to  be  much  more  common  in  children  than 
in  adults;  of  the  13  cases  here  quoted  7  were  young,  in  4  the  age  is 
not  given,  and  2  were  adults  when  the  joints  were  excised. 

JSTicoladoni,  after  experimenting  upon  the  cadaver,  reached  the  opin- 
ion, which  seems  to  be  correct,  that  this  avulsion  of  the  epitrochlea  is 
effected  through  the  attached  flexor  muscles  and  not  through  the  inter- 
nal lateral  ligament  which  is  inserted  only  upon  its  base. 

His  experiments  show  that  the  internal  lateral  ligament  is  always 
ruptured,  usually  close  to  its  insertion  at  the  base  of  the  epitrochlea, 
but  sometimes  nearer  to  or  at  its  attachment  to  the  ulna.  The  rupture 
extends  backward  along  the  margin  of  the  sigmoid  cavity  to  the  tip  of 
the  olecranon,  and  in  front  through  the  anterior  ligament  to  the  outer 
side  of  the  coronoid  process.  The  external  lateral  and  the  annular 
ligaments  are  untorn.  The  clinical  cases  indicate,  however,  that  the 
annular  ligament  also  is  sometimes  ruptured. 

Symptoms.  The  elbow  is  somewhat  flexed,  the  angle  varying  in  the 
different  cases,  the  forearm  pronated.  The  axis  of  the  forearm  is 
sometimes  parallel  with  and  external  to  that  of  the  arm,  sometimes 
adducted.  The  prominence  of  the  internal  condyle  is  increased,  and 
the  skin  is  tightly  stretched  over  it.  The  transverse  diameter  of  the 
elbow  is  increased  by  the  projection  of  the  muscles  and  the  head  of  the 
radius  on  the  outer  side.  Flexion  and  extension  are  painful  and 
restricted.  In  the  reported  cases  no  mention  is  made  of  lateral 
mobility. 

On  palpation  the  epitrochlea,  unless  broken  off,  is  very  readily  felt ; 
if  it  is  broken  off,  the  inner  side  and  edge  of  the  trochlea  can  be 
plainly  traced,  and  the  epitrochlea  may  perhaps  be  recognized  as  a 
movable  body  below  it,  or  it  may  have  been  drawn  past  the  edge  of  the 
trochlea  into  its  groove  where  it  cannot  be  felt. 

On  the  outer  side  the  head  of  the  radius  projects  in  a  line  with  the 
anterior  or  under  surface  of  the  condyle,  according  as  the  elbow  is  more 
or  less  flexed.  The  olecranon  is  more  prominent  than  normal,  because 
it  is  lifted  out  of  its  fossa  and  lies  against  the  back  of  the  more  prom- 
inent external  condyle;  it  is  distant  from  the  epitrochlea  about  two 

1  Nicoladoni :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  571.  2  Hueter :  Arch,  fur  klin.  Chir.,  vol.  ix.  p.  935. 


616  DISLOCATIONS. 

inches.  The  triceps  appears  as  a  prominent  cord  directed  downward 
and  outward  to  the  olecranon.  The  external  epicondyle  may  be  felt 
by  pressing  the  finger  firmly  in  above  the  head  of  the  radius  and 
behind  the  prominence  formed  by  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  hand. 

According  to  Pingaud,  the  forearm  is  so  pronated  that  the  posterior 
surface  of  the  ulna  looks  outward,  and  the  head  of  the  radius  lies  in 
front  of  the  capitellum  instead  of  being  displaced  outwardly.  Such 
cases  belong,  I  think,  to  the  class  of  dislocations  of  the  ulna  alone. 

Treatment.  The  first  indication  of  treatment  is  to  lift  the  central 
ridge  of  the  sigmoid  cavity  and  the  coronoid  process  out  of  the  groove 
between  the  capitellum  and  the  trochlea,  or,  in  other  words,  to  separate 
this  portion  of  the  ulna  suificiently  from  the  under  surface  of  the 
humerus  to  allow  it  to  be  pushed  inward  past  the  projecting  outer 
border  of  the  trochlea.  This  may  be  effected  by  hyperextension,  or 
by  outward  lateral  flexion  if  the  head  of  the  radius  still  rests  against 
the  under  surface  of  the  humerus  so  as  to  form  a  fulcrum  or  centre  for 
the  movement. 

If  hyperextension  is  made,  the  movement  takes  place  about  the  tip 
of  the  olecranon  as  a  centre,  where  it  rests  against  the  back  of  the 
humerus,  and  the  coronoid  process  is  carried  downward  away  from  the 
humerus  as  well  as  backward,  and  when  the  separation  is  sufficient 
direct  pressure  with  the  thumbs  upon  the  head  of  the  radius  will  force 
the  bones  into  place,  or  rotation  of  the  ulna  inward  (supination)  will 
carry  the  tip  of  the  coronoid  process  past  the  margin  of  the  trochlea 
into  the  groove.  Nicoladoni  suggests  that  in  the  latter  manoeuvre  an 
assistant  should  press  with  his  thumb  upon  the  back  of  the  olecranon 
to  prevent  the  production  of  a  backward  dislocation. 

Outward  lateral  flexion  should  be  aided  by  traction  upon  the  extended 
or  slightly  flexed  forearm,  by  which  the  articular  surfaces  wnll  be  sepa- 
rated as  far  as  the  uutorn  ligaments  will  permit,  then  pressure  by  the 
thumb  upon  the  head  of  the  radius  will  force  the  inner  ends  of  the 
bones  back  into  line,  and  the  straightening  of  the  limb  completes  the 
reduction. 

If  the  annular  ligament  is  torn,  its  outer  portion  and  the  adjoining 
part  of  the  external  lateral  ligament  may  be  interposed  between  the 
radius  and  the  humerus  and  oppose  the  return  of  the  former;  under 
such  circumstances  the  ulna  can  still  be  reduced,  but  the  lateral  press- 
ure to  effect  this  must  be  made  upon  the  olecranon  instead  of  the 
radius,  and  then  by  pronating  and  adducting  the  forearm  the  radius  is 
drawn  past  the  obstacle  into  place.  The  suggestion  of  the  existence 
of  this  obstacle  and  of  the  means  by  which  it  may  be  avoided  rests 
entirely  upon  experiments  on  the  cadaver.  I  do  not  know  that  it  has 
ever  been  encountered  and  thus  overcome  in  practice. 

The  complication  of  avulsion  of  the  epitrochlea  and  its  lodgement 
in  the  groove  of  the  trochlea  seriously  increases  the  difficulty  of  reduc- 
tion. As  above  stated,  in  two  of  the  five  recent  cases  in  w^hich  it  was 
recognized  reduction  failed.  The  reason  of  the  failure  is  that  the  dis- 
placement of  the  fragment  from  the  groove  by  the  returning  ulna  is 
prevented  by  the  sharply  inclined  inner  slope  of  the  trochlea  and  by 
the  pressure  of  the  overlying  muscles  and  fascia.    The  fragment  needs 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  617 

to  be  drawn  downward  as  well  as  pushed  inward.  Albert  succeeded 
by  flexing  the  forearm  at  a  right  angle,  and  then  drawing  it  forcibly 
away  from  the  humerus  in  the  direction  of  the  long  axis  of  the  latter 
by  means  of  a  cord  passed  across  its  anterior  surface  close  to  the  elbow. 
The  same  method,  when  employed  by  von  Dumreicher,  failed,  as  did 
also  forcible  outward  lateral  flexion  and  traction,  although  carried  so 
far  as  to  threaten  rupture  of  the  skin  on  the  inner  side  of  the  joint. 

Possibly  the  transformation  of  the  dislocation  into  the  direct  back- 
ward form,  or  backward  and  inward,  would  remove  the  fragment  from 
the  groove  and  make  reduction  possible,  or  it  might  be  practicable  to 
draw  the  fragment  downward  out  of  the  way  by  a  sharp  hook  passed 
through  the  skin.  Other  means  failiug,  the  obstacle  could  be  easily 
reached  and  removed  through  an  incision  on  the  inner  side. 

Complete  Dislocations  Outward. 

These  dislocations,  of  which  the  first  observation  was  reported  by 
Dupuytren  in  1807,  although  the  form  had  been  described  by  Petit 
nearly  one  hundred  years  before,  were  apparently  so  rare  that  Mal- 
gaigne  could  collect  only  ten  reported  cases.  Of  late,  reports  have  so 
multiplied  that,  excluding  irregular  cases,  and  those  of  which  the 
description  is  not  sufficiently  detailed,  and  those  which  seem  more 
properly  to  belong  among  the  dislocations  backward  and  outward,  the 
number  of  those  available  for  study  and  generalization  is  about  twenty- 
five.^ 

In  most  of  the  cases  the  mechanism  of  production  cannot  be  deter- 
mined, but  the  histories  of  a  few  are  sufficiently  complete  to  show  that 
the  cause  may  be  a  fall  upon  the  outstretched  palm  or  upon  the  elbow, 
or  a  blow  received  upon  the  inner  side  of  the  forearm.  Hatry's  case 
is  a  clear  example  of  the  first,  the  patient  stumbled  and  fell  forward 
upon  his  hand;  von  Pitha's  patient,  who  fell  while  her  hands  were  in 
her  muff,  is  an  example  of  the  second;  and  Mears's  patient,  who  was 
struck  upon  the  inner  and  upper  part  of  the  forearm  by  a  revolving 
piece  of  wood  while  the  elbow  was  partly  flexed  in  an  effort  to  draw 
down  some  object  from  above  his  head,  is  an  example  of  the  third.  The 
mechanism  in  a  fall  upon  the  hand  is  doubtless  the  same  as  that  in 
incomplete  dislocation  outward  produced  in  the  same  manner — that  is, 
outward  lateral  flexion  is  produced;  the  internal  lateral  ligament  is 
ruptured,  and  then  the  bones  are  displaced  laterally  past  one  another 
by  the  continued  action  of  the  weight  of  the  body.     In  one  of  von 

1  The  bibliography,  excluding  doubtful  cases,  is  as  follows  :  Dupuytren,  Lefons  orales,  vol.  i.  p. 
131 ;  Bouley,  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1837,  p.  101  ;  Nelaton,  Pathol,  chirurgicale,  vol.  ii.  p.  391 ; 
Neilson,  Lancet,  1844,  ii.  p.  559  ;  Robert,  Gaz  des  HOpitaux,  1849,  p.  180  ;  SoulcS,  Gaz.  Medicale,  1849, 
p.  717  :  Verneuil  and  Triquet,  Gaz.  Medicale,  1851  [?] ;  Piogey  and  Dnbrueil,  Gaz.  des  HOpitaux, 
1851,  p.  30  ;  Denuce,  These  de  Paris,  1853  ;  Flaubert,  idem ;  Paech,  Gaz  des  Hopitaux,  1859,  p.  434  ; 
Sistach,  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgie,  1866,  p.  520 ;  Varick,  New  York  Medical  Record,  1867,  vol.  ii. 
p.  387  ;  Andrews,  idem,  1875,  p.  720  ;  Von  Pitha,  Pitha  and  Billroth's  Chirurgie,  vol.  iv.,  abt.  2.  B,  p. 
71,  4  cases  ;  Hatrv,  Lyon  Medical,  1876,  vol.  xviii.  p.  13;  Wylie,  in  Hamilton's  Fractures  and  Dislo- 
cations, p.  698  ;  Berlin,  Union  Mt-d.,  1876,  p.  609  ;  Osborne,  New  York  Hospital  Gazette,  1879,  p.  613  ; 
Mason,  New  York  Medical  Record,  1880,  vol  xvii.  p.  397,  2  cases;  Towne,  idem,  p.  525 ;  Ekwurzel, 
Philadelphia  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter,  1881,  vol.  xlv.  p.  38  ;  Mears,  Philadelphia  Medical 
Times,  1880-1,  vol.  xi.  p.  89 ;  Johnson,  Transactions  of  the  Missouri  State  Medical  Association,  1880, 
p.  33  ;  Battiscombe,  Lancet,  1886,  ii.  p.  397  ;  Heinlein,  Centbl.  fUr  Chir.,  February  1,  1890  ;  Stimson, 
here  given.  I  have  not  been  able  to  verify  the  reference  for  Dupuytren's  and  Verneuil's  cases.  The 
Gazette  Medicale  for  1851  does  not  contain  the  latter ;  in  the  Gazette  des  Hopitaux,  1851,  pp.  93  and 
201,  is  an  article  by  Verneuil  and  Triquet  which  contains  a  case  of  incomplete  outward  dislocation. 


618  DISLOCATIONS. 

Pitha's  cases  this  lateral  flexion  was  observed  by  the  mother  o£  the 
patient,  a  boy,  six  years  old,  who  saw  the  elbow  bend  as  he  fell  from 
a  tree  upon  his  outstretched  hand. 

Pathology.  The  only  recorded  autopsies  are  those  of  Bouley  and 
Heinlein;  in  the  former,  a  compound  dislocation  with  fracture  of  the 
external  condyle  produced  by  a  fall  upon  the  elbow  from  a  height  of 
twenty-eight  feet,  amputation  was  refused,  and  the  patient  died  on  the 
twenty-fifth  day.  The  lateral  ligaments  of  the  elbow  were  entirely 
ruptured;  both  bones  of  the  forearm  were  placed  externally  to  the 
lower  extremity  of  the  humerus,  and  the  ulnar  nerve  was  lacerated  at 
the  level  of  the  trochlea.  In  the  latter  both  lateral  and  the  anterior 
ligaments  were  torn,  the  radial  nerve  bruised:  a  fragment  was  broken 
from  the  head  of  the  radius,  and  the  coronoid  process  was  broken. 
The  radius  and  ulna  were  also  broken  near  the  middle. 

Disregarding  one  or  two  exceptional  forms,  the  cases  may  be  grouped 
in  three  classes  according  to  the  character  of  the  displacement,  but  in 
some  the  account  is  not  sufficiently  complete  to  determine  to  which 
class  the  case  should  belong.  In  one,  apparently  the  least  frequent, 
the  displacement  is  directly  outward  and  a  little  upward,  so  that  the 
inner  edge  of  the  sigmoid  cavity  rests  against  the  outer  surface  of  the 
external  condyle,  the  elbow  being  partly  flexed,  with  the  olecranon 
behind  and  the  coronoid  process  in  front  of  the  epicondyle.  The 
radius  preserves  its  relations  with  the  ulna  and  is  situated  still  further 
to  the  outer  side,  or  is  carried  to  a  somewhat  higher  level  by  pronation 
of  the  forearm.  This  involves  complete  rupture  of  the  lateral  and  an- 
terior ligaments.  In  !Neilson's  case  it  was  thought  the  external  condyle 
was  broken;  the  olecranon  was  three  inches  above  its  usual  position. 

In  the  second  class  the  forearm  is  pronated  as  well  as  flexed,  and 
this  pronation  is  effected  by  rotation  about  the  long  axis  of  the  ulna, 
so  that  the  head  of  the  radius  lies  above,  or  even  further  inward  than, 
the  ulna.  The  great  sigmoid  cavity  embraces  the  outer  surface  of  the 
external  condyle,  the  tip  of  the  olecranon  lyiug  behind  the  condyle 
and  that  of  the  coronoid  process  in  front  of  it.  The  anterior  surface 
of  the  ulna  looks  inward.  The  head  of  the  radius  lies  above  its  nor- 
mal position,  in  front  of  the  humerus,  and  possibly  still  in  contact  with 
the  upper  part  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  capitellum.  Study  of 
the  skeleton  indicates  that  this  form  can  be  easily  produced  from  an 
incomplete  outward  dislocation  by  pronation  of  the  limb;  it  is,  I  think, 
the  most  common  of  the  three  classes,  and  it  seems  possible  that  the 
external  lateral  ligament  may  be  preserved  untorn.  Denuce  has  given 
it  the  name  of  suh-epieondylar,  in  distinction  from  the  following,  third, 
class,  which  he  terms  supra-epicondylar.  He  thinks  the  distinction  is 
an  important  one  and  that  the  difference  depends  upon  the  rupture  or 
the  integrity  of  the  attachment  of  the  muscles  upon  the  epicondyle. 

In  the  third  class  the  ulna  and  radius,  pronated  and  flexed,  are  car- 
ried higher  up  along  the  outer  border  of  the  humerus,  two  inches  in 
Osborne's  case.  The  sigmoid  cavity  may  embrace  the  supinator  ridge, 
and  the  radius  still  lies  in  front  of  the  humerus,  or  both  bones  may  be 
displaced  also  backward  so  that  the  coronoid  process  and  the  articular 
surface  of  the  radius  are  posterior  to  the  ridge. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW. 


619 


It  is  noteworthy  that  in  none  of  the  cases  is  fracture  of  the  epi- 
trochlea  mentioned;  in  one  or  two  it  is  said  that  the  epitrochlear 
muscles  were  torn  away  at  their  insertion. 

Two  cases,  in  which  an  additional  consecutive  displacement  had  fol- 
lowed by  which  both  bones  were  brought  around  in  front  of  the 
humerus  and  pronated  so  far  that  their  posterior  surfaces  were  directed 
forward,  were  reported  by  Cloquet'  and  Maisonncuve.^  The  latter's 
patient  was  a  woman  who  had  fallen  out  of  bed  upon  her  elbow,  and 
who  was  so  thin  that  the  position  of  the  bones  could  be  accurately 
determined;  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  projected  prominently 
behind  and  was  there  covered  only  by  the  skin,  while  the  triceps 
ran  forward  and  outward  over  the  epicondyle.     The  ulna  was  cora- 


FlG.  280. 


Fig.  281. 


Complete  outward  dislocation  of  the  elbow.    Supra- 
epicondylar.    (Stimson.) 

pletely  turned  around  so  that  its  pos- 
terior surface  looked  forward  and  the 
sigmoid  cavity  lay  against  the  front  of 
the  trochlea.  The  head  of  the  radius 
could  not  be  felt.  The  limb  was 
slightly  flexed  and  greatly  pronated. 
Reduction  was  effected  by  moving  the 
olecranon  outward  and  backward 
around  the  external  condyle  to  the 
back  of  the  humerus,  and  then  reducing  in  the  usual  manner  the 
backward  dislocation  thus  produced. 

Symptoms.  Of  the  first  variety,  dislocation  directly  outward  with- 
out rotation  of  the  forearm  (Fig.  280),  Puech's  case  may  be  taken  as 
a  type.  The  patient  was  a  man  forty-one  years  old,  and  the  injury 
was  caused  by  a  fall  from  a  height  of  about  two  feet,  the  elbow  striking 
against  some  stones.     The  forearm  was  extended  and  supinated;  it 


Complete  outward  dislocation. 

(DENUCfi.) 


1  Cloquet :  Quoted  by  Malgaigne,  loc.  cit.,  p.  616. 
-  Malsonneuve  :  Gaz.  des  Hopitaux,  1867,  p.  145. 


620  DISLOCATIONS. 

could  be  passively  flexed  nearly  to  a  right  angle  but  could  not  be  pro- 
nated;  its  axis  lay  entirely  to  the  outside  of  the  humerus,  and  the 
transverse  diameter  of  the  elbow  was  nearly  doubled.  Tracing  the 
bones  with  the  finger  behind,  from  the  epitrochlea  outward,  the  sur- 
geon recognized  all  the  points  of  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus,  then 
the  olecranon  well  above  and  to  the  outer  side  of  the  condyle,  and  then 
the  head  of  the  radius  lower  than  the  olecranon  but  still  above  the 
lower  line  of  the  humerus.  In  other  similar  cases  extreme  mobility 
of  the  joint  is  mentioned;  as  if  the  two  segments  of  the  limb  were 
very  loosely  attached  to  each  other. 

In  the  second  variety,  " sub-epicondylar,' '  the  axis  of  the  forearm 
appears  generally  to  be  inclined  downward  and  inward  (adduction); 
flexion  at,  or  even  within  (Pitha),  a  right  angle  is  common;  semi-pro- 
nation  or  full  pronation.  The  transverse  diameter  of  the  elbow  is 
increased,  but  not  so  much  as  in  the  preceding  variety.  The  supinator 
and  radial  extensor  muscles  form  a  well-defined  prominence  above  and 
in  front  of  the  joint;  the  tendon  of  the  triceps  shows  as  a  prominence 
directed  downward  and  outward,  and  the  tendon  of  the  biceps  can 
sometimes  be  felt  running  in  the  same  direction  in  front. 

The  outlines  of  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  can  be  distinctly 
traced  from  the  epitrochlea  outward  to  the  capitellum;  the  external 
epicondyle  is  masked  by  the  ulna,  but  sometimes  can  be  felt  by  press- 
ing the  finger  deeply  in  above  the  latter.  The  cup-shaped  surface  of  the 
head  of  the  radius  can  be  felt  unless  it  has  been  carried  so  far  inward 
by  the  pronation  of  the  limb  that  it  rests  against  the  front  of  the  humerus. 

In  the  third  variety,  "  supra- epioondylar' '  (Fig.  281),  the  forearm 
is  flexed  at,  or  nearly  at,  a  right  angle  and  pronated;  the  transverse 
diameter  at  the  lower  part  of  the  arm  is  increased.  The  greater  the 
displacement  upward,  the  greater  is  the  passive  mobility  of  the  limb 
in  the  plane  of  flexion  and  extension.  The  lower  end  of  the  humerus 
is  accessible  to  the  touch  even  more  completely  than  in  the  two  preced- 
ing varieties,  for  it  projects  completely  below,  and  even  its  external 
condyle  can  be  traced.  The  deformity  on  the  outer  side  varies  with 
the  extent  and  character  of  the  final  displacement,  for  the  bones  of  the 
forearm  are  sometimes  carried  backward,  crossing  the  humerus,  or,  as 
in  Maisonneuve's  and  Cloquet's  cases,  carried  forward  to  the  front  of 
the  humerus. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  in  three  of  the  four  cases  in  which  reduction 
was  not  made  the  patients  had  good  control  of  the  limb  and  a  free 
range  of  motion  was  established.  Wylie's  patient  thought  his  arm 
was  as  serviceable  as  ever.  Robert's  patient  was  seventy  years  old 
and  his  injury  dated  from  infancy;  he  had  an  extensive  range  of 
flexion  and  extension.  In  Denuce's  case  (Fig.  280)  the  olecranon 
projected  nearly  an  inch  behind  the  humerus,  the  arm  could  be  fully 
extended  and  flexed  nearly  to  a  right  angle.  In  Nelaton's  case  there 
was  flexion  nearly  at  a  right  angle. 

It  is  also  noteworthy  that  in  no  case  were  there  symptoms  of  inter- 
ference with  the  circulation,  and  in  only  one  case  (Mears)  were  there 
symptoms  of  injury  to  the  nerves.  In  his  there  were  pain  in  the  fingers 
and  numbness  in  the  distribution  of  the  median  nerve. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  621 

Treatment.  Reduction  has  been  effected  without  difficulty  in  all  the 
recent  cases  by  extension  and  direct  manipulation  of  the  upper  ends 
of  the  radius  and  ulna.  The  laceration  of  the  ligaments  and  muscles 
is  so  great  that  the  bones  are  freely  movable,  and  special  manoeuvres 
intended  to  relax:  opposing  bands  are  seldom  necessary.  Exceptions 
to  this  may  be  found  sometimes  in  the  first  and  second  varieties;  in 
the  first  the  head  of  the  radius  may  pass  through  and  be  caught,  as 
apparently  happened  in  Puech's  case,  between  two  muscular  bundles, 
which  may  then  need  to  be  relaxed  by  flexing  and  abducting  the  fore- 
arm; in  the  second,  which  appears  sometimes,  as  has  been  said,  to 
differ  from  the  incomplete  outward  dislocations  only  in  the  addition  of 
pronation  of  the  forearm,  the  external  lateral  ligament  remaining 
untorn,  the  first  movement  must  be  to  supinate  the  limb  and  thus  turn 
the  sigmoid  cavity  under  the  capitellum  and  bring  the  head  of  the 
radius  to  the  outer  side;  the  dislocation  is  then  an  incomplete  outward 
one,  and  is  reduced  accordingly. 

Dislocations  of  the  Forearm  Forward. 

Although  mentioned  by  Hippocrates  and  characterized  by  him  as  the 
most  painful  of  all  and  fatal  in  a  few  days,  and  admitted  by  all  sub- 
sequent writers,  the  first  recorded  case  (and  that  a  questionable  one)  of 
this  dislocation  was  published  only  a  hundred  years  ago,  and  the  num- 
ber has  not  yet  reached  twenty-five,  ev^en  including  seven  cases  in 
which  the  olecranon  was  broken  off  and  remained  in  place.  ^ 

Of  the  11  cases  in  which  the  age  is  mentioned,  1  was  six  years  old, 
2  were  eight,  1  was  fourteen,  2  were  fifteen,  and  1  each  eighteen, 
twenty,  thirty-four,  thirty-eight,  and  forty  years  old;  another  was  an 
^'  adult."  The  cause  in  the  greater  number  of  cases  appears  to  have 
been  a  fall  upon  the  flexed  elbow;  in  one  (Prior)  it  was  a  blow  by  the 
handle  of  a  crane  upon  the  back  of  the  elbow;  in  one  certainly  (Date), 
and  probably  in  others,  it  was  a  fall  upon  the  palm  of  the  hand;  in 
one  (Caussin)  the  patient's  hand  was  caught  between  two  cogwheels 
and  both  bones  of  the  forearm  were  broken  at  the  middle  as  well  as 
dislocated;  and  in  one  (Morel-La vallee)  the  patient  fell  from  a  wagon 
and  was  run  over,  the  wheel  passing  across  the  elbow  and  breaking  the 
olecranon  and  coronoid  process. 

In  six  of  the  cases  the  olecranon  was  broken,  and  in  these  the  mech- 
anism of  the  dislocation  is  easily  understood,  for,  the  resistance  of  the 
olecranon  being  removed,  the  two  bones  can  be  easily  displaced  for- 
ward and  upward  along  the  front  of  the  humerus  by  a  force  acting 

1  The  bibliography  is  as  follows  :  Evers.  Monin,  Guyot,  Wittlinger,  quoted  by  Streubel  in  Prager 
Vierteljahrschrift,  1850,  ii.  p.  37,  and  by  Malgaigne,  loc.  cit.,  p.  626  ;  Guerre,  quoted  by  Pingaud  in 
Diet.  Encyclopfidique,  1st  ser.,  vol.  xxi.  p.  708  ;  Chapel,  quoted  by  Malgaigne,  loc.  cit.,  p.  617,  as  a 
dislocation  outward ;  Colson,  Leva,  quoted  by  Debruyn  in  Annales  de  la  Cbirurgie  Fran9aise  et 
Etrangere,  1843,  vol.  ix.  pp.  44  and  45,  and  by  Streubel ;  Richet,  Archives  generales,  1839,  vol.  vi.  p. 
472  ;  Prior,  Lancet,  1844,  ii.  p.  366  ;  Ancelon,  L'Union  Medicale,  1859,  vol.  iii.  p.  394  ;  Canton,  Dub- 
lin Medical  Journal,  1860,  ii.  p.  24  ;  Secrestan,  Gazette  des  HOpitaux,  I860,  p.  598  ;  Caussin,  L'Union 
Medicale,  1861,  vol.  xi.  p.  475,  and  Bulletins  de  la  Societe  de  Chirurgie,  1861,  vol.  ii.  p.  451 ;  Richet, 
Bull-  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgie,  18.59,  vol.  ix.  p.  110  ;  Morel-La  vallee,  idem,  p.  107  ;  Greenaway,  quoted 
by  Hutchinson,  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1866,  i.  p.  409  ;  Langmore,  Lancet,  abstract  in  New 
York  Medical  Record,  1867,  vol.  ii.  p.  10;  Rigaud,  Bulletins  de  la  Societe  Anatomique,  1870,  p.  15  ; 
Date,  Lancet,  1872,  ii.  p.  597  ;  Mons,  Deutsche  Mil.  Zeitschrift,  1877,  p.  401 ;  quoted  by  Poinsot,  loc. 
cit.,  p.  951 ;  Kronlein,  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  26,  p.  30  ;  Stimson,  see  Plate  III.  References  have 
also  been  made  to  a  case  by  Ferguson,  Surgery,  3d  ed.,  p.  241,  one  by  Roser,  Chirurg.  Anat.,  1844,  p. 
477,  and  one  by  Flaubert. 


622  DISLOCATIONS. 

upou  the  back  of  the  forearm.  Such  cases,  I  think,  should  hardly  be 
put  in  this  class;  the  dislocation  is  secondary  to,  and  made  possible  by, 
the  fracture  of  the  olecranon.  A  personal  case  of  this  kind  is  shown 
in  Plate  III.  In  the  case  of  a  fall  or  of  a  blow  upon  the  flexed  elbow 
the  direction  of  the  force  is  probably  inclined  somewhat  away  from 
the  axis  of  the  forearm  and  is  more  nearly  parallel  with  the  posterior 
portion  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  olecranon,  and  it  must  be  great 
enough  to  rupture  the  lateral  ligaments  without  the  aid  of  leverage. 
All  attempts  to  reproduce  the  dislocation  upon  the  cadaver  by  this 
mechanism,  forced  flexion  and  direct  impulsion,  have  failed,  except 
after  preliminary  division  of  the  lateral  ligaments. 

In  the  case  of  a  fall  upon  the  hand  there  is  clinical  evidence  to  show 
that  this  form  is  closely  allied  to  the  lateral  dislocations,  and  that  it  is 
produced  by  lateral  outward  flexion  supplemented  by  sufficient  torsion 
(supination)  of  the  limb  to  bring  the  olecranon  forward  under  the 
trochlea;  in  several  cases  the  displacement  was  outward  as  well  as  for- 
ward; in  Chapel's,  so  far  outward  that  the  case  has  been  classed  with 
the  lateral  dislocations. 

Pathology.  One  autopsy  (Richet),  three  amputations  (Canton,  Morel- 
Lavall^e,  Rigaud),  two  compound  fractures  of  the  olecranon  without 
amputation  (Riehet,  Guerre),  one  compound  dislocation  without  frac- 
ture (Prior),  and  experiments  upon  the  cadaver  show  how  great  the 
laceration  sometimes  is.  In  Prior's  case,  in  which  the  patient  was 
struck  upon  the  '^  under  side  of  the  left  arm  at  the  elbow-joint"  by 
the  rapidly  revolving  handle  of  a  crane,  there  was  a  large  wound  at  the 
point  where  the  blow  was  received,  "  occasioning  a  general  disconnec- 
tion of  its  parts,  muscular  and  otherwise,  excepting  immediately  in 
front."  The  radius  and  ulna  were  driven  upward  and  forward  on  the 
humerus;  the  condyles  of  the  latter  and  its  shaft  for  two  and  a  half 
or  three  inches  projected  through  the  wound  nearly  at  right  angles 
with  the  forearm,  as  completely  stripped  as  if  cleaned  with  a  knife. 
There  was  no  fracture.  Reduction  was  made;  the  patient  recovered 
after  much  suppuration  in  and  around  the  joint,  and  the  final  result 
was  good,  "  the  limb  gaining  in  freedom  and  power." 

In  Canton's  case,  the  patient,  a  man  forty  years  old,  was  thrown 
from  a  wagon;  apparently  he  struck  upon  the  extended  hand,  but  the 
forearm  was  immediately  flexed  and  twisted  under  his  chest.  The 
forearm  was  flexed,  the  hand  supinated,  the  swelling  very  great,  and 
the  skin  tense  and  threatening  to  slough  over  the  internal  condyle.  The 
antero-posterior  and  lateral  diameters  of  the  joint  were  increased,  and 
the  head  of  the  radius  could  be  indistinctly  felt  externally  and  ante- 
riorly. The  diagnosis  was  not  made,  and  "  attempts  to  correct  the 
maladjustment"  failed;  after  a  delay  of  forty-eight  hours,  during 
which  the  swelling  increased  and  sloughing  was  established,  amputa- 
tion well  above  the  condyles  was  resorted  to. 

Examination  of  the  limb  showed  (Fig.  282)  that  the  upper  surface 
of  the  olecranon  rested  against  the  front  of  the  capitellum;  the  annular 
and  interosseous  ligaments  were  whole,  the  anterior  ligament  was  rup- 
tured except  in  its  centre,  the  posterior  and  both  lateral  ligaments 
ruptured.     The  triceps  was  completely  detached  from  the  olecranon. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  623 

The  two  radial  extensor  muscles  and  all  the  muscles  arising  from  the 

epicondyle  except  the  supinator  brevis  and  the  anconeus  were  detached, 

as  was  also  the  epitrochlear  head  of  the  flexor  carpi  ulnaris.   The  ulnar 

nerve  was  torn  behind  the  condyle.      The 

other  large    nerves   and  the  main  vessels  ^^^-  ^-• 

were  uninjured. 

Richet's  first  patient  was  eighteen  years 
old  and  had  fallen  from  a  height  of  forty- 
five  feet.  The  forearm  was  slightly  flexed 
and  in  supination,  and  was  immovable ; 
it  was  shortened  an  inch,  measuring  from 
the  epicondyles  to  the  lower  ends  of  the 
radius  and  ulna.  The  olecranon  was  in 
place  and  movable  ;  two  inches  below  it 
was  a  large  wound  through  which  the  lower 
end  of  this  fragment  projected.     The  head 

of   the    radius   and    the    broken    end    of   the      Forward  dislocation  of  the  elbow; 
1  •      1  1       •         1        i>   1  1      i>     1  Canton's  case. 

ulna  were  recognizable  in  the  told  ot  the 

elbow  a  fingerbreadth  above  the  condyles.  Reduction  was  easy  by 
traction,  but  recurrence  at  once  followed.  The  patient  died  three  hours 
later.     The  autopsy  showed  the  annular  ligament  to  be  intact. 

In  addition  to  these  two  varieties,  dislocation  with  and  without  frac- 
ture of  the  olecranon,  the  difference  between  which  is  so  important, 
there  is  another,  based  upon  clinical  and  experimental  evidence,  to 
which  the  name  incomplete  is  given;  in  it  the  upper  end  of  the  olecra- 
non rests  against  the  under  and  anterior  surface  of  the  humerus  instead 
of  passing  upward  in  front  of  it.  So  far  as  can  be  inferred  from  the 
reported  cases  it  is  the  most  common  form.  The  use  of  the  terms  first 
and  second  degree,  to  distinguish  between  the  two  forms,  is,  1  think, 
to  be  preferred  to  that  of  incomplete  and  complete. 

In  Chapel's  case  the  additional  outward  dislocation,  which  is  noted 
in  several  of  the  others,  was  so  great  that  Malgaigne  classes  it  with  the 
outward  dislocations.  The  patient  was  a  boy  fourteen  years  old.  The 
radius  formed  a  marked  prominence  under  the  skin  on  the  outer  side; 
on  its  inner  side  could  be  felt  the  olecranon  and  its  sigmoid  cavity. 
The  two  bones  overrode  the  humerus  in  front  about  two  centimetres; 
the  epicondyle  lay  behind  the  ulna.  Mons's  case  seems  to  me  to  be  of 
the  same  kind.  It  is  quoted  by  Poinsot  as  a  unique  example  of  diver- 
gent dislocation,  ulna  forward  and  radius  outward.  The  description 
is  limited  to  this  statement  and  does  not  definitely  exclude  the  possi- 
bility that  the  ulna  may  have  been  displaced  outward  as  well  as  forward. 

Fracture  of  the  epitrochlea  has  been  observed  in  one  case,  Date's,  a 
boy  fourteen  years  old,  and  this  is  the  one  in  which  the  evidence  that 
the  dislocation  was  produced  by  external  lateral  flexion  in  a  fall  upon 
the  hand  is  most  complete.  The  head  of  the  radius  was  prominent 
outside  of  and  below  the  outer  condyle;  above  it  was  a  deep  depression 
in  which  the  condyle  could  be  obscurely  felt;  the  olecranon  was  below 
its  usual  position,  resting  with  its  extreme  end  against  the  trochlea 
(first  degree,  or  incomplete).  The  limb  was  semi-flexed.  Reduction 
was  easy  under  chloroform;  the  radius  first,  and  then  the  ulna,  going 


624  DISLOCATIONS. 

back  into  place  with  a  distinct  snap.  If  this  account  of  the  positions 
of  the  two  bones  is  accurate  the  annular  ligament  was  probably  torn. 

Symptoms.  In  five  of  the  cases  uncomplicated  by  fracture  it  is  stated 
that  the  forearm  was  lengthened,  more  than  an  inch  in  one  of  them, 
and  with  this  coincided  a  position  of  the  limb  which  is  mentioned  in 
several  others,  namely  slight  or  partial  flexion,  which  could  generally 
be  changed  somewhat  in  either  direction.  In  one  in  which  the  range 
of  motion  is  specified,  Longmore,  the  limb  was  held  at  an  angle  of  130 
degrees,  could  be  flexed  to  a  right  angle  and  extended  to  160  degrees; 
in  another,  Colson,  hyperextension  could  be  made  without  causing  pain, 
and  during  the  movement  the  olecranon  passed  forward  between  the 
biceps  and  pronator  teres. 

In  correspondence  with  this  lengthening  there  is  flattening  of  each 
side  and  of  the  back  of  the  elbow,  unless  the  swelling  is  sufficient  to 
mask  it,  with  prominence  of  the  inner  and  sometimes  of  the  outer  con- 
dyle, and  the  formation  of  a  transverse  sulcus  appreciable  by  the  touch 
behind  between  the  humerus  and  the  olecranon.  In  one  case  the  fore- 
arm was  also  abducted.  In  Canton's  case  the  forearm  was  flexed 
beyond  a  right  angle;  the  olecranon  rested  against  the  capitellum,  and 
the  triceps  was  torn  completely  from  it.  It  seems  probable  that  detach- 
ment or  rupture  of  the  triceps  is  a  necessary  condition  of  the  passage 
of  the  olecranon  to  any  distance  along  the  front  of  the  humerus,  and 
that  the  existence  or  absence  of  the  detachment  may  constitute  the 
essential  difference  between  the  complete  and  incomplete  forms,  or  the 
first  and  second  degrees.  The  clinical  features  which  differentiate  the 
two  forms  are  that  in  the  lesser  form  the  olecranon  is  prominent  below 
the  humerus  when  the  elbow  is  flexed,  and  the  forearm  is  lengthened 
when  it  is  extended  or  but  slightly  flexed.  In  the  second,  "  complete  " 
form,  the  forearm  is  more  or  less  shortened  when  extended,  but  is 
lengthened  when  flexed  at  or  near  a  right  angle,  and  its  antero-poste- 
rior  diameter  is  increased  because  of  the  projection  of  the  coronoid 
process  in  the  fold  of  the  elbow.  The  biceps  tendon  can  be  recognized 
on  the  outer  side  of  the  latter,  and  beyond  it  the  head  of  the  radius. 
Posteriorly,  in  both  forms,  the  olecranon  fossa  is  empty;  the  direction 
of  the  ulna  also  plainly  indicates  the  change  in  the  position  of  its 
upper  end  unless  the  swelling  is  great. 

Course  and  Prognosis.  In  only  one  case.  Canton,  did  the  dislocation 
remain  unreduced,  and,  as  in  this  the  diagnosis  was  not  made  because 
of  the  swelling,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  a  suitable  attempt 
to  reduce  would  have  been  less  successful  than  it  proved  in  the  others. 
It  was  also  the  only  case,  of  those  uncomplicated  by  a  compound  frac- 
ture of  the  olecranon,  that  did  badly  and  in  which  amputation  was 
thought  to  be  necessary.  The  history  of  the  case,  moreover,  suggests 
that  the  decision  was  reached  rather  hastily  and  on  grounds  that  might 
be  deemed  insufficient. 

Of  the  7  compound  dislocations,  of  which  6  were  complicated  by 
fracture  of  the  olecranon,  3  recovered,  2  underwent  amputation  after 
the  joint  had  suppurated,  1  died  three  hours  after  the  accident,  which 
was  a  fall  from  a  height  of  forty-eight  feet,  and  in  1,  Kronlein,  the 
result  is  unknown.      Of  the  3  recoveries,  the  joint  suppurated  in  2, 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  625 

Prior,  Richet's  second,  the  process  ending  in  anchylosis  in  one  of  them; 
in  the  remaining  1  the  patient  recovered  apparently  without  suppura- 
tion, the  fracture  of  the  olecran(m  united  by  a  fibrous  band  one  centi- 
metre long,  and  two  and  a  half  months  after  the  accident  the  hand 
could  be  brought  to  the  mouth  and  the  elbow  extended  to  an  angle  of 
150  degrees.  Whether  antiseptic  methods  will  improve  this  poor 
record  remains  to  be  seen. 

Treatment.  In  all  the  cases  in  which  the  olecranon  rests  against  the 
lower  part  of  the  end  of  the  humerus,  the  so-called  incomplete  dislo- 
cations, reduction  has  been  easily  effected  by  pressing  or  pulling  the 
upper  end  of  the  forearm  downward  and  backward,  or  by  flexing  the 
limb  against  the  knee  or  the  arm  of  an  assistant  placed  in  the  fold  of 
the  elbow.  In  Greenaway's  case  the  bones  slipped  into  place  almost 
spontaneously  when  the  elbow  was  flexed. 

In  the  cases  in  which  the  bones  are  displaced  further  upward  it  is 
desirable  to  flex  the  limb  within  a  right  angle  and  then  to  pull  the 
upper  ends  of  the  bones  back  into  place  by  a  strap  passed  around  the 
front  of  the  forearm  close  to  the  elbow. 

Dislocations  complicated  by  compound  fracture  of  the  olecranon  must 
be  treated  in  accordance  with  the  general  principles  of  treatment  of 
compound  articular  fractures,  of  which  they  are  a  severe  form,  severe 
because  of  the  greater  extent  of  the  laceration  of  the  soft  parts.  In 
my  own  case,  simple  fracture  of  the  olecranon,  seen  about  two  months 
after  the  accident,  I  made  reduction  by  an  incision  along  the  ulna  which 
exposed  the  joint  and  the  fracture. 

Divergent  Dislocations  of  the  Radius  and  Ulna. 

The  characteristic  feature  of  this  form  is  that  the  radius  and  ulna 
do  not  accompany  each  other,  but  are  displaced  in  divergent  directions. 
Two  varieties  have  been  observed:  the  (intero-poderior,  in  which  the 
ulna  passes  up  behind  the  humerus,  and  the  radius  passes  up  in  front, 
and  of  which  there  are  fourteen  recorded  cases;'  and  the  iran.sverse,  of 
which  there  are  two  cases,  in  which  the  divergence  was  mainly  lateral, 
the  olecranon  passing  to  the  inner  side  behind  the  epitrochlea,  and  the 
radius  to  the  outer  side.^  Several  authors  make  an  additional  variety, 
ulna  backward,  radius  outward,  on  the  basis  of  the  case  of  Samuel 
White  quoted  by  Cooper,^  which  seems  to  me  to  be  a  dislocation  of 
both  bones  backward  and  outward;  and  Poinsofc  makes  a  fourth  variety 
of  the  case  of  Mons  which  I  have  placed  among  dislocations  of  both 
bones  forward. 

1  Bnlley,  Provincial  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal.  1841.  qnoted  In  the  Gazette  M^dicale,  1841.  p. 
6fi6 :  Michaux,  Quoted  by  Debruyn  in  Annales  de  Chir.  Franjaise  et  Etrangfere,  1843.  vol.  ix  p.  52 ; 
Mayer.  Gazelle  des  HGpitaux,  IMS,  p.  2Z2 ;  Von  Pitha,  Pitha  and  Billroth's  Chirurgie,  4th  vol.  2d 
Abt.  B.  p.  7S  ;  Chevalier,  Arch.  Med.  Beiges,  October,  1870,  quoted  by  Barrieiehen,  Chirurgie,  vol. 
ii.  p.  7.59;  Gripat.  Bull,  de  la  Soci6t(S  Anatomiqiie,  1872,  p.  176;  Arnozan,  Bordeaux  M6d.,  1873,  p. 
402,  quoted  by  Poinsot,  loc.  cit.,  p.  9J5 ;  Tillaux,  Gazette  des  HOpitaux,  1877,  p.  786  ;  Minich,  Lo 
Sperimcntale,  isso.  quoted  by  P()in.<!ot;  Mason,  New  York  Medical  Record.  1880,  vol.  xvii.  p.  397; 
Scoit,  Bristol  Medico-Chiruraical  Journal,  Murch.  ls86,  p.  86  ;  Duret,  reported  by  Vanheuverswyn 
Journal  des  Sc.  MOd.  de  Lille  Sept.  9,  1892;  Peizholdt,  Arch,  fiirklin.  Chir.,  1894,  vol.  xlix.  p.  243; 
Ferguson.  British  Medical  Journal,  April  6.  189.^.  p.  763. 

2  Guersaut,  reported  by  Warmont  in  Revue  Medico-Chirurgicale,  vol.  xvi.  p.  303,  qnoted  by  Pin- 
gaud  in  Diet.  EucycIopCdique,  art.  Coude,  p.  600,  and  by  Poinsot ;  Wight,  Physic,  and  Surgeon,  Ann 
Arbor,  February,  1893. 

3  Cooper :  Dislocations  and  Fractures,  American  edition,  p.  384. 

40 


626  DISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

A.  Antero-posterior. 

Excluding  Chevalier's  case,  of  which  I  have  no  details,  the  thirteen 
patients  were,  with  one  exception  (Tillaux)  males,  and  with  three  excep- 
tions, adults;  two  were  nine  years  old,  one  thirteen.  The  cause  was 
usually  a  fall  from  a  considerable  height,  or  with  violence,  as  from  a 
moving  railway  car,  a  horse,  or  a  wagon;  in  one  it  was  a  fall  while 
carrying  a  heavy  timber,  in  another  while  wrestling;  and  in  Tillaux' s 
the  patient,  while  lighting  a  match,  struck  her  elbow  against  a  piece  of 
furniture  behind  her;  the  pain  was  so  great  that  she  fainted  and  fell 
to  the  floor,  where  she  was  found  with  her  elbow  abducted  and  flexed. 
Scott's  patient  was  thrown  from  a  horse,  striking  upon  his  head  and 
hands;  he  found  his  elbow  dislocated  and  the  forearm  partly  flexed;  a 
bystander  pulled  it  straight,  and  he  felt  something  give  way  in  the 
joint,  and  a  bone  appeared  to  slip  forward;  possibly  a  dislocation  of 
the  ulna  alone  backward  was  thereby  transformed  into  the  divergent 
one  which  was  afterward  recognized.  Von  Pitha's  patient  fell  head 
foremost  from  the  second  story  of  a  building  upon  a  pile  of  planks 
between  which  the  extended  forearm  was  caught  and  held  while  the 
body  was  violently  precipitated  backward. 

Pingaud,'  experimenting  upon  the  cadaver,  found  it  easy  to  produce 
the  dislocation  by  forced  pronation  of  the  forearm  after  division  of  the 
internal  lateral  ligament;  this  fact,  taken  in  connection  with  the  fall 
upon  the  hand  noted  in  several  of  the  cases,  indicates  that  the  mechan- 
ism, in  these  cases  at  least,  is  a  lateral  outward  flexion,  by  which  the 
internal  lateral  ligament  is  ruptured,  followed  or  accompanied  by  forci- 
ble pronation,  and  then  by  the  direct  movement  downward  of  the 
humerus  between  the  two  bones.  Fracture  of  the  epitrochlea  observed 
in  one  case,  Arnozan,  supports  the  theory  of  outward  lateral  flexion. 
In  two  cases,  von  Pitha,  Gripat,  the  corouoid  process  was  broken;  in 
both  the  fall  was  from  a  considerable  height. 

The  explanation  of  the  mechanism  in  the  two  cases  in  which  the 
injury  was  attributed  to  a  fall  upon  the  abducted  and  flexed  elbow, 
Michaux  and  Tillaux,  shares  in  the  difliculty  which  attaches  to  the 
explanation  of  dislocation  of  both  bones  backward  by  the  same  cause. 
If  the  alleged  rotation  of  the  ulna  backward  and  outward  around  the 
radius,  by  which  the  internal  lateral  ligament  is  torn,  is  accepted,  it 
will  not  be  difficult  to  conceive  that  the  radius  may  remain  in  front; 
but  even  this  leaves  unexplained  the  forcible  descent  of  the  humerus 
between  the  two  bones  which  requires  the  rupture  of  the  annular  and 
interosseous  ligaments. 

In  Duret's  case  the  sigmoid  cavity  looked  outward  (supination),  and 
Vanheuverswyn  found  he  could  reproduce  this  form  upon  the  cadaver 
by  forced  supination  of  the  partly  flexed  forearm  after  division  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  interosseous  ligament. 

Pathology.  Two  of  the  patients,  von  Pitha,  Gripat,  died  of  the  asso- 
ciated injuries,  but  the  displacement  at  the  elbow  was  much  greater 
than  that  observed  in  the  other  cases. 

1  Pingaud  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  598. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  627 

In  von  Pitha's  the  autopsy  showed  a  wide  separation  of  the  radius 
and  uhia  from  each  other,  complete  rupture  of  the  capsule,  and  of  the 
annular,  interosseous,  and  both  lateral  ligaments,  fracture  of  the  coro- 
noid  process,  and  avulsion  of  the  biceps  and  brachialis  anticus. 

In  Gripat's  case,  a  boy  thirteen  years  old,  the  coronoid  process  had 
been  broken  off  and  the  olecranon  had  passed  almost  directly  upward, 
remaining  close  to  the  posterior  surface  of  the  humerus;  the  radius  was 
displaced  forward  and  outward.  The  internal  lateral  ligament  had 
been  torn  away  at  both  its  insertions;  the  external  one  remained 
attached  at  its  upper  insertion,  and  to  the  broken  coronoid  process  and 
part  of  the  anterior  ligament.  The  annular  ligament  Avas  torn  away 
at  its  posterior  attachment  to  the  ulna. 

Symptoms.  The  attitude  of  the  limb  is  noted  in  nine  cases:  in  six 
it  was  slightly  flexed,  in  three  nearly  straight;  in  one  case  supinated, 
in  the  others  midway  between  pronation  and  supination,  or  slightly 
pronated.  The  general  appearance  of  the  region  probably  resembles 
that  of  dislocation  of  both  bones  backward,  for  in  three  of  the  cases 
the  anterior  position  of  the  radius  was  not  noticed  until  after  the  ulna 
had  been  reduced.  Excluding  the  two  fatal  cases,  the  displacement  of 
the  ulna  upward  is  still  very  marked:  four  centimetres  in  Tillaux's 
case,  two  or  three  finger-breadths  in  Michaux's,  and  one  and  a  half 
inches  above  the  condyles  in  Scott's  and  Ferguson's;  in  Tillaux's  it 
was  also  displaced  somewhat  to  the  inner  side.  In  four  cases  the  posi- 
tion of  the  radius  is  exactly  noted:  in  two,  Bnlley,  Tillaux,  it  was  in 
the  coronoid  fossa;  in  Mason's  it  rested  on  the  outer  portion  of  the 
humerus;  in  Petzholdt's  it  overlapped  the  inner  edge  of  the  trochlea. 

Active  movement--,  both  flexion  and  rotation,  are  impossible,  and 
pa-si ve  movements  restricted  and  painful. 

In  two  cases,  Mayer,  Tillaux,  reduction  failed,  the  attempt  being 
made  on  the  fourteenth  and  eighth  days  respectively.  In  both  the  joint 
remained  quite  stiff.  In  Mason's  the  attempt  was  made  on  the  nine- 
teenth day;  prolonged  efforts  under  ether  brought  the  ulna  into  place, 
but  the  radius  slipped  toward  the  outer  side  and  could  not  be  entirely 
reduced.  The  final  result  is  not  known.  In  the  others  reduction  was 
effected  without  much  difficulty,  usually  the  ulna  first,  then  the  radius, 
but  in  Bulley's  the  radius  remained  a  little  forward,  and  was  finally 
reduced  by  continuous  pressure  upon  it. 

Treatment.  Traction  should  be  made  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of 
the  forearm  to  bring  the  ulna  into  place,  and  in  case  of  need  it  might 
be  well  to  combine  it  with  some  outward  lateral  flexion  to  avoid  the 
opposition  of  the  external  lateral  ligament;  after  the  ulna  is  reduced 
the  radius  should  be  pressed  back  into  place  with  the  thumbs  aided  by 
pronation  and  adduction  of  the  forearm.  It  is  quite  likely  that  the 
return  of  the  radius  to  its  place  may  be  impeded  by  the  interposition 
of  the  annular  ligament. 

B.  Transverse. 

Of  this  variety  there  are  only  two  recorded  cases.  Guersaut's  is  as 
follows  :  The  patient  was  a  boy  fifteen  years  old,  who  fell  from  a  tree, 


628  DISLOCATIONS. 

three  or  four  metres,  on  his  left  side,  striking  on  the  palm  of  his  hand. 
The  elbow  was  enormously  swollen;  its  transverse  diameter  was  greatly- 
increased,  and  the  autero-posterior  one  seemed  lessened.  The  head  of 
the  radius  formed  a  considerable  prominence  entirely  to  the  outer  side 
of  the  epiphysis  of  the  humerus  and  a  little  upward  along  its  outer 
border.  It  was  so  far  displaced  outward  that  there  seemed  to  be  an 
interval  between  it  and  the  epicondyle;  the  skin  was  very  tightly 
stretched  over  it. 

The  olecranon  was  displaced  inward  behind  the  epitrochlea,  which 
it  embraced  in  its  sigmoid  cavity.  In  the  great  space  between  the 
olecranon  and  radius  lay  almost  the  entire  articular  surface  of  the 
humerus. 

The  forearm  was  semi-flexed,  and  in  a  position  midway  between  pro- 
nation and  supination;  voluntary  movements  were  impossible,  passive 
movements  very  restricted.  There  was  also  a  fracture  of  the  forearm 
three  centimetres  from  the  wrist. 

Wight's  patient  was  a  woman  thirty  years  old,  who  had  fallen  while 
walking,  the  pronated  right  arm  being  caught  under  the  body.  Sup- 
posing the  injury  to  be  a  backward  dislocation  he  attempted  to  reduce 
under  ether,  and  after  failing  made  a  closer  examination.  He  then 
found  that  the  radius  was  on  the  outer  and  the  ulna  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  humerus.  ISFo  other  details.  He  reduced  the  radius  by  press- 
ing on  its  head  while  making  traction  and  adduction,  and  then  the 
ulna  by  traction  and  adduction  (abduction  ?),  "  using  the  external  con- 
dyle as  a  fulcrum,  and  at  the  same  time  firmly  flexing  the  elbow." 


CHAPTEH    XLVI. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.— (Continued.) 

ISOLATED   DISLOCATIONS    OF   THE   ULNA   AND   RADIUS. 

Dislocations  of  the  Ulna  Alone. 

S^DiLLOT,  in  a  paper  presented  to  the  Acaclemie  des  Sciences  in  1837, 
was  the  first  of  modern  writers  to  call  attention  to  this  class  of  dislo- 
cations, although  Sir  Astley  Cooper  had  previously  described  as  of 
this  kind  a  specimen  preserved  at  St.  Thomas's  Hospital.  Malgaigne 
and  other  surgeons  and  writers  strenuously  opposed  the  interpretation 
of  cases  cited  in  support  of  the  claim  that  the  occurrence  of  this  form 
is  possible,  and  denied  the  possibility  on  anatomical  grounds,  claiming 
that  the  ulna  cannot  be  displaced  backward  and  upward  unaccompanied 
by  the  radius,  except  after  rupture  of  the  interosseous  ligament  and 
those  uniting  the  lower  ends  of  the  bones,  of  which  there  is  no  clinical 
evidence.  The  specimen  figured  and  described  by  Cooper  is  claimed 
by  them  to  be  one  of  dislocation  backward  of  both  bones,  and  one 
presented  by  Robert  to  the  Soci^te  de  Chirurgie,  in  1847,  was  declared 
by  Malgaigne  to  be  of  the  same  character.  I  have  examined  Cooper's 
specimen,  which  is  still  preserved  at  St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  and  have 
no  doubt  that  it  is  simply  an  old  unreduced  backward  dislocation 
of  both  bones,  the  error  in  interpretation  having  been  due  to  a  failure 
to  appreciate  the  new  formation  of  bone  behind  the  external  condyle. 
Malgaigne  admits,  however,  on  the  authority  of  a  case  observed  by 
himself,  the  possible  dislocation  of  the  ulna  alone  backward  and  to  the 
outer  side  behind  the  radius.  The  dispute  is  in  part  one  of  terms;  it 
must  be  admitted,  I  think,  that  the  head  of  the  radius  in  some  of 
the  reported  cases  has  changed  its  relations  with  the  capitellum,  but 
the  change  is  a  very  slight  oue,  a  simple  slipping  backward  or  forward 
for  a  distance  of  a  few  millimetres,  without  a  change  in  its  level  corre- 
sponding to  that  of  the  ulna.  The  erroneous  belief  in  the  impossibility 
of  the  occurrence  without  the  extensive  lacerations  mentioned  arose 
apparently  from  a  failure  to  consider  the  effect  of  a  change  in  the  rela- 
tion of  the  axes  of  the  arm  and  forearm,  for  while  the  occurrence  of 
an  isolated  dislocation  of  the  ulna  backward  and  upward  might  be 
impossible  while  those  relations  remained  unchanged,  yet  if,  the  joint 
being  extended,  the  forearm  is  adducted,  turning  upon  the  head  of 
the  radius  as  a  centre,  the  olecranon  must  necessarily  move  upward 
behind  the  humerus;  or,  the  joint  being  flexed  at  a  right  angle,  the 
same  movement  of  adduction  will  displace  the  olecranon  backward; 
in  like  manner  abduction  of  the  forearm  can  bring  the  olecranon  for- 
ward or  downward. 


630 


DISLOCATIONS. 


Fig.  283. 


The  following  recorded  cases^  serve  as  a  basis  of  the  description  to 
be  given.  Some  in  which  the  correctness  of  the  diagnosis  is  in  doubt, 
or  of  which  I  have  not  been  able  to  consult  the  detailed  reports,  have 
been  omitted. 

1.  Backwaed  Dislocation. 

Backward  dislocation  presents  itself  under  three  forms.  In  the 
first,  that  in  which  the  displacement  is  slightest,  the  ulna  is  carried 
backward,  either  directly  or  by  inward  rotation  of  the  forearm  about 
the  radius  as  a  centre,  until  the  coronoid  process  has  cleared  the 
trochlea,  and  then  is  moved  slightly  upward  behind  it  by  adduction 
of  the  forearm  (Fig.  283);  in  the  second  form,  the  movement  upward 
is  prolonged  until  the  coronoid  process  lodges  in  the 
olecranon  fossa  ;  in  the  third,  the  primary  movement 
of  rotation  is  prolonged  until  the  olecranon  lies  behind 
the  radius.  The  first  form  is  the  most  common,  and 
is  sometimes  termed  ''  incomplete,"  in  accordance 
with  a  similar  use  of  the  term  in  the  backward  dis- 
location of  both  bones;  of  the  second  form  there  are 
only  two  recorded  examples  (Malgaigne,  Wilson). 
Some  waiters  make  an  additional  variety,  dislocation 
backward  and  inward,  a  distinction  which  it  does 
not  seem  necessary  to  preserve. 

Cause.  The  cause  in  the  larger  number  of  cases 
has  clearly  been  a  fall  upon  the  outstretched  hand; 
in  one,  Brun,  a  blow  received  upon  the  elbow  from 
behind  while  the  weight  of  the  body  rested  upon  the 
extended  arm. 

In  von  Pitha's  case  the  injury  was  received  in  such 
a  way  that  the  mode  of  production  is  clearer  than  in 
most  accidents,  and,  as  the  case  is  typical  in  other 
respects,  1  reproduce  the  account. 

A  girl  six  years  old  and  her  little  brother  were 
engaged  in  a  trial  of  strength,  in  which  each  sought 
to  move  an  open  door  against  the  other's  opposition, 
the  girl  standing  with  her  back  against  the  wall  and  her  out- 
stretched hands  against  the  door,  the  hinges  being  at  her  left  side. 
Two  other  brothers  came  to  the  help  of  the  first,  and  under  their  com- 
bined efforts  the  girl's  left  arm  suddenly  doubled  up  with  an  audible 
snap,  and  when  von  Pitha  examined  it  half  an  hour  later,  he  found 
'^the  most  distinct  picture  of  a  dislocation  of  the  ulna  backward." 
The  thin  arm  was  in  almost  complete  extension,  the  forearm  being 
slightly  inclined  toward  the  ulnar  side;  the  fold  of  the  elbow  was  some- 
what raised  by  the  projecting  trochlea;  the  olecranon  was  very  promi- 


Dislocation  of  ulna 
alone  backward,  first 
form.    (Sedillot.) 


1  Boudant,  Revue  MMicale,  1830,  vol.  i.  p.  85,  quoted  in  full  by  Sedillot;  Sedillot,  Gazette  M(5di- 
cale,  1839,  vol.  vii.  p  369;  Diday,  idem,  p.  393;  Brun  (three  cases),  idem,  1844,  p.  580;  Robert, 
Gazette  des  Hopitaux.  1847,  p.  272  ;  von  Pitha.  Pitha  and  Billroih's  Chirurgie,  vol.  iv.  partii.  B,  p. 
87  ;  Malgaigne,  Luxations,  p.  631 :  Dueuet,  Bulletins  de  la  Societe  Anatnmique,  1863.  p.  278  ;  Mathieu, 
Gazette  des  Hopitaux,  1866,  p.  330;  Waterman,  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Jourtial,  1869,  vol. 
Ixxxi.  p.  187;  Wilson,  Canada  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  1880,  vol.  v.  p.  346;  Waters,  Mary- 
land Medical  Journal,  1883,  vol.  x.  p.  402;  Loison,  Arch,  de  Mod.  et  Pharm.  Mil.,  September,  1890, 
inward;  Wight,  Brooklyn  Medical  Journal,  September,  1889;  and  Stimson,  case  here  given,  both 
forward. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  631 

nent  behind,  but  barely  raised  above  its  normal  level;  the  eJbow  Avas 
notably  thicker,  but  not  broader;  the  head  of  the  radius  was  in  its 
place;  pronation  and  supination  were  but  slightly  restricted,  but  the 
least  movement  of  flexion  was  very  painful.  Reduction  was  easily 
accomplished  by  grasping  with  the  left  hand  the  humerus  above  the 
condyles,  and  with  the  right  the  forearm  in  such  a  way  that  the  thumb 
and  fingers  specially  compressed  the  ulna,  and  then  supinating,  abduct- 
ing, and  extending  until  there  was  slight  dorsal  flexion;  at  this  moment 
he  distinctly  felt  the  lifting  of  the  coronoid  process,  and  on  increasing 
the  traction  it  suddenly  slipped  back  over  the  trochlea  with  a  snap. 
Pain  at  once  ceased,  and  the  patient  could  flex  the  joint. 

Experiments  upon  the  cadaver  by  Sedillot  and  StreubeP  indicate 
that  the  mode  of  production  is  similar  to  that  of  backward  dislocations 
of  both  bones  together — that  is,  the  forearm  is  abducted  (Streubel)  or 
hyperextended  (Sedillot)  until  the  internal  lateral  ligament  yields,  and 
then  rotated  inward  and  adducted  to  carry  the  coronoid  process  past 
the  trochlea  and  engage  its  point  against  the  posterior  surface  of  the 
latter.  If  the  adduction  is  increased,  and  especially  if  at  the  same 
time  the  orbicular  ligament  is  torn,  the  olecranon  rises  to  a  higher  point 
and  may  pass  to  the  inner  side.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  adduction  is 
absent  and  the  rotation  is  prolonged,  the  olecranon  is  carried  around 
behind  the  radius,  and  the  third  form  is  produced. 

Pathology.  Two  specimens  (Robert,  Duguet)  and  one  compound 
dislocation  (Boudant)  furnish  but  scanty  information  of  the  patholog- 
ical details,  for  which  we  must  mainly  depend  upon  experiment.  Of 
the  two  specimens,  Robert's  alone  was  of  a  recent  case. 

Duguet's  specimen  was  taken  from  a  man,  fifty  years  old,  who  had 
received  the  injury  twenty  years  previously.  There  was  anchylosis  in 
the  extended  position,  but  pronation  and  supination  were  preserved. 
The  ulna  was  displaced  backward  and  upward  so  that  its  upper  end 
was  two  centimetres  above  the  line  uniting  the  two  epicondyles,  and  a 
nearthrosis  had  formed  between  the  tip  of  the  olecranon  and  the  back 
of  the  humerus  above  and  a  little  to  the  inner  side  of  the  olecranon 
fossa.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  coronoid  process  was  lodged 
in  the  olecranon  fossa.  Concerning  the  radius  two  statements  are  made  : 
the  first  is  that  it  had  preserved  its  relations  with  the  external  condyle; 
the  second,  that  it  was  appreciably  (sensiblement)  displaced  forward, 
and  preserved  its  movements  of  rotation.  I  understand  these  to  mean 
that  the  head  was  directly  below  the  condyle  and  a  very  little  in  front 
of  the  position  it  would  normally  occupy  in  that  attitude  (extension 
of  the  limb). 

In  Robert's  case  the  injury  was  caused  by  a  fall  on  the  palm  of  the 
hand;  the  limb  was  partly  flexed,  the  olecranon  prominent  posteriorly 
and  elevated;  the  head  of  the  radius  could  not  be  felt  because  of  the 
swelling,  but  it  could  be  moved  backward  and  forward  with  cartilagi- 
nous crepitus.  At  the  autopsy  the  coronoid  process  was  found  in  the 
olecranon  fossa,  and  the  radius  in  place;  the  humerus  appeared  to  have 
been  twisted  so  that  its  anterior  aspect  looked  outward  (in  other  words, 

1  streubel :  Prager  Vierteljahrschrift,  1850,  ii.  p.  54. 


632  DISLOCATIONS. 

the  forearm  was  adducted);  the  annular  ligament  and  some  of  the  fibres 
of  the  external  lateral  ligament  were  torn.  The  condition  of  the  inter- 
nal lateral  ligament  is  not  mentioned.  The  brachialis  anticiis  and 
brachial  artery  were  raptured. 

Boudant's  patient  was  a  man,  forty-nine  years  old,  who  had  fallen 
from  the  first  story  of  a  building  and  received  a  compound  dislocation; 
the  wound  was  eighteen  or  twenty  lines  in  length  on  the  inner  and 
anterior  part  of  the  elbow,  and  was  thought  to  have  been  caused  by 
contact  with  a  large,  rough  stone.  It  seems,  however,  not  unlikely 
that  it  was  caused  from  within  outward  by  the  pressure  of  the  trochlea 
in  hyperextension  of  the  joint.  The  olecranon,  which  was  prominent 
posteriorly,  could  be  seen  through  the  wound,  and  the  fiuger  introduced 
into  the  latter  recognized  the  radius  in  place.  Reduction  was  easy,  and 
the  patient  made  a  good  recovery. 

The  experiments  made  upon  the  cadaver  show  that  the  internal 
lateral  ligament  is  always  ruptured,  and  that  the  orbicular  ligament 
escapes  injury  if  the  displacement  is  not  great. 

Symptoms.  In  tiie  first  and  second  forms,  dislocation  backward  and 
upward,  the  limb  is  usually  in  almost  complete  extension  (in  Duguet's 
and  Waterman's  cases  it  was  flexed  at  a  right  angle),  and  cannot  be 
flexed  without  causing  much  pain,  but  pronation  and  supination  are 
free  and  painless.  The  normal  deflection  of  the  forearm  toward  the 
outer  side  is  lost,  and  in  its  place  may  be  a  deflection  toward  the  ulnar 
side.  This  deflection  is  easily  recognized  by  the  eye  when  the  limb  is 
extended,  but  when  the  joint  is  flexed  at  or  near  a  right  angle  it  may 
be  overlooked  unless  comparative  measurements  are  made;  in  Diday's 
case  the  length  of  the  ulnar  border,  from  the  epitrochlea  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  ulna,  was  an  inch  shorter  than  that  of  the  other  arm,  while 
the  radial  borders  were  of  equal  length.  The  antero-posterior  diameter 
of  the  joint  is  increased,  and  the  fold  of  the  elbow  is  filled  out  by  the 
trochlea. 

The  olecranon  is  prominent  behind  the  humerus,  and  may  rise  well 
above  the  line  of  the  epicondyles;  it  may  be  nearer  the  epitrochlea 
than  usual.  The  head  of  the  radius,  unless  the  swelling  is  too  great, 
can  be  felt  in  its  place,  and  it  is  by  the  determination  of  this  fact, 
together  with  the  displacement  of  the  olecranon,  that  the  diagnosis  of 
the  variety  of  the  dislocation  is  made. 

In  the  two  recorded  cases  of  the  third  form,  dislocation  of  the  ulna 
backward  and  outward  behind  the  radius  (Malgaigne,  Wilson),  the 
elbow  was  flexed  nearly  at  a  right  angle.  In  Malgaigne' s  the  forearm 
was  pronated  and  deviated  outward;  the  greater  sigmoid  cavity  was 
directed  outward  {sic),  the  coronoid  process  outward  and  forward. 
This  attitude  of  the  ulna  suggests  that  the  dislocation  was  not  effected 
by  rotation  of  the  forearm. 

Treatment.  In  Duguet's  case  reduction  was  not  made;  in  the  others 
it  was  easily  obtained.  AVaterman  tried  Cooper's  method  of  the  knee 
in  the  elbow,  and  Skey's  of  traction  upon  the  upper  jjart  of  the  flexed 
forearm  in  the  line  of  the  humerus,  without  success,  and  then  easily 
reduced  by  hyperextension.  The  readiest  method  in  the  first  and 
second  forms  appears  to  be  that  employed  by  von  Pitha,  and  described 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  633 

above  —  supinatioa,  abduction,  and  hyperextension  of  the  forearm. 
Malgaigne  and  Wilson  reduced  (third  form)  by  direct  pressure  upon 
the  olecranon,  first  backward  to  free  it  from  the  radius,  and  then 
inward. 

(A  case  described  by  Richet,^  as  a  new  kind  of  dislocation  by  rota- 
tion, seems,  from  its  title  and  from  some  of  its  features,  to  belong  to 
this  class,  but  the  account  is  so  incomplete  that  it  is  not  available.) 

2.  Dislocation  Inward. 

Of  this  there  is  only  one  reported  case,  Loison's.  Tlie  patient,  a 
man  twenty-four  years  old,  fell  backward  upon  the  left  elbow,  bruising 
the  skin  on  the  inner  side  an  inch  below  the  epitrochlea;  the  wounds 
suppurated;  the  diagnosis  was  not  made  until  the  forty-second  day. 
Then  the  radius  was  found  in  place,  and  the  olecranon  displaced  inward 
so  that  the  sigmoid  cavity  embraced  the  epitrochlea.  Four  months 
after  the  accident,  reduction  not  having  been  made,  the  limb  could  be 
actively  flexed  to  80  degrees  and  extended  to  135  degrees;  rotation 
apparently  well  preserved. 

3.  Dislocation  Forward. 

March  13,  1895,  I  saw  at  the  Hudson  Street  Hospital  a  man  thirty- 
five  years  old,  who  had  injured  his  right  elbow  in  falling  backward, 
the  arm  being  caught  under  him.  As  he  complained  of  handling  I 
gave  ether,  Dr.  Carmalt  assisting.  The  following  notes  were  made  at 
the  time:  The  elbow  is  held  at  a  right  angle,  but  can  be  somewhat 
flexed  and  extended;  is  movable  laterally.  The  epitrochlea  can  be 
plainly  felt,  also  the  inner  face  and  edge  of  the  trochlea,  the  overlying 
flexor  muscles  of  the  hand  having  been  torn  away  from  the  humerus. 
The  tip  of  the  olecranon  is  below  and  even  a  little  in  front  of  the 
trochlea,  the  inner  anterior  portion  of  the  articular  surface  of  which 
can  also  be  felt  on  depressing  the  skin.  The  head  of  the  radius  is  in 
place  in  front  of  the  capitellum.     The  forearm  is  markedly  abducted. 

Reduction  was  easily  made  by  slight  rotation  backward  (pronation) 
of  the  ulna  and  adduction  of  the  forearm.  Then  by  pronation  and 
abduction  the  dislocation  could  be  easily  reproduced.  When  the  bones 
were  in  place  abduction  of  the  forearm  was  possible,  but  not  adduction. 
Apparently  the  lesions  were  avulsion  of  the  flexor  muscles  from  the 
humerus  and  rupture  of  the  internal  lateral  ligament.  The  ulnar 
nerve  was  uninjured. 

The  only  other  reported  case  is  Wight's;  the  symptoms  were  similar, 
and  reduction  was  easily  made. 

Dislocations  of  the  Radius  Alone. 

Although  statistics  show  that  these  dislocations  are  not  very  rare  (2 
to  4  per  cent,  in  the  tables  in  Chapter  XXYIL),  and  although  the 
earliest  writers  mentioned  them,  yet  they  were  almost  completely  lost 
sight  of  until  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  and  even  now 
are  far  from  being  clearly  understood.     Duverney,  in  1751,  gave  a 

1  Richet:  IS  ouveau  genre  de  luxation  incomplete  du  coude  par  pivotement.    Gazette  des  Hopi- 
taux,  1879,  p.  737. 


634  DISL  OCA  TIONS. 

detailed  account  of  two  forms.  Since  that  time  observations  have 
accumulated,  and  four  varieties  are  now  well  established — the  dislo- 
cations forward,  backward,  and  outward,  and  one  seen  exclusively  in 
children,  and  caused  by  traction  upon  the  wrist,  the  nature  of  which, 
though  not  entirely  undisputed,  is  generally  believed  to  be  a  diastasis 
or  direct  separation;  it  is  usually  termed  dislocation  by  elongation. 

The  mode  of  production  of  all  the  forms  is  still  obscure,  and  the 
numerous  experiments  that  have  been  made  upon  the  cadaver  by  vari- 
ous investigators,  Roser,  Malgaigne,  Streubel,  Denuce,  Pingaud,  Barros, 
while  they  have  shown  how  the  dislocations  may  be  produced  upon  the 
cadaver,  have  not  made  it  clear  how  they  actually  are  produced  in  the 
patients  who  come  under  observation;  in  some  cases  the  clinical  facts 
directly  contradict  the  conclusions  drawn  from  experiment. 

1.  Dislocation  Backward. 

This  was  one  of  the  forms  described  by  Duverney,  and  one  of  the 
earliest  to  be  accepted  as  proved  by  later  surgeons.  Its  apparent  fre- 
quency is  in  part  due  to  tlie  inclusion  in  the  list  of  reported  cases  of 
those  in  which  the  dislocation  is  associated  with  fracture  of  the  internal 
condyle,  and  probably  also  of  others  which  belong  in  the  group  of  dis- 
locations by  elongation.  Two  varieties  are  described,  the  complete  and 
the  incomplete,  the  latter  resting  upon  a  few  questionable,  and  one 
well-observed  case,  that  of  Denuce:^  a  lad  nineteen  years  old  fell  from 
a  swing,  his  pronated  arm  being  caught  under  his  body  in  such  a  way 
that  the  blow,  as  shown  by  an  ecchymosis,  was  received  upon  the 
middle  of  the  anterior  aspect  of  the  forearm.  Pain;  limitation  of 
motion;  the  elbow  semiflexed,  the  forearm  fixed  in  complete  prona- 
tion. A  bone-setter  tried  in  vain  to  reduce  it,  and  a  fortnight  later 
the  patient  consulted  Denuce,  who  found  ''  behind  the  elbow,  on  a  level 
with  the  condyle,  and  to  the  inner  side  of  the  epicondyle,  a  small  promi- 
nent tumor,  which  rolled  under  the  finger  in  pronation,  and  was  evi- 
dently the  head  of  the  radius,  a  little  overlapping  its  ordinary  position 
posteriorly." 

Of  the  complete  cases  the  instances  are  much  more  numerous,  but 
in  some  of  them  the  question  arises  whether  the  upper  surface  of  the 
radius  had  entirely  left  the  articular  surface  of  the  capitellum,  or  was 
still  in  contact  with  it  by  its  anterior  portion;  if  such  contact  did  exist, 
the  term  '^  complete"  can  be  properly  applied  only  to  the  separation 
of  the  radius  from  the  lesser  sigmoid  cavity  of  the  ulna. 

The  cause,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  appears  to  have  been  a  fall  upon 
the  outstretched  hand;  that  the  cause  was  a  fall  in  most  cases  is  certain, 
but  whether  it  was  upon  the  hand  or  the  elbow  is  often  far  from  clear, 
or  whether  it  acted  by  direct  impulsion  or  by  exaggerated  rotation. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Cameron^  the  character  and  mode  of  action  of 
the  violence  are  more  clearly  shown  than  usual,  but  they  are  entirely 
exceptional,  and  the  case  does  not  aid  to  clear  up  the  obscurity  in  which 
the  question  is  enveloped.    The  patient  was  a  man  fifty-two  years  old, 

1  Denuc6 :  Diet,  de  MiSd.  et  Chir.  pratiques,  art.  Coude,  p.  777. 

2  Cameron  :  Laucet,  1884,  vol.  i.  p.  885. 


DISLOCA TIONS  OF  THE  ELB 0 W.  635 

who  was  caught  between  a  wall  and  a  cart  backing  against  it  in  such  a 
way  that  his  forearm  was  compressed  lengthwise  between  them,  the 
palm  of  the  hand  being  pressed  against  the  cart,  and  the  back  of  the 
elbow  against  the  wall;  probably  the  hand  was  completely  pronated. 
When  seen,  immediately  after  the  accident,  the  head  of  the  radius  lay 
just  under  the  skin  behind  the  external  condyle,  where  it  formed  a 
distinct  projection,  revealing  to  the  eye  its  characteristic  shape  with  the 
cavity  on  its  extremity.  The  hand  and  forearm  were  ])rone;  all  move- 
ments were  painful,  and  gave  the  impression  of  consideral)le  fixity  of 
the  joint.  Pain  at  the  wrist  led  to  an  examination,  which  showed 
that  "  the  styloid  extremity  Avas  also  dislocated  downward,  exactly  as 
in  cases  in  which  the  radius  is  shortened  by  the  common  fracture  of 
its  lower  extremity." 

While  the  character  of  the  force  and  the  direction  of  its  action  in 
this  case  are  clear,  pressure  exerted  against  the  lower  end  of  the  radius 
in  the  line  of  its  long  axis,  yet  it  is  far  from  being  clear  how  such  a 
force,  so  applied,  could  produce  such  a  displacement,  for  the  head  of  the 
radius  is  squarely  placed  against  the  anterior  face  of  the  capitellum, 
not  upon  an  inclined  surface  along  which  it  could  be  displaced.  And 
yet,  that  there  is  something  in  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  joint 
which  permits  the  occurrence  and  forbids  the  rejection  of  the  case  on 
the  supposition  of  abnormal  conditions,  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
two  similar  cases  have  been  reported  by  Wagner,^  in  which  the  mode 
of  production  was  the  same  as  in  Cameron's,  but  the  head  of  the  radius 
was  displaced  to  the  outer  side  of  the  condyle  instead  of  behind  it, 
and  a  flat,  wedge-shaped  piece  was  broken  off  its  inner  side. 

Streubel,^  in  his  experiments  upon  the  cadaver,  found  that  he  could 
produce  the  dislocation  in  only  one  way,  by  hyperextending  the  supi- 
uated  forearm  until  the  head  of  the  radius  had  been  carried  completely 
behind  the  line  of  the  condyle,  then  forcing  it  upward,  and  at  the  same 
time  bending  the  forearm  to  the  radial  side,  and  finally  flexing  it  again 
while  holding  the  radius  pressed  firmly  back  with  the  thumb  of  the  hand 
that  grasped  the  forearm.  It  is  by  no  means  probable  that  this  rather 
complicated  manoeuvre,  which,  moreover,  has  entirely  failed  in  my 
hands,  is  a  reproduction  of  what  has  taken  place  in  the  falls  that  have 
produced  the  dislocation.  The  radius  is  dislocated  not  only  from  the 
humerus,  but  also  from  the  ulna,  and  this  requires  the  rupture  of  the 
orbicular  ligament.  To  effect  that,  something  more  is  required  than 
hyperextension  of  the  elbow,  even  with  the  addition  of  direct  propul- 
sion upward  of  the  radius.  Supination  of  the  forearm  will  not  effect 
it,  and  while  direct  propulsion  backward  of  the  bone  would  undoubt- 
edly produce  the  dislocation,  the  clinical  facts  do  not  indicate  this  as 
the  cause.  Possibly  in  hyperextension  and  outward  lateral  flexion,  as 
in  Streubel's  experiments,  the  head  of  the  radius  may  become  engaged 
behind  the  slight  projection  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  capitellum 
at  the  bottom  of  the  condyle,  and  be  thereby  prevented  from  accom- 
panying the  ulna  in  its  return  forward  when  the  elbow  is  again  flexed; 
this  would  supply  the  strain  necessary  to  separate  the  radius  from  the 

1  Wagner:  Beilage  zum  Centralblatt  fiir  Chirnrgie,  1886,  No.  24,  p.  93. 
'^  Streubel:  Prager  Vierteljahrschrift,  1850,  vol.  ii.  p.  68. 


636 


DISLOCATIONS. 


Fig.  284. 


ulna,  but  I  must  add  that  all  the  attempts  I  have  made  thus  to  produce 
the  dislocation  were  fruitless;  the  result  was  always  a  dislocation  of 
both  bones. 

There  are  no  post-mortem  records  of  recent  cases,  and  the  dissection 
of  those  of  long  standing  is  not  an  entirely  trustworthy  indication  of 
the  condition  and  the  relations  of  the  parts  when  the  injury  is  fresh. 
A  case  observed  by  Mr.  Rivington^  is  of  particular  importance,  because 
the  position  of  the  head  is  more  exactly  noted  than  is  usual  in  the 
descriptions.  The  patient  was  a  lad  fourteen  years  old,  and  the  injury 
had  been  received  five  months  previously  in  a  scuffle,  during  which  he 
was  violently  shaken  by  the  forearm,  and  thrown  down,  striking  his 
elbow  against  the  leg  of  a  table.  There  was  a  marked  prominence 
"  at  the  back  of  the  joint  below  the  external  condyle,  and  by  the  side 
of  the  olecranon  process."  ''  The  head  of  the  radius  was  displaced 
more  directly  backward  than  is  usual,  according  to  the  descriptions  of 
the  books,  not  lying  in  any  wise  behind  the  external  condyle,  but  a 
little  overlapping  the  articular  end  of  the  humerus."  Flexion  and 
extension  were  almost  unimpaired,  pronation  was  good,  and  supination 
to  more  than  half  the  usual  extent.     Reduction  failed. 

In  a  specimen  of  an  old  dislocation,  that  had  been  received  in  child- 
hood and  had  existed  for  many  years,  presented  by  Petit^  to  the  Society 
Anatomique,  the  head  of  the  radius  was  directly  below  the  summit  of 
the  epicondyle  when  the  elbow  was  flexed  at  a  right 
angle.  In  another  specimen  found  in  the  dissect- 
ing-room and  described  and  figured  by  Sir  Astley 
Cooper,  ''  the  head  of  the  radius  could  be  seen,  as 
well  as  felt,  behind  the  external  condyle  of  the  os 
humeri.  The  coronary  ligament  was  torn  through 
at  its  forepart,  and  the  oblique  had  given  way. 
The  capsular  ligament  was  partially  torn,  and  the 
head  of  the  radius  would  have  receded  still  more, 
had  it  not  been  supported  by  the  fascia  which 
extends  over  the  muscles  of  the  forearm.  The 
accompanying  figure  (Fig.  284)  indicates  that  the 
head  of  the  radius  had  risen  very  slightly  above 
the  lowest  part  of  the  articular  portion  of  the  con- 
dyle, and  that  its  position  was  probably  the  same 
as  in  Mr.  Rivingtou's  case. 

In  another  specimen  of  old  dislocation  presented 
to  the  Societe  de  Chirurgie  by  Bernadet,^  the  head 
of  the  radius  had  been  displaced  a  little  backward, 
downward,  and  outward;  the  external  lateral  liga- 
ment entirely  covered  the  cup-shaped  surface  of 
the  head;  the  annular  ligament  no  longer  existed 
except  upon  the  inner  side,  and  there  it  was  notably  thickened  and 
obliquely  deviated. 

In  the  specimens  which  Streubel  obtained  by  experiment  he  always 
found  the  anterior    portion  of    the    capsule  torn  and  the  capitelhim 


Dislocation  of  the  head 
of  the  radius  backward. 

(COOPEE.) 


1  Rivington  :  Lancet,  1879,  vol.  ii.  p.  942.        2  petit ;  Bull,  de  la  Soci6t6  Anatomique,  1874,  p.  904. 
3  Bernadet :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1861,  p.  462. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  637 

projecting  through  the  reot;  the  external  lateral  ligament  was  more  or 
less  torn  at  its  anterior  border,  the  internal  lateral  ligament  uninjured; 
the  annular  ligament  was  always  torn  in  front,  either  at  its  insertion 
by  the  lower  sigmoid  cavity,  or  further  outward;  the  oblique  ligament 
was  torn,  doubtless  in  consequence  of  the  exaggerated  supination. 

These  facts,  though  not  numerous  or  entirely  free  from  objection, 
indicate  that  the  position  of  the  dislocated  head  of  the  radius,  even  in 
full  extension,  is  lower  than  that  commonly  assigned  to  it  in  systematic 
descriptions  and  shown  in  the  plates  accompanying  them — that  it  does 
not  rise  above  the  shallow  groove  which  marks  the  posterior  and  lower 
margin  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  capitellum.  At  this  point  the 
upper  margin  of  its  head  would  be  but  very  little  below  the  axis  of  the 
joint,  and  consequently  would  have  to  move  over  only  a  short  distance 
in  full  flexion  and  extension  of  the  limb. 

In  recent  cases  the  elbow  is  slightly  flexed,  the  forearm  pronated; 
voluntary  and  communicated  movements  are  painful  and  limited  in 
range,  but  in  old  cases  the  freedom  of  motion  is  almost  completely 
restored,  supination  remaining  the  most  imperfect.  The  diagnosis  is 
made  by  recognition  of  the  head  of  the  radius  behind  its  normal  place 
in  extension,  behind  and  below  it  in  flexion  at  a  right  angle.  It  may 
lie  close  beside  the  olecranon  or  further  to  the  outer  side.  Its  projec- 
tion, unless  the  swelling  is  considerable,  is  such  that  the  entire  extent 
of  its  concave  upper  surface  can  be  felt.  Measurement  of  the  radial 
border  of  the  forearm  from  the  epicondyle  to  the  styloid  process  of  the 
radius  may  show  some  shortening,  half  an  inch  according  to  Streubel. 

Treatment.  The  dislocation  in  recent  cases  has  usually  been  reduced 
promptly  by  pressure  on  the  head  of  the  radius,  aided  or  not  by  trac- 
tion upon  the  wrist,  and  this  method  has  succeeded  even  when  several 
weeks  had  passed  since  the  receipt  of  the  injury.  But  in  some  cases 
reduction  has  been  impossible  or  the  displacement  has  shown  a  marked 
tendency  to  recur,  both  circumstances  probably  due  in  the  recent  cases 
to  the  interposition  of  a  portion  of  the  capsule,  but  in  the  older  ones 
also  to  permanent  change  in  the  relations  of  the  shafts  of  the  radius 
and  ulna  and  to  adhesions  between  them.  This  interposition  of  the 
capsule  has  been  demonstrated  in  one  or  two  cases  in  which  arthrotomy 
has  been  done  (see  Chapter  XLVII.).  Probably  the  best  position  to 
give  the  limb  during  the  attempt  is  that  of  supination  and  full  exten- 
sion, and  if  direct  pressure  does  not  then  restore  the  bone  to  its  place 
traction  should  be  made  at  the  wrist,  and  the  forearm  gradually  bent 
to  the  inner  side,  and  then  the  direct  pressure  renewed. 

In  some  old  cases  excision  of  the  head  has  improved  function. 

2.  Dislocation  of  the  Radius  Outward.^ 

Excluding  the  cases  in  which  the  dislocation  is  accompanied  by  frac- 
ture of  the  ulna  in  its  upper  portion  and  those  in  which  the  displace- 

1  For  bibliography  see  :  N61aton,  Path.  Chir.,  vol.  ii.  p.  400;  Gerdy,  Arch.g^n.  deMed..  1835,  vol. 
vii.  p.  161  ;  Parker,  New  York  Journal  of  Medicine,  ]8.')2,  p  189  ;  Pitha  and  Billroth,  Chirurgie,  vol. 
iv.  Part  n.  B.  p.  92;  Pingaud,  Diet.  Encvclop.  des  Sc.  M6d  ,  art.  Coude ;  Wagner,  Beilage  zum 
Centbl.  fUrChir.,  1886,  No.  24,  p.  93  ;  Liibker,  ibid.,  p.  92;  Bartels,  Arcb.  fur  klin.  Chir.,  1874,  vol. 
xvi.  p.  643;  Schrtiter,  ibid.,  vol.  xlvi.  p.  4.  Thomassiu's  and  Ch6dieu's  cases,  quoted  by  Mal- 
gaigne,  seem  to  belong  among  the  anterior  dislocations. 


638 


DISLOCATIONS. 


Fig.  285. 


ment  outward  is  comparatively  slight  and  is  associated  with  a  more 
important  displacement  backward  or  forward,  the  recorded  instances 
of  this  injury  are  very  few,  and  in  some  of  these,  even,  the  description 
justifies  a  doubt  whether  they  should  not  rather  be  placed  in  one  of 
the  two  other  classes. 

In  Nekton's  case  the  dislocation  occurred  in  childhood  and  had 
existed  for  twenty  years;  the  position  of  the  radius  is  shown  in  Fig. 
285.  Flexion  and  extension  were  preserved;  supination  was  impos- 
sible. 

Wagner  reported  to  the  German  Surgical  Congress,  in  1886,  three 
cases  of  dislocation  outward  complicated  by  fracture  of  the  inner  por- 
tion of  the  head  of  the  radius.  In  the 
first  two  cases  the  injury  was  caused 
by  pressure  against  the  back  of  the 
flexed  elbow  while  the  palm  of  the 
hand  was  resting  against  a  firm  object 
in  front.  Thus,  a  lad,  eighteen  years 
old,  pushing  a  coal -wagon  on  a  tram- 
way with  his  forearm  pronated  and 
flexed,  was  struck  on  the  elbow  by 
another  wagon  coming  up  from  behind. 
A  year  had  elapsed  since  the  accident 
when  the  first  case  was  seen,  during 
which  the  joint  had  been  steadily  grow- 
ing stiffer.  The  elbow  was  flexed  at  a 
right  angle;  flexion,  extension,  and 
rotation  were  almost  entirely  lost.  On 
the  outer  side  of  the  external  condyle 
was  a  large  bony  prominence,  the 
thickened  and  immovable  head  of  the 
radius;  there  were  no  abnormalities  in 
the  other  parts  of  the  joint,  and  no 
sign  of  a  fracture  of  the  ulna.  The 
head  of  the  radius  was  excised;  it  was 
found  thickly  enveloped  in  fibrous  tis- 
sue, to  which  the  appearance  of  thick- 
ening was  due,  and  had  lost  from  its 
inner  side  a  flat,  wedge-shaped  piece 
constituting  about  one-sixth  of  its  di- 
ameter. The  fragment  was  found  ad- 
herent to  the  capsule  and  was  also  removed.  Recovery  took  place 
without  accident,  and  the  mobility  of  the  joint  steadily  increased  for 
some  time.  At  the  time  of  the  report,  nine  years  later,  flexion  could 
be  made  to  an  angle  of  80  degrees,  extension  to  150  degrees,  pronation 
was  almost  normal,  supination  somewhat  restricted. 

In  the  second  case,  a  man,  twenty-six  years  old,  was  injured  in  the 
same  manner,  and  was  seen  while  the  injury  was  fresh.  Reduction 
was  effected,  after  several  unsuccessful  attempts,  by,  first,  adduction  of 
the  flexed  limb,  then  by  the  utmost  possible  abduction,  with  supina- 
tion, of  the  completely  extended  limb,  combined  with  pressure  upon 


Dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  radius 
outward  ;  the  trochlea  is  much  broadened. 
(Nelaton.) 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  639 

the  head  of  the  radius.  When  the  dressings  were  removed,  a  month 
later,  passive  movements  were  very  painful  and  limited,  and,  as  no 
improvement  followed,  excision  was  done  five  months  after  the  accident. 
The  head  of  the  radius  was  found  thickened  and  absolutely  fixed,  and 
the  fragment  reunited  to  it  by  a  loose  fibrous  union;  the  failure  of 
union  was  attributed  to  the  interposition  of  a  small  piece  of  the  artic- 
ular cartilage.  liecovery  followed  without  accident,  but  the  mobility 
of  the  joint  was  not  increased. 

In  the  third  case  the  patient  had  received  his  injury  twenty-two 
years  before,  when  six  years  old,  by  a  fall  from  a  horse.  ''  The  head 
of  the  radius  stood  outside  upon  the  external  condyle,"  and  was  flat- 
tened on  its  inner  side;  there  was  no  sign  of  any  injury  to  the  ulna. 
The  movements  of  the  joints  were  completely  normal. 

Lobker,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  same  congress,  reported  two  cases 
of  the  same  combination  of  dislocation  outward  with  fracture  of  the 
inner  portion  of  the  head  of  the  radius  treated  by  excision.  In  each 
case  the  fragment  had  become  united  to  the  adjoining  parts  by  a  pedicle. 

Of  the  26  cases  collected  by  Sch rotter  3  were  complicated  with  frac- 
ture of  the  head  of  the  radius  and  13  with  that  of  the  ulna. 

Bartels  reported  a  unique  case  in  which  the  heads  of  both  radii  had 
gradually  become  displaced  outward.  The  patient  was  a  man  forty- 
three  years  old,  who,  while  lying  in  hospital  with  a  broken  leg,  called 
the  surgeon's  attention  to  his  elbows.  He  said  that  the  deformity 
dated  from  his  eleventh  year;  his  father  had  at  that  time  put  him  at 
hard  work,  usually  pushing  a  loaded  cart;  pain  was  soon  felt  in  the 
elbows,  and  increased  steadily,  but  he  was  kept  at  work.  The  head  of 
the  radius  rested  on  the  outer  side  of  the  external  condyle  when  the 
limb  was  fully  extended  and  supinated;  when  extended  and  pronated, 
the  head  was  less  prominent,  and  rested  partly  on  the  outer  part  of  the 
articular  surface  of  the  capitellum,  and  when  flexed  and  pronated  the 
head  returned  to  its  place. 

Barros  could  produce  the  dislocation  experimentally  in  only  one  way, 
by  pressure  against  the  ball  of  the  hand,  and  simultaneous  forcible 
adduction  of  the  forearm,  by  which  the  external  lateral  ligament  was 
torn. 

The  general  symptoms  in  the  recent  cases  showed  no  special  or  char- 
acteristic features;  the  limb  appears  to  have  been  partly  flexed  and 
pronated,  and  the  movements  of  the  joint  restricted.  In  the  older 
cases,  the  normal  movements  were  more  or  less  completely  re-estab- 
lished. 

The  diagnosis  is  made  by  recognition  of  the  presence  of  the  head  of 
the  radius  on  the  outer  side  of  the  condyle.  Reduction,  except  when 
there  is  fracture  of  the  head  or  interposition  of  the  torn  orbicular  liga- 
ment, should  be  easy  by  adduction  of  the  forearm  and  direct  pressure 
on  the  head  of  the  radius. 

3.  Dislocations  Forward. 

These  are  the  most  common  of  the  three  varieties,  even  excluding 
from  them  the  not  unusual  subluxation  which  occurs  in  children  and 


640  DISLOCATIONS. 

will  be  described  in  the  next  section,  and  those  cases  which  are  com- 
plicated by  fracture  of  the  ulna  (vide  infra).  The  dislocation  is  char- 
acterized by  the  position  of  the  head  of  the  radius  in  front  of  its 
normal  position  when  the  forearm  is  extended,  and  above  it  when  the 
forearm  is  flexed  at  a  right  angle.  Several  authors  describe  two  forms, 
the  complete  and  the  incomplete,  including  in  the  latter  those  cases  in 
which  in  flexion  at  a  right  angle  the  head  of  the  radius  has  not  entirely 
left  the  articular  surface  of  the  capitellum,  but  remains  in  contact  with 
its  upper  portion.  The  distinction  between  complete  and  incomplete  is 
an  arbitrary  one  and  does  not  seem  to  deserve  to  be  retained,  for  even 
in  the  former  the  head  of  the  radius  sometimes  descends  upon  the 
articular  surface  of  the  capitellum  when  the  limb  is  extended. 

The  causes  mentioned  in  the  reported  cases  include  falls  upon  the 
hand  or  upon  the  elbow,  and  traction  upon  the  forearm.  In  experi- 
ments upon  the  cadaver  the  dislocation  has  been  produced  by  forced 
pronation,  in  which,  according  to  Filugelli,  quoted  by  Streubel,  a  ful- 
crum is  established  by  contact  between  the  radius  and  ulna  in  their 
upper  third  at  the  point  at  which  they  cross,  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
cause  the  head  of  the  radius  to  move  forward  and  inward,  with  rupture 
of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  annular  ligament  when  the  pronation  is 
exaggerated. 

As  in  the  two  preceding  varieties,  the  mode  of  production  is  far  from 
clear.  That  the  head  should  be  displaced  by  direct  violence  is  not 
difficult  to  comprehend,  but  the  cases  in  which  this  mode  of  production 
can  be  invoked  are  few.  Traction  upon  the  forearm,  combined  prob- 
ably with  exaggerated  pronation,  must  also,  I  think,  be  admitted  as  an 
occasional  cause,  especially  in  children,  both  because  of  its  efficiency 
to  produce  the  dislocation  upon  the  cadaver,  and  because  the  histories 
of  one  or  two  cases  in  adults  are  not  open  to  any  other  explanation, 
as  in  Boyer's  case  of  the  footman  who  slipped  while  getting  up  behind 
a  carriage,  and  remained  suspended  by  his  hands.  It  seems  probable 
that  some  of  the  cases  in  which  the  injury  was  received  in  childhood, 
and  remained  unreduced,  may  have  been  dislocations  by  elongation,  and 
that  the  head  remained  fixed  in  its  new  position,  or  perhaps  was  still 
further  displaced  by  use.  In  a  fall  upon  the  hand,  it  seems  probable 
that  the  dislocation  could  be  produced  only  by  hyperextension  and 
pressure  upon  the  lower  end  of  the  radius,  aided  by  supination  or  pro- 
nation, and  this  opinion  is  confirmed  by  experiment.  A  case  of  Mal- 
gaigne's^  seems  to  support  this  theory,  for  at  the  patient's  death,  seven 
weeks  after  the  accident,  the  posterior  fourth  of  the  head  of  the  radius 
was  proved  to  have  been  broken  off.  In  two  of  L5bker's^  cases  a 
piece  was  broken  from  the  outer  portion  of  the  head,  which  suggests, 
what  is  probable  also  on  other  grounds,  that  abduction  of  the  forearm 
may  also  be  a  factor. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Ross^  the  dislocation  occurred  during  an  epi- 
leptic convulsion  and  was  attributed  to  muscular  action,  the  unopposed 
contraction  of  the  biceps  and  pronator  radii  teres. 

Pathology.     No  autopsies  have  been  reported  in  recent  cases.     In 

1  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  651. 

2  Lbbker:  Beilage  zum  Centralblatt  fur  Chir.,  1886,  No.  24,  p.  92.  3  Streubel:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  75. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  641 

experiments  upon  the  cadaver  (Streubel,  Pingaud)  the  capsule  has  been 
found  torn  transversely  In  front  close  to  its  attachment  to  the  humerus 
(Fig.  286),  and  the  annular  ligament  untorn  and  encircling  only  the 
neck  of  the  radius  while  the  head  projected  forward  through  the  rent 
in  the  capsule  and  rested,  by  its  posterior  edge  only,  against  the  artic- 
ular surface  of  the  capitellum. 

Fig.  286. 


Hilton's  case  of  dislocation  oi  the  bead  of  the  radius  forward. 

In  a  number  of  cases,  ten  or  twelve,  the  opportunity  has  arisen  to 
examine  old  dislocations.  Malgaigne  has  described  his  own,  quoted 
above,  in  which  the  posterior  fourth  of  the  head  of  the  radius  was 
broken  off  and  the  capsule  was  intact,  and  two  specimens  in  the  Musee 
Dupuytren  (cases  of  Desault  and  Prestat).  Cooper^  describes  and 
figures  a  specimen  preserved  at  St.  Tliomas's  Hospital  ;  Danyau,^ 
Debruyn,^  two  cases;  Hilton,^  Trelat,'^  Kronlein,''  a  specimen  in  the 
Museum  at  Zurich,  and  L5bker,  the  two  cases  above  referred  to;  see 
also  Sch rotter.^ 

In  Malgaigne' s,  Danyau's,  one  of  Debruyn's,  Trelat's,  and  the  two 
specimens  of  the  Musee  Dupuytren  the  annular  ligament  was  stretched 
but  not  torn;  in  Hilton's  its  upper  portion  was  torn,  but  the  more 
external  and  superficial  fibres  remained  intact  and  were  closely  wrapped 
about  the  neck  of  the  radius;  in  Cooper's  the  annular,  oblique,  fore- 
part of  the  capsular,  and  a  portion  of  the  interosseous  ligament  were 
torn  through.  With  reference  to  some  of  these  cases  the  question  has 
been  raised  whether  the  annular  ligament  found  at  the  autopsy  was 
not  one  of  new  formation. 

The  head  of  the  radius  rests,  in  partial  flexion,  upon  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  external  condyle  above  and  usually  somewhat  to  the 
inner  side  of  its  normal  position,  and  either  in  contact  with  the  coro- 
noid  process  or  (Hilton)  separated  from  it  by  the  interposed  tendon  of 
the  brachialis  anticus.  In  some  cases  a  piece  had  been  broken  from 
its  posterior  or  outer  border.  In  several  of  the  cases  a  hollow  had 
formed  for  its  reception  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  humerus;  the 
new  articulation  was  either  entirely  above  the  old  one,  or  included  the 
upper  part  of  the  capitellum,  or  (Tr6lat)  extended  over  the  outer  por- 
tion of  the  front  of  the  trochlea.  The  head  of  the  radius  was  deformed 
and  had  suffered  the  loss  of  more  or  less  of  its  cartilage  of  incrustation; 

1  Cooper:  Loc.  eit.,  p.  392. 

2  Danyau  :  Annales  de  la  Chir.  Pranfaise  et  Etrangere,  1841,  vol.  ii.  p.  72. 

3  Debruyn  :  Annales  de  la  Chir.  Frangaise  et  Etrangere,  1843,  vol.  ix.  p.  88, 
*  Hilton  :  Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  1847,  vol.  v.  p.  93. 

5  Tr(51at:  Bull,  de  la  Soci6t(5  Anatomique,  1858,  p.  487. 
«  Kriinlein  :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  26,  p.  44. 
'  SchriJtter :  Arch,  fur  klin.  Chir.,  vol.  xlvi. 

41 


642  DISLOCATIONS. 

in  some  cases  it  was  enlarged,  in  others  diminished  in  size.  In  Kron- 
lein's  specimen  an  extensive  outgrowth  of  bone  had  formed  upon  the 
inner  side,  giving  the  upper  end  of  the  bone  an  appearance  similar  to 
that  of  the  upper  end  of  the  femur,  and  articulating  with  a  new  cavity 
upon  the  humerus;  it  is  stated  that  the  movements  of  rotation  had  been 
completely  restored. 

An  interesting  feature  in  Hilton's  case  was  that  the  radius  had  been 
displaced  bodily  upward  along  the  ulna,  and  this  displacement  had 
produced  changes  at  the  wrist. 

Malgaigne  observed  and  called  especial  attention  to  abduction  of  the 
forearm,  which  does  not  appear  to  have  been  observed  by  others.  It 
furnishes  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  displacement  of  the  radius 
upward  as  well  as  forward,  which  could  not  otherwise  be  accounted  for 
except  by  such  a  change  in  the  level  of  the  bones  at  the  wrist  as  was 
noted  in  Hilton's  case.  Abduction  of  the  forearm  might  easily  be 
overlooked  while  the  joint  is  partly  flexed  unless  comparative  measure- 
ments are  made. 

Symptoms.  The  elbow  is  slightly  flexed  and  the  forearm  almost 
always  more  or  less  pronated;  in  a  few  cases  supination  has  been  pres- 
ent. Voluntary  and  communicated  movements  are  painful,  and  of  the 
latter  flexion  nearly  to  a  right  angle  and  almost  complete  extension  are 
possible,  pronation  is  usually  complete,  but  supination  much  restricted. 
Abduction  of  the  forearm  has  been  noted,  possibly  it  is  quite  common, 
and  when  present  it  can  be  demonstrated  by  comparative  measurements 
of  the  radial  borders  of  the  two  forearms,  the  injured  one  being  short- 
ened. The  region  of  the  elbow  is  swollen  in  front  and  on  the  outer 
side;  the  absence  of  the  head  of  the  radius  from  its  normal  position  is 
shown  by  the  depressibility  of  the  soft  parts  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
joint  below  the  condyle,  and  its  presence  in  the  fold  of  the  elbow  can 
generally  be  recognized  by  the  finger;  sometimes  it  is  so  prominent 
there  that  it  appears  to  be  subcutaneous,  and  the  saucer-like  depression 
of  its  upper  surface  can  be  traced  when  the  joint  is  extended.  Flexion 
of  the  forearm  is  abruptly  arrested  at  or  near  a  right  angle  by  the 
impact  of  the  head  of  the  radius  upon  the  front  of  the  humerus- 

In  the  older  cases  the  restoration  of  function  may  be  almost  com- 
plete, the  range  of  motion  being  limited  only  in  extreme  flexion  and 
supination. 

In  Hilton's  case  the  associated  changes  at  the  wrist  caused  a  corre- 
sponding deformity  there,  abduction  of  the  hand;  and  it  seems  not 
unlikely  that  even  in  some  recent  cases  the  wrist  may  be  painful  or 
distorted. 

Treatment.  Reduction  has  been  easy  in  some  recent  cases,  and  diffi- 
cult or  impossible  in  others.  The  measures  which  have  been  most 
successful  are  traction  upon  the  radius  at  the  wrist,  the  forearm  being 
supinated  and  extended,  combined  with  pressure  upon  the  head  of  the 
radius.  Malgaigne  suggests,  very  properly,  that  adduction  of  the  fore- 
arm would  be  more  likely  than  traction  to  overcome  the  overriding  of 
the  radius.  Hilton  reduced  the  displacement  in  his  specimen,  which 
had  existed  for  many  years,  by  placing  a  small  wedge  between  the 
upper  surface  of  the  radius  and  the  humerus,  and  then  flexing  the  fore- 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  643 

arm  by  pressing  upon  the  lower  end  of  the  ulna;  when  flexion  was 
nearly  complete  direct  pressure  upon  the  head  of  the  radius  forced  it 
backward  into  place.  The  effect  of  this  device  was  to  displace  the 
radius  downward  along  the  ulna  to  a  distance  equal  to  the  thickness  of 
the  wedge,  and  to  rupture  tlie  ligaments  which  bound  the  two  bones 
together.  A  marked  tendency  to  recurrence  has  been  frequently 
noticed,  and  has  generally  been  attributed  to  interposition  of  a  portion 
of  the  capsule.  I  am  inclined  to  think  it  due,  in  some  cases  at  least, 
to  the  persistence  of  this  bodily  disi)lacement  of  the  radius  upward. 
If  so,  the  condition  would  be  shown,  after  reduction,  by  loss  of  the 
outward  inclination  of  the  forearm  in  full  extension,  and  the  effort 
should  be  made  to  overcome  it  by  restoring  this  angle  by  forcible 
abduction. 

The  position  of  the  rent  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule  sug- 
gests that  after  reduction  the  joint  should  be  kept  flexed,  and  although 
recurrence  of  the  dislocation  has  taken  place  with  the  limb  in  this 
position,  it  does  not  seem  so  likely  to  favor  such  recurrence  as  the 
extended  position. 

4.  Dislocation  by  Elongation,  or  the  Subluxation  of 
Young  Children.^ 

Under  these  names  is  described  an  injury  which  is  very  frequently 
observed,  but  the  nature  of  which,  after  nearly  two  centuries  of  dis- 
cussion, is  still  in  dispute.  Its  features  are  well  marked;  a  young 
child,  generally  less  than  three  years  old,  is  lifted  or  pulled  by  the 
hand;  it  cries  out  with  pain,  and  refuses  to  use  the  limb,  which  hangs 
motionless  by  the  side,  somewhat  flexed  at  the  elbow,  and  more  or  less 
pronated.  A  careful  examination  fails  to  discover  marked  change  in 
the  anatomical  relations  of  the  bones  at  the  elbow  or  wrist;  passive 
motion  at  both  joints  is  free,  but  painful,  except  supination,  which  is 
resisted;  often  during  the  manipulations  made  in  the  examination,  or 
on  forced  supination,  a  slight  click  is  heard,  and  the  child  at  once  is 
able  to  use  the  limb  freely  without  pain. 

As  early  as  1671  Fournier  described  the  injury  as  an  incomplete 
dislocation  characterized  by  relaxation  of  the  ligaments  and  elongation 
of  the  radius,  meaning  by  the  latter  direct  separation  downward  or 
diastasis.  Nearly  a  hundred  years  later,  Duverney  gave  a  clear  and 
exact  description  of  it  as  an  injury  occurring  frequently  in  children; 
he  attributed  it  to  forcible  traction  at  the  wrist,  and  gave  as  its  chief 
symptom  the  opposition  to  supination  of  the  forearm,  and  as  the  treat- 
ment forcible  supination  with  pressure  from  before  backward  upon  the 
head  of  the  radms  followed  by  flexion  of  the  elbow.  He  thought  the 
injury  was  not  merely  an  elongation  of  the  radius,  but  also  the  escape 
of  its  head  below  the  edge  of  the  orbicular  ligament.      Nearly  a  cen- 

1  The  papers  upon  this  subject  are  numerous;  the  following  bibliography  contains  the  more 
important:  Gardner,  London  Medical  Gazette,  1837,  vol.  xx.  p  S78 ;  Hndges,  Boston  Medical  and 
Surgical  Journal,  1M62,  vol.  Ixvii.  p.  129:  Goyrand,  Gazette  m6dicale  de  Paris,  1837,  p.  11.5,  and  Bull, 
de  la  Soci6i6  de  Chirurgie,  1><61,  p.  60.5  ;  Piiigaud,  Diet.  Eiicyeloiiediqne,  art.  Coude,  p.  580  :  Hamil- 
ton. New  Yorii  Medical  Journal,  Jan.  3,  1885,  p.  8:  Duverney,  Maladies  des  Os,  1751 ;  Bouley,  De 
radii  superioris  extremitatis  dimotione,  in  iiifantibus  freqnentiori,  1787  ;  Rendu,  Gazette  m6dicale, 
1841.  p.  301 ;  Perrin,  Journal  de  Chirurgie  de  Malgaigne.  vol.  v.  p.  145  ;  Streubel,  PragerVierteljahr- 
schrift,  1850,  vol.  ii.  p.  90 ;  Van  Arsdale,  Annals  of  Surgery,  June,  1889. 


644  DISLOCATIONS. 

tury  and  a  half  has  passed  since  the  publication  of  his  views,  and  but 
little  has  been  added  to  his  description  of  the  etiology,  symptoms,  or 
treatment,  and  while  the  years  have  brought  many  other  theories  con- 
cerning the  pathology  his  is  the  one  that  is  now  most  widely  held. 

In  1787  Bottentuit  presided  at  the  presentation,  and,  according  to 
Malgaigne,  was  probably  the  real  author,  of  a  thesis  by  Bouley  before 
the  Ecoles  de  Chirurgie,  in  which  the  theory  of  the  agency  of  forced 
pronation  in  the  production  of  the  injury  was  advanced;  it  was  argued 
that  in  this  movement  the  radius  and  ulna  came  into  contact  at  the  point 
where  they  crossed  each  other  near  the  elbow,  and  that,  the  movement 
being  continued, the  head  of  the  radius  was  displaced  forward  or  outward. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  Martin,  in  France,  1809, 
and  Mouteggia,  in  Italy,  1814,  described  the  injury  and  reported  cases, 
but  the  former,  unfortunately,  appears  to  have  encountered  also  some 
dislocations  backward,  and  he  not  only  included  them  in  the  same 
group,  but  he  also  thought  that  the  radius  was  dislocated  backward  in 
all,  and  this  opinion  has  survived  in  a  measure  until  the  present  time, 
and  has  led  systematic  writers  to  describe  a  dislocation  backward  as 
one  of  the  forms,  although  it  does  not  appear  that  there  is  any  other 
authority  for  the  statement  than  Martin. 

As  the  injury  is  one  that  seems  but  rarely  to  fall  under  the  observa- 
tion of  the  general  surgeon,  probably  because  of  the  facility  with 
which  it  is  reduced,  the  authors  of  the  surgical  text-books  either  made 
no  mention  of  it  or  followed  in  their  brief  descriptions  the  account 
given  by  Martin,  or  by  those  who  had  copied  from  him.    But  between 

1836  and  1850  several  cases  were  published  in  England  and  in  France, 
and  new  theories  concerning  its  nature  were  advanced.      Gardner  in 

1837  and  Rendu  in  1841  attributed  the  fixation  to  the  locking  of  the 
bicipital  tuberosity  behind  the  ulna,  but  the  latter,  who  in  two  cases 
had  made  the  important  observation  that  the  wrist  also  was  swollen 
and  tender,  added  to  this  supposed  locking  of  the  tuberosity,  which  he 
regarded  as  probably  exceptional,  a  rupture  of  the  ligaments  of  the 
wrist.  Perrin,  in  1849,  thought  the  head  of  the  radius  was  caught 
below  the  lower  edge  of  the  lesser  sigmoid  cavity,  and  Goyrand,  who 
saw  a  large  number  of  cases,  thought  the  lesion  was  an  incomplete  dis- 
location, in  which  the  displacement  was  so  slight  as  to  cause  no  recog- 
nizable deformity  at  the  elbow.  Malgaigne,  1854,  included  it  among 
the  incomplete  dislocations  forward,  and  others  did  likewise. 

In  1850  Streubel  made  the  theory  of  incomplete  luxation  more  defi- 
nite, by  showing  that  if  the  forearm  of  the  cadaver  of  a  young  child 
was  forcibly  pronated,  the  head  of  the  radius  moved  forward,  and  the 
posterior  portion  of  the  capsule  was  forced  in  by  atmospheric  pressure 
between  the  radius  and  the  capitellum,  and  that  if  then  the  pronation 
was  diminished,  the  slight  displacement  of  the  radius  and  the  inter- 
position of  the  capsule  would  persist  even  while  gentle  movements  of 
the  joint  were  made;  but  that  under  sudden  extension  and  supination 
the  normal  relations  would  be  established.  In  like  manner,  forced 
supination  would  displace  the  radius  backward,  and  lead  to  interposi- 
tion of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule.  In  the  bodies  of  adults 
neither  manipulation  would  produce  this  result. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW, 


645 


In  1856  Chassaignac^  described,  under  the  title  "  paralysie  doulou- 
reuse  des  jeunes  enfcmts,"  a  number  of  cases  of  the  injury  under  dis- 
cussion, together  with  others  of  a  different  nature,  and  attributed  the 
symptoms  in  all  to  injury  of  the  nerves  of  the  limb.  Finally,  in  1861, 
Goyrand^  returned  to  the  subject  in  a  lengthy  paper,  in  which  he  aban- 
doned his  previous  view  and  advanced  the  last  new  theory,  that  the 
lesion  was  situated  not  at  the  elbow,  but  exclusively  at  the  wrist,  and 
consisted  in  a  dislocation  of  the  triangular  fibro-cartilage  in  front  of 
the  lower  end  of  the  ulna.  His  experiments  showed  that  in  complete 
pronation  the  fibro-cartilage  was  carried  so  far  forward  as  almost 
entirely  to  uncover  the  end  of  the  ulna,  and  that  in  forced  pronation 
the  uncovering  became  complete.  In  reply  to  a  question  asked  by 
Velpeau,  he  admitted  that  the  displacement  did  not  persist  upon  the 
cadaver  unless  the  hand  was  held  upward  and  supinated,  but  he  thought 
that  the  tonic  contraction  of  the  muscles  in  the  living  would  maintain 
it.  He  did  not  explain  why  such  a  lesion  should  be  more  easily  pro- 
duced in  a  child  than  in  an  adult. 

It  may  be  worth  while  to  add  that  the  editor  of  the  Medico-Chirur- 
gical  Review,  in  1839,  thought  the  injury  was  a  separation  of  the  upper 
epiphysis  of  the  radius,  and  Fougeu,  in  1861,  a  separation  of  the  lower 
one. 

Pingaud,^  in  his  experiments  upon  the  cadaver,  found,  as  Goyrand  had 
similarly  done  in  1837,  that  the  head  of  the  radius  could  be  drawn  out 
through  the  orbicular  ligament  by  forcible  adduction  of  the  forearm, 
so  far  that  its  anterior  edge  would  engage  below  the  lower  border  of  the 
ligament  (Fig.  287),  and  the  bones  would  remain  separated  by  a  distance 


Fig.  287. 


Subluxation  of  the  head  of  the  radius.    (Pingaud.) 


of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  but  without  displacement  of  the  radius 
forward,  backward,  or  outward,  unless  forced  pronation  was  added  to 
the  adduction,  in  which  case  the  head  moved  forward-  and  as  this  con- 
dition of  the  parts  coincided  with  a  limitation  of  the  freedom  of  rota- 
tion of  the  forearm  similar  to  that  observed  clinically  in  the  cases  in 
question,  and  as  the  normal  relations  of  the  parts  were  restored  by  the 


Chassaignac  :  Archives  giSniSrales  de  MM.,  1856.  vol.  i.  p.  653. 


2  Goyrand :  Bull,  de  la  Soci6t6  de  Chir.,  1861,  p.  596 


3  Pingaud:  Loc.  cit.,  1878. 


646  DISLOCATIONS. 

same  manoeuvres  whicli  relieved  the  little  patients,  he  reached  the  con- 
clusion that  the  nature  of  the  lesion  observed  clinically  was  the  same 
as  that  which  he  had  produced  experimentally,  and  that  the  clinical 
injury  was,  therefore,  a  dislocation  of  the  radius  downward  below  the 
annular  ligament,  or,  in  other  words,  that  Duverney's  theory  was  the 
correct  one.  He  showed  further,  that  the  younger  the  child  the  more 
easily  could  this  displacement  be  effected,  and  the  more  complete,  circu- 
larly, would  it  bo.  He  would  not  assert  that  this  was  the  only  cause 
of  the  clinical  condition,  but  contented  himself  with  proving  that  it 
was  at  least  one;  his  reserve  being  apparently  due  to  the  inapplicability 
of  the  explanation  to  the  reported  cases  in  which  the  radius  was  said 
to  have  been  displaced  backward,  cases  which  we  have  seen  to  rest  only 
upon  Martin's  assertion.  His  experiments  have  been  repeated,  and 
his  results  s'erified  by  others;  Poinsot  accepts  his  explanation  fully  for 
the  usual  cases,  and  Streubel's  for  those  of  displacement  backward. 

Turning  now  to  the  clinical  evidence,  for  there  have  been  no  post- 
mortem examinations,  it  appears  that  the  injury  is  common  in  young 
children  between  the  ages  of  one  and  three  years,  and  is  rarely  seen 
after  the  age  of  six  years,  and  not  infrequently  recurs.  Goyrand  (loc. 
cit.,  1861)  had  seen  at  least  two  hundred  cases  in  thirty  years,  and 
quotes  Chabrely  {Journal  de  Medecine  de  Bordeaux,  October,  1860, 
p.  481)  as  saying  that  hardly  a  month  passed,  he  might  say  hardly  a 
week,  in  which  he  was  not  called  to  a  case,  and  Fougeu  as  having  seen 
thirty-five  cases;  in  the  discussion  that  followed  the  reading  of  Goy- 
rand's  paper,  Marjolin  stated  that  he  had  seen  about  sixt}"  cases. 
Snedden^  saw  ten  cases  in  ten  years  in  ]>rivate  practice;  and  Linde- 
man"  saw  twenty-four  cases  and  Van  Arsdale  one  hundred  in  two  years 
in  dispensary  practice.  The  cause  is  traction  upon  the  arm  at  the  hand 
or  wrist,  as  in  lifting  a  child,  or  in  holding  it  when  it  stumbles,  and  in 
two  cases  in  drawing  the  arm  through  the  sleeve  of  the  dress.  It 
seems  to  me  that  exaggerated  pronation  does  not  enter  into  the  mechan- 
ism by  which  the  lesion  is  produced,  but  that  the  violence  is  simply 
traction  exerted  upon  the  extended  elbow,  possibly  combined  with 
adduction,  for  traction  would  tend  to  make  the  limb  exactly  straight, 
and  thus  overcome  the  normal  inclination  of  the  forearm  outward ;  or 
the  grasp  upon  the  forearm  may  be  so  firm  that  an  actual  inward  incli- 
nation would  be  produced  in  case  the  effort  was  not  a  simple  traction, 
but  was  combined  with  a  movement  that  tended  to  swing  the  child 
upward  along  a  curve  whose  centre  was  its  wrist  and  whose  radius 
was  its  extended  arm.  At  least,  in  lifting  a  living  child  by  the  arm 
I  have  not  been  able  to  make  exaggerated  pronation,  for  rotation  at 
the  shoulder  is  so  free  that  the  limit  of  pronation  is  not  easily  reached, 
and  this  is  unquestionably  true  when  the  child  is  lifted  by  both  hands. 

The  child  at  once  cries  out  in  pain  and  refuses  to  use  the  limb,  which 
hangs  motionless  by  its  side,  or  is  supported,  with  the  elbow  slightly 
flexed,  across  the  front  of  the  abdomen;  the  wrist  is  completely  or 
partly  pronated.  Examination  shows  sensitiveness  at  the  outer  por- 
tion of  the  elbow,  in  some  cases  also  at  the  back  of  the  wrist,  and  in 

1  Snedden  :  British  Medical  Journal,  1882,  vol.  i.  p.  499. 
-  Lindeman  :  British  Medical  Journal,  1885,  vol.  ii.  p.  1058. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  647 

others  exclusively  at  the  wrist,  with  swelling  after  the  lapse  of  from 
thirty  to  thirty-six  liours.  The  head  of  the  radius  is  sometimes 
sliglitiy  but  distinctly  displaced  forward,  but  in  most  cases  no  other 
chano-e  than  a  slight  longitudinal  separation  between  tlie  radius  and 
the  capitellum  is  recognizable.  There  is  pain  on  pressure  over  the 
head  of  the  radius. 

Although  the  child  does  not  voluntarily  move  the  joint,  it  can  be 
freely  moved  by  the  surgeon  in  every  direction  except  supination,  and 
will  sometimes  be  held  by  the  child  in  such  a  position  as  may  be  given 
to  it.  In  only  one  recorded  case,  Duges,^  was  the  limb  in  supination; 
with  that  exception  the  constant  and  pathognomonic  symptom  is  the 
interference  with  supination. 

These  facts,  taken  in  connection  with  the  results  of  experiment,  indi- 
cate that  Duverney's  opinion  was  correct  and  that  the  injury  consists 
in  the  escape  of  the  front  portion  of  the  head  of  the  radius  below  the 
orbicular  ligament,  and  that  it  is  produced  by  traction  and  adduction 
of  the  extended  forearm.  Goyrand's  last  explanation^lislocation  of 
the  triangular  fibro-cartilage  at'the  wrist — cannot  maintain  itself  against 
the  overwhelming  clinical  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  lesion  at  the 
elbow,  supported,  as  it  is,  by  experiment,  especially  since  it  has  no 
better  foundation  than  the  impression  that  the  click  which  was  heard 
during  reduction  was  produced  at  the  wrist  and  not  at  the  elbow. 
Against  its  correctness  are  the  facts  that  although  exaggerated  prona- 
tion will  effect  such  a  dislocation,  yet  there  is  nothing  to  prove  that 
the  displacement  will  not  immediately  correct  itself  when  the  limb  is 
released,  and  that  there  is  not  only  no  proof  of  the  intervention  of 
exaggerated  pronation  in  clinical  cases,  but  it  w^as,  furthermore,  cer- 
tainly absent  in  some,  and  probably  in  all.  The  only  difficulty  is  to 
explain  the  well-established  symptoms  of  injury  at  the  back  of  the 
wrist  in  some  of  the  cases.  Possibly  such  cases  may  be  of  a  different 
character  from  the  others,  actual  dislocation  backward  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  ulna  {vide  infra),  and  Goyrand's  explanation  may  be  true^  of 
them;  or  the  symptoms  may  be  due  to  an  associated  sprain  of  the  wrist. 

The  experience  of  Chassaignac,  who  treated  his  cases  as  paralytic 
and  saw  them  gradully  recover,  indicates  that  the  lesion  may  be  spon- 
taneously corrected;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  reason  to  think 
that  some  of  the  cases  of  forward  dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  radius 
found  in  adults,  which  had  existed  from  childhood,  were  originally  of 
this  kind,  and  that  the  head  had  gradually  become  displaced^  further 
forward.  All  who  have  treated  cases  agree  that  reduction  is  easily 
effected,  usually  by  supination ;  some  add  flexion  of  the  elbow. 

Dislocation  of  the  Head  of  the  Radius  with  Fracture  of  the  Ulna. 

The  coincidence  of  a  fracture  of  the  shaft  of  the  ulna  with  disloca- 
tion of  the  head  of  the  radius  is  not  infrequent,  and,  since  the  discovery 
of  either  of  the  two  injuries  may  lead  the  surgeon  to  overlook  the 
other,  the  possibility  of  the  coexistence  should  always  be  borne  in  mind. 

3  Duges  :  Journal  hebdomadaire,  1831,  vol.  iv.  p.  196. 


648  DISLOCATIONS. 

Malgaigne  attached  so  much  importance  to  this  warning  that  he  formu- 
lated and  italicized  the  following  two  recommendations  : 

1.  In  any  fracture  of  the  ulna  alone  look  for  a  dislocation  of  the 
radius. 

2,  In  every  fracture  of  the  forearm  in  which  the  swelling  extends 
above  the  elbow,  remember  that  simple  fracture  is  rarely  accompanied 
by  so  much  swelling,  and  carefully  explore  the  articulation. 

^  To  complete  the  warning  a  third  precaution  should  be  added,  namely, 
that  in  every  dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  radius  alone,  fracture  of 
the  ulna  should  be  sought  for. 

The  complication  has  received  the  attention  of  most  systematic 
writers  upon  dislocations,  and  has  been  made  the  subject  of  mono- 
graphs by  Malgaigne,^  Grenier,^  and  Dorfler.^  The  latter  collected 
nineteen  cases,  but  the  injury  appears  to  be  of  more  frequent  occur- 
rence than  this  fact  would  indicate,  for  Malgaigne  saw  four  cases,  von 
Pitha  two  or  three,  and  Ddrfler  reports  four  cases  from  the  practice  of 
the  surgeon  under  whom  he  was  serving.      I  have  seen  at  least  ten. 

The  cause  in  a  certain  number  of  cases — five  of  Dorfler's  nineteen — 
has  been  direct  violence,  as  the  kick  of  a  horse,  received  upon  the  inner 
or  inner  and  posterior  aspect  of  the  upper  part  of  the  ulna,  first  break- 
ing that  bone  and  then  driving  the  head  of  the  radius  forward  and 
outward  from  its  place;  in  others  it  has  been  a  fall  upon  the  arm,  and 
it  is  uncertain  whether  the  ulna  was  broken  by  direct  or  indirect  vio- 
lence. In  Gerdy's  case  the  patient  declared  that  he  fell  upon  his 
extended  hand;  and  in  one  that  came  under  my  care  in  August,  1885, 
the  patient,  a  boy  seven  years  old,  had  fallen  from  a  wagon  and  sus- 
tained a  compound  fracture  of  the  ulna  at  its  middle,  the  wound  in  the 
skin  being  in  the  centre  of  the  anterior  aspect  of  the  limb  and  having 
been  produced  from  within  outward  by  the  sharp  end  of  one  of  the 
fragments;  the  radius  was  displaced  forward,  upward,  and  inward  so 
far  that  its  concave  upper  surface  could  be  distinctly  felt.  There  was 
no  bruise  on  the  back  of  the  forearm,  and  I  thought  the  fracture  had 
been  produced  by  indirect  violence,  a  fall  on  the  hand. 

The  only  autopsical  record  I  have  found  is  one  by  Marchand,*  and, 
unfortunately,  it  is  not  entirely  clear.  It  is  stated  that  the  external 
lateral  ligament  was  torn,  the  ulna  was  broken  in  its  upper  third,  and 
the  head  of  the  radius  was  displaced  to  the  outer  side  of  the  epicon- 
dyle;  the  annular  ligament  was  untorn,  but  "  no  longer  surrounded 
the  neck  of  the  radius;  it  seemed  rather  to  embrace  the  radial  capsule 
(cupule,  head?),  and  the  radius  seemed  to  have  escaped  below  it." 

Dorfler's  experiments  showed  that  the  parallelism  of  the  radius  and 
the  lower  fragment  of  the  ulna  was  preserved,  with  production  of  an 
angle  in  the  ulna  at  the  point  of  the  fracture;  the  annular  and  anterior 
ligaments  were  torn.  The  limb  was  shortened,  and  crepitus  was  per- 
ceived on  handling  it.      Clinically,  a  prominent  feature  is  the  marked 

1  Malg-aigne  :  Revue  m^dico-chirurgicale,  vol.  xiii.  pp.  82  and  90. 

2  Grenier :  Recherches  sur  la  luxation  du  radius  que  complique  la  fracture  du  tiers  sup6rieur  du 
cubitus;  These  de  Paris,  1878. 

3  Dorfler  :  Fractur  der  ulna  in  ihrem  oberen  Drittel  combinirt  mit  Luxation  des  Radius ;  Deutsche 
Zeitschrift  fur  Chir.,  1886,  vol.  xxiii.  p.  338. 

*  Marchand :  Bull,  de  la  Soci6t6  Anatomique,  1874,  p.  680. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  649 

swelling  at  the  elbow,  due  in  part  to  the  displacement  of  the  radius 
and  in  part  to  inflammatory  reaction.  The  displacement  of  the  radius 
is  usually  forward,  sometimes  forward  and  inward,  forward  and  out- 
ward, or  directly  outward. 

Among  the  complications  were  observed  subluxation  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  ulna,  wound  of  the  integument  either  by  the  direct  action 
of  the  causative  violence  or  from  within  outward  by  the  end  of  the 
fragment,  making  the  fracture  compound,  fracture  of  the  epicondyle 
or  external  condyle,  and  more  or  less  paralysis  of  the  extensor  muscles 
of  the  wrist  and  fingers  due  to  stretching  or  rupture  of  the  musculo- 
spiral  or  posterior  interosseous  nerve. 

The  prognosis  is  good  if  the  displacements  are  promptly  corrected, 
and  even  if  the  dislocation  of  the  radius  persists  the  restoration  of 
function  may  be  nearly  complete. 

On  the  other  hand,  failure  of  union  of  the  fracture  has  been  noted 
(Norris^),  and  persistent  extensor  paralysis  (Dorfler). 

Reduction  in  recent  cases  has  been  easy;  the  most  suitable  method 
appears  to  be  traction  upon  the  extended  limb,  followed  by  direct  press- 
ure upon  the  radius  and  then  by  flexion  of  the  elbow.  The  extended 
position  during  traction  is  desirable  in  order  to  avoid  the  interposition 
of  the  torn  anterior  ligament.  After  reduction  the  limb  should  be 
kept  flexed  within  a  right  angle,  and  midway  between  supination  and 
pronation. 

1  Norris :  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  20. 


CHAPTER    XLYII. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF  THE   ELBOW.— (Continued.) 

TREATMENT  OF  OLD  DISLOCATIONS. 

The  loss  of  mobility  in  old  dislocations  of  the  elbow,  especially  of 
the  backward  ones,  is  often  so  ^Teat  that  the  disability  is  serious;  the 
patient  is  unable  to  bring  the  hand  to  the  head  or  chest,  and  is  able  to 
use  it  only  in  the  arc  of  a  circle  whose  radius  is  nearly  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  extended  limb,  and  he  may,  in  addition,  possess  only  such 
rotation  as  can  be  effected  by  movements  at  the  shoulder.  Although 
successful  attempts  to  reduce  dislocations  of  several  months'  standing 
M^ere  occasionally  reported,  yet  failure  was  the  rule,  and  the  only  means 
of  alleviating  the  condition  were  fracture  of  the  olecranon  and  excision 
of  the  joint,  operations  which,  while  they  increased  the  range  of  mo- 
tion, brought  with  them  disadvantages  of  their  own,  such  as  loss  of 
active  extension  and  lack  of  solidity,  which  disinclined  the  surgeon  to 
offer,  and  the  patient  to  accept  them. 

Consideration  of  the  anatomo-pathological  conditions  of  an  old  unre- 
duced backward  dislocation  not  only  fully  explains  the  difficulty  of 
effecting  reduction  but  even  makes  it  appear  surprising  that  reduction 
should  ever  have  been  satisfactorily  accomplished.  The  overriding  of 
the  bones  along  the  back  of  the  humerus  leads  to  the  formation  of 
new  cicatricial  bonds  between  the  olecranon  and  the  humerus  and  to 
the  establishment  of  new  attachments  by  the  torn  lateral  ligaments  so 
far  above  and  behind  the  centre  of  motion  of  the  old  joint  that  almost 
no  flexion  is  possible  without  their  rupture  or  elongation,  and  the 
return  of  the  bones  to  their  place  can  be  effected  only  after  a  far  more 
extensive  rupture  of  these  soft  parts  than  that  which  accompanied  the 
dislocation.  In  attempting  to  rupture  these  bonds  by  forced  flexion 
the  forearm  is  used  as  a  lever  the  fulcrum  of  which  is  situated  on  the 
ulna  below  the  coronoid  process,  and  the  rupturing  strain  is  exerted 
through  the  olecranon  upon  the  ligaments  and  adhesions  connected 
with  it,  and  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  this  process  should  so  fre- 
quently have  been  broken  in  the  manipulation.  In  addition,  the  greater 
sigmoid  cavity  very  promptly  fills  with  cicatricial  tissue,  partly  of  new 
formation  and  partly  furnished  by  the  upper  part  of  the  posterior  por- 
tion of  the  capsule  which  slips  in  between  it  and  the  back  of  the 
humerus  and  permanently  occupies  the  concavity  which  should,  after 
reduction,  embrace  the  trochlea;  this  pad  of  tissue  is  found  so  firmly 
united  to  the  cartilage  of  the  olecranon  that  its  removal  in  the  reported 
arthrotomies  has  required  the  use  of  the  knife.  The  adhesion  of  the 
capsule  to  the  articular  surface  of  the  front  of  the  trochlea  and  the 
capitellum  has  not  been  found  to  be  so  close,  and  the  cartilage  of  their 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  651 

surfaces  has  been  found,  even  after  the  lapse  of  several  months,  almost 
entirely  unaltered  in  appearance. 

Furthermore,  the  injury  is  common  in  the  young,  in  whom  the  osteo- 
genic power  of  the  periosteum  is  great  and  in  whom  the  epiphyses  are 
still  growing..  The  effect  of  the  injury,  especially  if  the  periosteum  is 
stripped  up,  is,  therefore,  to  produce  new  formations  of  }3one  around 
the  joint  which  contract  adhesions  with  the  other  bones  or  mechanically 
interfere  by  interposition  to  prevent  the  reduction  of  the  dislocation; 
and,  further,  the  epiphysis  of  the  humerus,  relieved  of  the  pressure 
normally  exerted  upon  it  by  the  radius  and  ulna,  grows  more  rapidly 
and  irregularly,  and  its  articular  surface  may  thus  lose  its  shape  and 
become  unfit  to  receive  the  others  again.  This  deformity  by  exagger- 
ated growth  has  been  especially  noticed  in  the  capitellum  (see  Palholog- 
ical  and  Congenital  Dislocations),  the  extension  being  downward  and 
forward. 

These  changes  are  clearly  incompatible  with  successful  reduction  by 
the  means  employed  in  fresh  cases,  even  if  the  force  employed  be  suffi- 
cient to  rupture  the  adhesions  and  bring  the  bones  down  to  the  proper 
level.  It  is  true  that  successes  have  been  occasionally  reported,  but  the 
reports  rarely  go  beyond  the  statement  that  reduction  was  accomplished, 
and  they  leave  the  subsequent  history  of  the  case  and  degree  of  re- 
establishment  of  the  functions  unrecorded.  Until  quite  recently  the 
only  methods  employed  have  been  forcible  attempts  to  reduce  by  trac- 
tion and  the  breaking  of  adhesions,  sometimes  aided  by  subcutaneous 
division  of  the  tendon  of  the  triceps,  or  of  adhesions  on  the  sides  and 
back  of  the  joint,  increase  of  the  range  of  motion  by  the  same  means 
without  reduction,  reduction  after  fracture  of  the  olecranon  by  forcible 
flexiou,  and  excision  of  the  joint. 

Albert  says  that  Liston,  more  than  forty  years  ago,  successfully 
reduced  an  old  dislocation  after  subcutaneous  division  of  all  tense 
bands,  and  that  in  1847  Blumhart  successfully  practised  arthrotomy 
in  a  similar  case,  making  two  lateral  incisions,  and  dividing  through 
them  all  the  adhesions  that  opposed  reduction.  This  case  appears  to 
have  been  entirely  lost  sight  of,  and  it  was  not  until  thirty  years  later, 
in  1879,  that  Trendelenburg,^  in  a  paper  recommending  temporary 
division  of  the  olecranon  to  facilitate  operations  upou  the  elbow-joint, 
reported  a  case  of  incomplete  outward,  or  outward  and  backward,  dis- 
location of  both  bones  with  avulsion  of  the  epitrochlea  which  he  had 
treated  by  making  an  incision  along  the  tendon  of  the  biceps,  and  chis- 
elling away  enough  bone  from  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  in  front 
of  the  coronoid  process  to  allow  flexiou  to  a  right  angle;  the  result  was 
good  to  that  extent.  A  little  later  Volker^  reported  a  case  of  incom- 
plete outward  dislocation  of  the  left  elbow  of  six  mouths'  standing  in 
a  boy  thirteen  years  old,  in  which,  after  division  of  the  olecranon,  he 
had  divided  the  adhesions,  dissected  away  the  new  tissues  in  the  sig- 
moid fossa,  and  had  then  been  able  to  reduce;  as  the  change  in  the 
shape  of  the  bones  favored  recurrence  he  removed  the  head  of  the 
radius.      His  incision  was  U-shaped,  the  sides  extending  along  the 

1  Trendelenburg:  Archiv  fiir  klin.  Chir.,  1879,  vol.  xxiv.  p.  790. 
-'  Volker  :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fur  Chir.,  1880,  vol.  xii.  p.  541. 


652  DISL  0  OA  TIONS. 

borders  of  the  triceps,  aud  the  bottom  of  the  U  crossing  the  olecranon 
at  the  point  where  it  was  to  be  divided.  The  position  of  the  limb 
(anchylosis  in  almost  complete  extension)  and  the  evidences  of  serious 
pressure  upou  the  ulnar  nerve  were  important  factors  in  the  determi- 
nation to  operate.  He  was  so  pleased  with  the  result  that  he  looked 
forward  with  confidence  to  the  adoption  of  the  method  in  all  old  dis- 
locations with  much  disability. 

Trendelenburg^  promptly  claimed  priority  in  the  suggestions  of  pre- 
liminary division  of  the  olecranon,  and  reported  a  case  of  backward 
dislocation  of  both  bones  of  eight  weeks'  standing  successfully  treated 
in  the  same  manner.  His  incision  was  a  curved  transverse  one,  the 
convexity  directed  upward,  crossing  the  median  line  well  above  the 
olecranon,  and  the  flap  was  then  dissected  and  reflected  downward  to 
the  point  at  which  the  olecranon  was  to  be  divided;  this  division  of 
the  olecranon  was  done  with  a  chisel.  Because  of  difficulty  in  bringing 
the  olecranon  down  the  limb  was  dressed  in  extension,  but  after  the 
nineteenth  day,  when  the  wound  was  healed,  the  position  was  gradu- 
ally changed,  and  four  weeks  later  the  joint  could  be  flexed  to  a  right 
angle.      The  olecranon  reunited  solidly  in  this  case  and  in  Volker's. 

In  1S85  Nicoladoni^  published  a  short  paper  on  the  application  of 
arthrotomy  to  old  dislocations  of  various  joints,  and  included  in  it  the 
report  of  two  cases  in  which  he  had  practised  it  at  the  elbow.  The 
first  case  was  an  almost  complete  outward  dislocation  of  the  left  elbow 
in  a  lad  sixteen  years  old,  which  had  existed  for  eight  months;  the 
epitrochlea  was  broken  off  and  drawn  under  the  trochlea;  the  limb 
was  in  extension,  flexion  was  entirely  lost,  but  rotation  was  preserved. 
An  incision  eight  centimetres  long  was  made  in  front  along  the  inner 
border  of  the  trochlea,  and  through  this  the  fractured  epitrochlea  was 
removed;  a  second  incision  of  the  same  length  was  made  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  joint  through  which,  after  removal  of  a  small  piece  of  bone 
that  had  been  broken  from  the  condyles,  the  soft  parts  were  separated 
from  the  radius  and  the  humerus;  then,  through  a  longitudinal  cut 
made  in  the  tendon  of  the  triceps,  the  adhesions  between  the  olecranon 
and  the  back  of  the  humerus  were  separated,  and  the  bones  were  then 
easily  restored  to  place.  The  wound  healed  after  slight  suppuration, 
passive  motion  was  begun  after  the  third  week,  and  the  patient  was 
dismissed  after  seven  and  a  half  weeks  with  the  elbow  flexed  and 
movable  through  an  arc  of  35  or  40  degrees.  Nine  mouths  later  he 
wrote  that  he  could  flex  and  extend  the  joint  freely,  but  that  rotation 
was  not  quite  so  free. 

The  second  patient  was  a  large,  powerful  man,  forty-one  years  old, 
with  a  backward  dislocation  that  had  existed  for  six  months.  The 
limb  was  almost  completely  extended  and  immovable;  there  was  some 
passive  rotation.  The  olecranon  was  situated  unusually  high.  Two 
lateral  incisions,  each  sixteen  centimetres  long,  were  made;  through 
the  first,  over  the  outer  condyle  in  front  of  the  head  of  the  radius,  the 
soft  parts  were  separated  from  the  bone,  leaving  the  periosteum  undis- 
turbed, into  the  trochlea  and  above  the  fossa  trochlearis  in  front  and 

1  Trendelenburg :  Centralblatt  fur  Chir.,  1880,  p.  833. 
-  Nicoladoni :  Wiener  med.  Wocbenschrift,  1885,  p.  728. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW. 


653 


behind;  through  the  second  incision,  on  the  inner  side  of  the  elbow, 
the  flexor  muscles  were  cut  away  close  in  front  of  the  epitrochlea,  and 
the  separation  of  the  soft  parts  from  the  bones  completed.  The  greater 
sigmoid  cavity  was  found  filled  with  hard  cicatricial  tissue,  which  was 
cut  and  scraped  away  after  separation  of  the  posterior  attachment  of 
the  orbicular  ligament.  Reduction  was  then  easily  made.  Recovery 
took  place  without  incident,  and  the  patient  was  dimissed  at  the  end 
of  four  weeks,  the  wounds  being  almost  healed.  There  was  good  active 
rotation,  but  very  little  flexion;  passively,  there  was  complete  extension 
and  flexion  to  a  right  angle. 

In  1886  I  operated  upon  a  five-months'  backward  dislocation  in  a 
girl  eleven  years  old  by  an  incision  on  the  outer  side  and  division  of 
the  olecranon.  My  attention  had  been  attracted  by  a  mass  of  bone 
attached  to  the  back  of  the  humerus  and  capping  the  head  of  the 
radius,  which  I  believed  to  be  of  new  formation  and  to  require  removal. 
The  conditions  found  on  exposure  (Fig.  288)  confirmed  this  opinion ; 


Fig.  288. 


Fig.  289. 


New  formation  of  bone  on  an  old 
unreduced  dislocation. 


Result  of  operative  reduction  of  old  dislocation. 


the  mass  Avas  cut  away  and  the  dislocation  was  reduced.  The  case  is 
given  in  detail  in  the  New  York  Medical  Journal,  April  2,  1887.  The 
result  was  not  satisfactory,  recurrence  having  taken  place  under  the 
dressing.  The  information  thus  gained  fixed  my  attention  upon  the 
importance  of  the  mass  of  new  bone,  the  formation  of  which  1  attrib- 
uted to  the  stripping-up  of  the  periosteum  from  the  back  of  the  con- 
dyle by  the  displaced  head  of  the  radius,  enabled  me  properly  to 
estimate  the  difficulties,  and  encouraged  me  to  operate  in  other  cases. 


654  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  1891^  I  reported  seven  additional  cases,  in  five  of  which  I  had 
operated  with  good  results.  I  have  since  operated  upon  several  other 
cases;  the  results  have  all  been  flexion  within  a  right  angle  and  exten- 
sion varying  from  120  to  170  degrees,  and  preservation  of  rotation 
(Figs.  289,  290). 

The  operation^  is  done  by  a  long  incision  on  the  outer  side  exposing 
the  head  of  the  radius  and  the  mass  of  new  bone;  the  latter  is  freely 
chiselled  away,  and  the  capitellum  exposed  by  free  division  of  the  soft 
parts,  keeping  the  knife  at  a  little  distance  from  the  bone  so  as  not  to 
damage  the  periosteum.  Through  the  incision  the  sigmoid  fossa  is 
cleared  of  fibrous  tissue.  A  second  incision,  about  four  inches  long, 
is  then  made  on  the  inner  side,  curving  close  behind  the  epitrochlea  or 
its  site,  the  ulnar  nerve  is  drawn  forward  and  the  olecranon  freed;  if 
the  epitrochlea  has  been  broken  off  and  displaced  upward  and  back- 
ward it  must  be  detached  from  the  humerus,  preserving  its  relations 
with  the  lateral  ligament.  The  cleaning  of  the  sigmoid  cavity  is  then 
completed.     If  the  attachments  of  the  olecranon  to  the  back  of  the 

Fig.  290. 


Result  of  operative  reduction  of  old  dislocation. 

humerus  have  been  thoroughly  divided  reduction  can  now  be  easily 
made  and  maintained,  nnless  the  dislocation  has  existed  so  long  that 
the  flexor  muscles  of  the  hand  have  become  permanently  shortened,  in 
which  case  they  must  be  partly  divided  close  to  the  humerus. 

Vamossy^  reported  Nicoladoni's  experience — nine  cases  successfully 
treated  by  arthrolomy  between  1886  and  1890.  Kunn*  reports  MaydPs 
experience  of  five  cases  treated  by  resection  and  one  by  arthrotomy; 
and  Helferich''  reports  two  cases  successfully  reduced  by  the  aid  of  two 
lateral  incisions. 

In  old  ineomp/ete  outward  lateral  dislocations  little  is  to  be  hoped  for 
from  forcible  subcutaneous  rupture  of  the  adhesions,  for  the  common 
interposition  of  the  fractured  epitrochlea  cannot  thus  be  overcome,  and 
the  probabilities  are  decidedly  against  the  success  of  an  attempt  to 
remove  by  this  means  the  ci(  atricial  obstacles  on  the  inner  side.  The 
choice  lies  between  improving  the  attitude  by  forcible  flexion,  if  the 
limb  is  extended,  and  arthrotomy,  the  internal  incision  being  made  in 
front  of  the  trochlea  rather  than  upon  its  side. 

1  Stimson  :  On  the  Treatment  of  Old  Dislocations  of  the  Elbow,  New  York  Medical  Journal, 
October  24,1891. 

2  Stimson  :  Operative  Surgery,  third  edition,  1895,  p.  139. 

3  Vamossy :  Wiener  klin   Woehenschrift,  December  11,1890. 
*  Kunn  :  Internat.  klin.  Rundschau,  September  6,  1891. 

6  Helferich  :  Deutsche  med.  Woehenschrift,  August  10, 1893. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  655 

In  old  dislocations  of  the  radius  alone,  in  which  partial  or  complete 
anchylosis  renders  an  operation  desirable,  the  examples  quoted  in  the 
preceding  chapter  may  serve  as  guides.  In  those  cases  in  which  the 
dislocation  has  occurred  in  childhood  and  has  been  followed  by  exag- 
gerated growth  in  length  of  the  radius  excision  of  its  head  is  the  only 
suitable  operation,  and  in  other  cases  it  is  probably  the  means  most 
likely  to  improve  function. 

SprengeP  reports  a  case  of  dislocation  backward  and  outward  of  five 
weeks'  standing  in  a  boy  six  years  old  in  which  he  effected  reduction 
and  obtained  a  perfect  functional  result  by  arthrotomy  and  removal  of 
a  portion  of  the  back  of  the  capsule  that  was  interposed  between  the 
head  of  the  radius  and  the  ulna.  Pie  made  an  anterior  incision  along 
the  edge  of  the  supinator  longus,  exposed  the  musculo-spiral  nerve  and 
its  two  branches  and  drew  them  outward  with  the  outer  flap;  by  this 
means  the  capsule  was  freely  exposed  to  view,  and  he  was  enabled  to 
see  that  the  rent  was  on  its  outer  side,  and  then  by  drawing  the  head 
of  the  radius  outward  with  a  sharp  hook  the  obstacle  to  reduction  was 
found  to  be  a  fold  of  the  posterior  portion  of  the  capsule  (probably 
part  of  the  annular  ligament)  interposed  between  the  radius  and  ulna, 
and  firmly  adherent  to  the  lower  sigmoid  cavity.  After  having  liber- 
ated this  fold  he  was  able  to  replace  the  head  of  the  radius  and  to  close 
with  catgut  sutures  the  rent  in  the  capsule  except  over  a  small  space 
on  the  outer  side. 

He  refers  to  a  case  of  backward  dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  radius 
in  which  he  obtained  a  similar  success  by  arthrotomy  and  separation  of 
the  capsule  from  the  upper  surface  of  the  radius. 


CONGENITAL  AND  PATHOLOGICAL  DISLOCATIONS. 

Although  a  considerable  number  of  cases  have  been  reported  as  con- 
genital dislocations  of  the  upper  end  of  the  radius,  yet  in  all  of  them 
the  proof  that  the  deformity  existed  at  birth  is  defective;  in  a  few 
it  was  noticed  at  so  early  a  period  that  the  probability  of  its  con- 
genital existence  is  great;  in  others,  and  even  in  those  in  which  both 
radii  were  affected,  the  displacement  can  be  referred  with  equal  plausi- 
bility to  causes  operating  after  birth,  and  the  alterations  in  the  shape 
of  the  bones  to  the  effect  of  the  displacement  and  the  changed  func- 
tional conditions. 

To  the  13  alleged  cases  briefly  quoted  and  analyzed  by  Malgaigne, 
9  of  which  are  quoted  in  detail  by  Gurlt,^  may  be  added  several  that 
have  been  since  reported,  those  of  Humphry,^  Hayem,*  Mitscherlich,^ 
Allen,"  Hamilton,''  Phillips,^  Pye-Smith,^  Heele,^"  and  Herskovits.^^ 

1  Sprengel .  Oentralblatt  fur  Chirurgie,  1886,  p.  153. 

2  Gurit :  Beiirage  zur  Vergleich.  path   Anat.  der  Gelenkrankheiten,  1853,  p.  317. 

3  Humphry:  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,  vol  xlv.  p.  296. 
*  Havem  :  Bull,  de  la  Poci6t6  Anatomique,  1864,  p.  56. 

5  Miti-cherlich  :  Arch.  fUr  klin.  Chir  ,  1865,  vol.  vi.  p.  218. 

6  Allen  :  Glasgow  Medical  Journal,  1880.  vol.  xlv.  p.  44.        ^  Hamilton :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  888. 

8  Phillips:  British  MedicalJournal,  18X3,  vol.  1.  p  773. 

9  Pye-Smith  :  Lancet,  1883,  vol.  ii.  p.  993.  lo  Heele  :  Lancet,  1886,  vol.  ii.  p.  249. 
11  Hersiiovits  :  Wiener  med.  Presse,  February  12, 1888. 


656  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  addition  is  a  case,  a  dislocation  forward,  observed  and  briefly  men- 
tioned by  Kronlein/ 

The  first  4  were  examined  post  mortem,  the  others  only  clinically. 
In  5  of  them  the  dislocation  was  backward,  in  3  forward;  in  all  both 
radii  were  dislocated.  Humphry's,  Hayem's,  Allen's,  and  Hersko- 
vits's  were  in  adults,  of  whom  no  previous  history  was  obtained.  In 
Humphry's  the  lower  part  of  the  left  ulna  was  lacking,  evidently 
because  of  defective  development;  the  right  ulna  was  firmly  anchy- 
losed  to  the  humerus  nearly  at  a  right  angle,  and  was  eight  inches  long, 
its  lower  end  was  well  formed  and  was  on  the  usual  level  with  the 
radius;  the  radius  was  also  eight  inches  long,  and  its  head  was  dis- 
placed upward  and  rested  against  ''  the  forepart  of  the  ridge  that 
ascends  from  the  outer  condyle  to  the  shaft,"  it  was  somewhat  irregu- 
lar in  shape,  and  its  extra  length  was  developed  in  its  shaft  and  not  in 
its  neck  as  in  several  of  the  other  reported  cases.  The  trochlea  of  the 
humerus  was  imperfect.  The  displacement  upward  was  clearly  the 
result  of  the  elongation  of  the  radius,  whatever  the  cause  of  the  orig- 
inal displacement  from  contact  with  the  capitellum  may  have  been. 

Mitscherlich's  patient  was  a  girl  six  years  old  who  had  been  born 
with  clubfoot;  both  elbows  were  deformed,  and  this  defect  was  thought 
also  to  have  existed  from  birth.  The  head  of  the  radius  could  be  felt 
in  front  of  the  outer  half  of  the  coronoid  process;  extension  was  per- 
fect, but  flexion  was  limited  on  the  right  side  to  an  angle  of  70  degrees 
and  on  the  left  to  one  of  110  degrees;  both  hands  were  supinated. 
Excision  of  the  left  elbow  was  done  by  von  Langenbeck  with  the 
object  of  increasing  its  range  of  motion,  and  the  child  died  in  conse- 
quence of  the  operation.  The  specimen  showed  that  the  trochlear 
surface  of  the  humerus  was  narrowed  in  front  by  extension  upon  it  of 
the  exceptionally  large  circular  surface  for  the  head  of  the  radius.  The 
articular  surface  of  the  ulna  was  normal,  but  the  radius  was  not  in 
contact  with  it. 

Allen's  specimen  was  taken  from  the  body  of  an  elderly  man  with- 
out history.  Both  elbows  were  affected;  flexion  was  normal,  extension 
possible  only  to  a  right  angle;  rotation  was  entirely  lost,  the  limbs 
being  fixed  in  pronation.  Both  radii  were  displaced  backward,  but 
only  the  left  elbow  is  described  in  detail.  The  specimen  was  not  pre- 
sented as  an  example  of  congenital  dislocation,  but  only  to  show  the 
changes  effected  in  the  bones  in  consequence  of  unreduced  dislocation 
in  early  life.  These  changes  modified  the  shape  of  the  lower  end  of 
the  humerus  and  of  the  radius.  The  radius  crossed  the  front  of  the 
ulna  and  was  united  w^ith  it  by  bony  union  for  a  distance  of  about  three 
inches  at  their  upper  part;  below  this  part  the  shaft  of  the  radius  was 
much  thickened.  The  neck  of  the  radius  was  one  and  a  half  inches 
long,  so  that  the  head  was  carried  well  upward  behind  the  humerus  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  olecranon,  and  this  overriding  was  further  increased 
by  the  abnormal  growth  of  the  external  condyle  downward  and  out- 
ward, the  extent  downward  of  the  growth  being  estimated  at  half  an 
inch.     The  trochlear  surface  was  deformed,  mainly  by  the  loss  of  much 

1  Kronlein :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  26,  p.  97. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ELBOW.  657 

of  its  inner  lip.  The  olecranon  fossa  was  so  far  filled  up  that  the  sep- 
tum between  it  and  the  coronoid  fossa  was  one-third  of  an  inch  thick. 
The  shaft  of  the  ulna  was  small;  its  lower  end  was  normal  and  pre- 
served the  usual  relations  with  the  radius.  The  specimen  appears 
closely  to  resemble  those  of  the  earlier  cases  reported  by  Sandifort, 
Dubois,  and  Verneuil,  and  has  as  much,  or  as  little,  reason  to  be 
thought  congenital  as  most  of  the  others.  It  is  of  value  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  changes  observed  in  other  specimens. 

Herskovits's  patient  was  a  man  twenty-one  years  old;  the  head  of 
each  radius  was  displaced  backward  and  outward,  the  capitellum  small. 
Flexion  was  nearly  complete,  extension  to  135  degrees,  pronation  com- 
plete, supination  lost.        No  history  of  injury. 

For  details  of  other  cases,  see  first  edition. 

The  arguments  upon  which  the  attribution  of  a  congenital  character 
was  based  in  most  of  the  older  cases  and  in  those  of  Humphry  and 
Hayem,  and  which  apply  equally  well  to  Alden's,  are  the  existence  of 
the  deformity  on  both  sides  and  the  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  artic- 
ular ends  of  the  bones;  in  Humphry's  and  in  Deville's  there  is  in 
addition  the  lack  of  the  lower  part  of  the  ulna. 

The  irregularities  in  the  bones  may,  in  part  at  least,  be  fairly  attrib- 
uted to  the  change  in  their  relations,  especially  the  very  notable  one  of 
elongation  of  the  neck  of  the  radius  reported  in  several  cases.  This 
is  in  keeping  with  similar  instances  of  overgrowth  at  other  points 
where  the  normal  conditions  of  pressure  have  been  lost,  and  with  the 
coincident  elongation  downward  of  the  external  condyle  of  the  humerus 
noted  in  Allen's  case  and  in  one  of  R.  W.  Smith  quoted  by  Gurlt.^ 
It  requires  only  that  the  displacement  should  occur  before  the  growth 
of  the  skeleton  is  complete. 

The  only  recorded  case  of  dislocation  of  both  bones  of  the  forearm 
at  birth  is  one  reported  by  Chaussier  and  quoted  by  Pingaud.^  A 
young  woman  during  the  ninth  month  of  pregnancy  felt  her  child 
move  so  vigorously  that  she  almost  lost  consciousness.  The  move- 
ments were  repeated  three  times  in  the  course  of  ten  minutes;  delivery 
took  place  normally  at  term.  The  child  was  weak  and  presented  a 
complete  dislocation  of  the  forearm  backward.  Malgaigne  thought  it 
probable  that  the  lesion  was  produced,  not  by  the  convulsive  action  of 
the  muscles,  but  by  the  striking  of  the  limb  against  the  wall  of  the 
uterus. 

A  few  instances  of  dislocation  due  to  pathological  changes  within 
the  joint,  such  as  fungous  arthritis  or  relaxation  of  the  ligaments  in 
the  course  of  an  acute  illness,  have  been  reported. 

1  Gurll:  Log.  cit.,  p.  320. 

2  Pingaud  :  Diet.  EncyclopiSdique  des  Sc.  Med.,  art.  Coude,  p.  606. 


42 


CHAPTER    XLYIII. 

DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  LOWER  RADIO-ULNAR  JOINT ;  OF  THE 
RADIO-CARPAL  JOINT;  OF  THE  CARPAL  BONES.  CARPO- 
METACARPAL DISLOCATIONS. 

These  dislocations,  obscurely  mentioned  by  the  earlier  writers,  were 
first  described,  according  to  Malgaigne,  in  1771,  by  Desault,  who 
reported  five  cases  and  said  he  had  observed  a  great  number  of  others. 
He  spoke  of  the  injury  as  a  dislocation  of  the  radius,  but  Boyer  and 
Dupuytren  preferred  to  call  it  a  dislocation  of  the  ulna,  and  their  choice 
has  been  generally  accepted  and  followed.  Both  traumatic  and  path- 
ological forms  have  been  described.  The  reported  cases  are  com- 
paratively few  if  those  cases  are  excluded  in  which  the  injury  is  a 
complication  of  a  fracture  of  the  lower  end  of  the  radius,  and  those 
injuries  observed  in  young  children  which  are  generally  thought  to  be 
a  subluxation  of  the  head  of  the  radius,  but  which  some  consider  dis- 
locations of  the  lower  end  of  the  ulna;  few  surgeons  who  have  reported 
their  experience  have  seen  more  than  a  single  case.  Tillmanns'  col- 
lected 48  cases  in  addition  to  one  observed  by  himself,  of  which  the 
dislocation  of  the  ulna  was  forward  in  16,  backward  in  18,  and  inward 
in  9,  and  in  5  the  direction  was  not  stated;  but  in  3  of  the  first  group, 
8  of  the  second,  all  of  the  third,  and  1  of  the  fourth,  there  was  also 
fracture  of  the  radius,  and  in  4  others  the  ulna  perforated  the  skin  and 
there  is  reason  to  think  the  radius  also  was  fractured.  Excluding  the 
cases  complicated  by  fracture,  and  including  only  3  of  Desault' s  5, 
there  remain  12  dislocations  forward  and  10  backward;  to  these  may 
be  added  2  backward  and  3  forward  seen  or  collected  by  Hamilton,  3 
forward  collected  by  Poinsot,  1  forward  of  my  own,^  1  forward  by 
Holst,^  and  3  backward  by  Pidlon,*  Horrocks,*"  and  Berger,^  making 
a  total  of  these  two  varieties  of  20  forward  and  15  backw^ard.  The 
reported  dislocations  inward  or,  more  strictly  speaking,  downward  and 
inward,  are  really  dislocations  of  the  broken  end  of  the  radius  and  the 
attached  carpus  upward;  to  these  may  be  added  also  the  few  cases  of 
dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  radius  (q.  v.)  in  which  the  entire  bone 
has  been  displaced  upw^ard  along  the  ulna. 

Dislocations  Backward. 

The  cause  in  most  of  the  cases  tabulated  above  was  exaggerated 
pronation  of  the  wrist;  in  some  the  mechanism  is  not  indicated,  and 

1  Tillmanns:  Arch,  der  Heilkunde,  1874,  vol.  xv.  p.  249. 

2  Stimson  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  May  25,  1889. 

3  Hoist :  Centbl.  fur  Chir.,  June  20,  1891.        *  Ridlon  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  April  25,  1891. 
s  Horrocks  :  Lancet,  June  27,  1891.  o  Berger  :  L'Union  Med.,  April  13, 1895. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST.  659 

in  others  it  is  not  clear.  A  few  of  them,  Desault,  DugSs,  Rendu,  have 
been  included  either  by  the  surgeon  himself  (Rendu)  or  by  other  writers 
among  dislocations  of  the  upper  end  of  the  radius  by  elongation,  and 
in  these  the  injury  was  produced  in  very  young  children  by  traction 
upon,  or  forced  pronation  of,  the  hand .  Sometimes  the  exaggerated  pro- 
nation has  been  effected  by  external  violence, as  in  Boyer's  case,  in  which 
a  lad  engaged  his  hand  between  the  spokes  of  a  moving  wheel;  some- 
times by  muscular  action,  as  in  one  of  Desault' s,  a  washerwoman  who  was 
wringing  clothes,  or  in  one  of  Rognetta's,  a  carpenter  who  was  drilling 
a  hole  in  a  plank ;  Dalechamp's  patient  was  bitten  at  the  wrist  by  a  horse. 

The  pathology  has  not  been  shown  by  direct  examination  of  either 
recent  or  old  cases,  and  the  only  experiments  bearing  upon  it  are  those 
of  Goyrand,  quoted  in  Chapter  XLVI.,  and  they  show  only  that  by 
exaggerated  pronation  the  triangular  fibro-cartilage  uniting  the  radius 
and  ulna  could  be  carried  so  far  forward  as  to  clear  the  end  of  the  ulna 
entirely;  he  did  not  succeed  in  producing  by  this  means  a  dislocation 
that  would  maintain  itself  without  the  aid  of  pressure  upon  the  hand. 
It  seems  probable  that  in  the  clinical  cases  there  was  also  rupture  of 
the  posterior  radio-ulnar  ligament. 

Symptoms.  The  hand  is  slightly  or  markedly  pronated;  its  adduc- 
tion has  been  noted  by  some,  and  diminution  of  the  transverse  diameter 
of  the  wrist  by  others.  Flexion  and  extension  of  the  wrist  are  free; 
supination  diilficult. 

The  deformity  consists  in  a  marked  projection  of  the  lower  end  of 
the  ulna  on  the  back  of  the  wrist,  and  a  corresponding  depression  in 
front;  the  ulna  may,  in  addition,  slightly  overlap  the  end  of  the  radius, 
so  that  its  axis  if  prolonged  downward  would  pass  to  the  middle  finger. 

In  connection  with  these  may  be  mentioned  a  unique  case  reported 
by  Schmid'  of  dislocation  of  the  radius  forward  from  the  ulna  and 
carpus,  caused  by  a  fall  upon  the  hand. 

The  diagnosis  appears  to  be  easy.  Malgaigne  calls  attention  to  the 
danger  of  mistaking  the  cause  for  the  effect  in  old  cases  in  which  the 
dislocation  follows  a  chronic  arthritis,  and  also  of  overlooking  an  asso- 
ciated fracture  of  the  radius. 

Reduction.  Reduction  has  always  been  readily  effected  by  direct 
pressure  on  the  radius,  aided  sometimes  by  abduction  or  supination  of 
the  hand;  occasionally  supination  alone  has  been  sufficient,  Even  in 
old  cases — sixty  days  —reduction  has  been  easily  made. 

Recurrence  has  been  noted  in  three  cases.  In  one  of  Hamilton's  the 
dislocation  had  existed  twenty  years,  but  the  movements  of  the  limb 
were  perfect. 

Dislocations  Forward. 

Dislocation  of  the  lower  end  of  the  ulna  forward  appears  commonly  to 
have  been  caused  by  direct  violence  acting  in  opposite  directions  upon 
the  lower  ends  of  the  radius  and  ulna  while  the  hand  was  more  or  less 
supinated.  It  does  not  clearly  appear  that  the  cause  has  ever  acted  by 
carrying  the  movement  of  supination  beyond  its  normal  limit,  although 
it  is  not  improbable  that  this  was  the  case  in  one  or  two  instances.     J 

1  Schmid :  Correspondenz-Blatt  d.  Wiirttemberg  iirztl.  Landvereins,  November  16, 1892. 


^60  I^ISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

No  post-mortem  examination  has  been  reported,  and  the  pathology 
of  the  injury  can,  therefore,  only  be  inferred.  Desault,  however,  met 
with  a  specimen  of  an  old  dislocation  in  the  cadaver  of  a  man  sixty 
years  old;  the  hand  could  not  be  extended,  and  rotation  was  very 
limited.  The  sigmoid  cavity  of  the  radius  was  filled  with  cellular 
tissue;  the  head  of  the  ulna,  situated  in  front  of  this  cavity,  rested  on 
a  sesamoid  bone  to  which  it  was  attached  by  a  capsular  ligament. 
Other  injuries  had  contributed  to  the  loss  of  motion. 

In  an  entirely  unique  case  reported  by  Valleteau^  the  dislocation 
was  compound.  The  patient's  forearm  had  been  caught  between  the 
spokes  of  a  moving  wheel;  the  ulna  projected  twenty-eight  lines 
through  the  skin,  crossing  the  front  of  the  radius,  which  appears  not 
to  have  been  broken. 

Symptoms.  The  forearm  is  partly  pronated  or  in  v^arying  degrees  of 
supination,  the  wrist  flexed  or  extended,  rotation  difficult  and  painful. 
The  lower  end  of  the  ulna  is  prominent  in  front,  with  a  corresponding 
depression  behind,  and  sometimes  displaced  toward  the  outer  side  so 
that  it  overlaps  the  front  of  the  radius  and  its  axis  is  directed  toward 
the  middle  of  the  hand.  The  radius  maintains  its  relations  with  the 
carpus.  In  my  case  I  could  not  determine  the  position  of  the  trian- 
gular fibro-cartilage. 

The  diagnosis  is  easy,  but  search  should  be  made,  as  in  the  preced- 
ing variety,  for  the  possible  coexistence  of  a  fracture  of  the  radius. 

The  best  method  of  reduction  appears  to  be  by  direct  pressure  upon 
the  ulna  and  counter-pressure  on  the  radius. 

Dislocations  Inward  and  Downward. 

Dislocations  inward  and  downward  have  been  observed  in  connection 
with  fracture  of  the  radius  or,  very  rarely,  with  dislocation  of  its  upper 
end,  and  are  to  be  deemed  complications  or  incidents  of  the  other  and 
more  important  injury. 

In  like  manner,  the  serious  complication  of  perforation  of  the  skin 
by  the  ulna  has  occurred  only  once  except  in  connection  with  fracture 
of  the  radius. 

Pathological  dislocations  have  been  reported  as  the  consequence  of 
chronic  suppurative  arthritis  and  also  of  non-suppurative  arthritis  pro- 
voked by  a  sprain  or  by  a  fracture  of  the  radius.  Possibly  the  case 
reported  by  Kognetta,^  of  a  negro  who  suffered  from  an  habitual  dislo- 
cation of  the  ulna  backward  gradually  produced  by  the  effects  of  his 
occupation  as  a  woodsawyer,  belongs  in  this  category,  the  ligaments 
having  become  relaxed  in  consequence  of  an  arthritis  set  up  by  the 
constantly  repeated  mechanical  violence  of  the  movement. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  EADIO-OARPAL  JOINT. 

These  dislocations,  long  thought  to  be  common  because  fracture  of 
the  lower  end  of  the  radius  was  habitually  supposed  to  be  a  dislocation 

1  Valleteau:  Gazette  Modicale,  1836,  p.  250. 

2  Rognetta:  Archives  gen.  de  M6d.,  1834,  vol.  v.  p.  396. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST.  661 

until  Dupuytren  forced  a  recognition  of  the  error,  are  now  known  to 
be  of  infrequent  occurrence.  Dupuytren,  in  the  vigor  of  his  correction 
of  the  error,  went  to  the  other  extreme  and  pronounced  them  uni<nown 
or  of  very  great  rarity,  and  this  assertion  has  cohjred  the  general  opin- 
ion concerning  their  frequency  even  to  the  present  time.  The  statistics 
that  have  since  been  collected  are  not  entirely  trustworthy,  perhaps, 
for  the  error  in  diagnosis  appears  still  to  be  made  and  all  reported  cases 
cannot  be  unhesitatingly  accepted,  but  there  is  reason  to  think  that  the 
rarity  is  not  very  great,  and  there  are  enough  well-authenticated  cases 
to  make  it  possible  to  trace  a  general  description  of  the  injury.  Mal- 
gaigne  collected  14  cases,  8  of  backward,  6  of  forward  dislocation. 
Parker^  collected  33  cases,  23  backward  and  10  forward.  Tillmanns,^ 
1874,  collected  24,  13  backward  and  10  forward;  and  Servier  in  1880 
collected  26  besides  1  observed  by  himself,  13  l)ackward,  13  forward, 
and  1  outward,  of  which  19  were  not  contained  in  Tillmanns's  paper. 
I  saw  1  and  collected  13  cases  published  between  1880  and  1887,  12 
backward  and  2  forward,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  5  of  these  were 
reported  in  the  British  Medical  Journal  within  six  weeks  of  one  another, 
March  and  April,  1880,  the  reports  of  the  last  4  having  been  called 
out  by  that  of  the  first.  Albert  speaks  of  5  within  his  knowledge  or 
observation.  Even  supposing  Parker's  33  to  include  all  of  Malgaigne's 
and  Tillmanns's,  and  counting  19  of  Servier's,  this  would  still  give  a 
total  of  about  70  cases  more  or  less  well  authenticated,  the  correct- 
ness of  the  diagnosis  in  a  number  of  them  being  entirely  beyond 
question. 

The  necessity  of  receiving  with  some  caution  those  cases  that  have 
been  observed  clinically  and  reported  with  scanty  detail  is  shown  by 
the  errors  in  diagnosis  that  have  been  made  by  experienced  surgeons 
fully  aware  of  the  difficulty.  Malgaigne*  narrates  three  striking  cases. 
At  the  time  when  Dupuytren  was  first  questioning  the  correctness  of 
the  diagnosis  in  which  fracture  of  the  lower  end  of  the  radius  was 
habitually  taken  to  be  a  backward  dislocation  of  the  wrist,  a  patient 
presenting  all  the  usual  signs  of  this  injury  died  at  the  Hotel  Dieu. 
Pelletan  declared  it  to  be  a  dislocation,  Dupuytren  a  fracture,  and  the 
former  did  not  vary  from  his  opinion  until  after  the  last  stroke  of  the 
scalpel  had  exposed  the  bone  and  showed  the  injury  to  be  a  fracture 
with  crushing  of  the  lower  end  of  the  radius.  In  1834  Poux  made 
the  diagnosis  of  dislocation  backward  in  the  case  of  a  child  that  had 
fallen  from  a  tree;  again  dissection  proved  it  to  be  a  fracture,  with 
separation  of  the  epiphysis.  Still  more  remarkable  was  a  case  reported 
by  Chassaignac"  in  which  he  excised  the  projecting  ends  of  the  radius 
and  ulna,  thinking  the  case  was  dislocation;  on  careful  examination  it 
proved  to  be  a  separation  of  the  epiphysis  of  the  radius.  The  diffi- 
culty is  probably  not  so  great  in  dislocations  of  the  carpus  forward. 

The  dislocation  may  be  complete  or  incomplete  backward  or  forward, 
and  in  one  case  was  incomplete  outward;   it  may  be  simple  or  com- 

1  Parker :  Transactions  of  the  South  Carolina  Medical  Association.    Abstract  in  the  New  York 
Medical  Record,  1876,  vol.  vi.  p.  396. 
-  Tillmanns:  Loc.  Cit. 

■'  Servier:  Gazette  Hebdom.,  1880,  p.  211.  4  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  cit.,  n.  703. 

^  Cbassaignac  ;  Ball,  de  la  Soci6te  de  Chir.,  1868,  p.  225. 


662  DISLOCATIONS. 

pound,  or  associated  with  fracture  of  the  radius  or  ulna.  Apparently 
fracture  of  the  edge  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  radius  on  the  side 
toward  which  the  carpus  is  dislocated  is  not  infrequent;  such  fracture 
of  the  posterior  lip  of  the  radius  is  known  in  this  country  as  "  Barton's 
fracture,"  but  it  appears  to  me  properly  to  belong  among  the  disloca- 
tions, the  fracture  being  only  an  incident  or  complication.  The  incom- 
plete dislocations  are  mainl}^  those  in  which  only  the  outer  portion 
of  the  carpus,  the  scaphoid  and  semilunaris,  is  dislocated  from  the 
radius,  while  the  inner  portion  maintains  its  relations  with  the  trian- 
gular fibro-cartilage  and  ulna;  this  variety  appears  to  be  produced  by 
a  movement  of  rotation  (pronation  or  supination)  in  which  either  the 
radius  or  the  carpus  is  kept  stationary  while  the  other  moves  away 
from  it;  it  appears  to  be  sometimes  associated  with  disturbance  of  the 
relations  of  the  lower  radio-ulnar  joint. 

In  addition  to  the  traumatic,  a  few  pathological  and  congenital  dis- 
locations have  been  reported. 

Dislocations  Backward. 

Causes.  The  causes  of  this  dislocation  are  characterized  by  great 
violence,  as  a  fall  from  a  height  upon  the  palm  of  the  hand;  in  some 
cases  the  wrist  appears  to  have  been  flexed  forward,  "  doubled  under" 
the  patient,  in  a  fall  while  walking,  or  from  a  slight  elevation. 

In  two  almost  identical  cases,  Billroth^  and  Rydygier,^  the  mode  of 
production  is  clearly  shown  :  in  the  former,  the  patient,  while  pressing 
with  the  palm  of  his  hand  against  a  railway  car  or  in  an  effort  to 
arrest  its  njotion,  was  struck  upon  the  back  of  the  elbow  by  another 
car  moving  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  a  compound  dislocation  of 
the  wrist  was  produced,  the  articular  surfaces  of  the  radius  and  ulna 
projecting  through  the  skin  on  the  palmar  surface.  Rydygier's  patient 
was  caught  in  the  same  way  between  a  wagon  and  a  wall,  alongside  of 
which  it  was  moving. 

Pathology.  The  pathology  is  illustrated  by  a  number  of  post-mortem 
examinations,  and  by  some  cases  complicated  by  wounds  which  per- 
mitted direct  examination  of  the  joint.  The  autopsy  that  has  been 
reported  with  most  detail  is  that  of  a  case  observed  by  Voillemier.^ 
The  patient  was  a  man  twenty-seven  years  old,  who  had  fallen  from  the 
third  story  of  a  building,  and  received  injuries  which  caused  his  death 
in  four  hours.  The  violence  that  caused  the  dislocation  of  the  wrist 
was  apparently  receiv^ed  upon  the  palm  of  the  hand  while  in  dorsal 
flexion.  The  external  and  posterior  ligaments  were  ruptured,  the 
anterior  was  torn  away  from  the  radius,  and  the  internal  was  intact 
but  was  separated  from  the  ulna  by  avulsion  of  its  styloid  process. 
The  tendons  and  muscles  of  the  back  of  the  forearm  were  not  torn, 
but  had  been  stripped  off  the  radius,  bringing  -with  them  the  perios- 
teum and  small  pieces  of  attached  bone.  The  superficial  flexor  muscle 
was  widely  perforated  and  torn  by  the  styloid  process  of  the  radius  at 
its  inner  portion,  that  corresponding  to  the  tendons  of  the  ring  and 

1  Billroth  :  Arch,  ftir  kiln.  Chir.,  vol.  x.  p.  601,  quoted  by  Tillraanns. 
"  Rydygier :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  ftir  Chir.,  1881,  vol.  xv.  p.  289. 
3  Voillemier ;  Arch.  gen.  de  Med.,  1839,  vol.  vi.  p.  401. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST.  063 

little  fingers,  the  remainder  being  pushed  to  the  outer  side  together 
with  the  median  nerve  and  radial  vessels. 

In  Lenoir's  case  a  narrow  fragment  of  the  posterior  articular  border 
of  the  radius  had  been  broken  off;  it  remained  attached  to  the  capsule 
and  was  displaced  backward  with  the  carpus.  This  is  the  so-called 
'^  Barton's  fracture  of  the  radius"  (p.  283).  In  no  other  autopsy 
of  a  backward  dislocation  has  this  fracture  been  reported,  but  it  has 
been  suspected  to  exist  in  some  of  the  cases  observed  clinically,  and  a 
few  specimens  of  the  reunited  fracture  without  history  are  in  existence. 

In  a  case  quoted  in  the  Centralblatt  fur  Chirurgie,  1884,  p.  279,  both 
styloid  processes  were  broken. 

In  one  of  my  own  the  semilunar  bone  remained  attached  to  the 
radius,  and  the  scaphoid  was  broken. 

Of  the  incomplete  form,  that  in  which  only  the  outer  portion  of  the 
carpus  is  dislocated,  the  only  case  given  in  sufficient  detail  is  that  of 
Dupuy  :^  the  patient,  a  young  and  muscular  porter,  while  trying  to 
lift  a  cask  had  his  hand  forcibly  supinated  while  the  radius  remained 
pronated.  On  examination  two  hours  later  the  hand  was  found  Hexed 
and  half  supinated,  while  the  radius  was  pronated.  Both  styloid  pro- 
cesses could  be  distinctly  felt,  that  of  the  ulna  in  its  normal  relations 
with  the  carpus,  but  that  of  the  radius  and  the  articular  surface  of  the 
latter  projecting  as  a  ridge  on  the  posterior  aspect  of  the  wrist.  No 
crepitus;  no  shortening  of  the  limb.  Reduction  was  effected  by  trac- 
tion and  direct  pressure. 

In  short,  the  dislocation  is  habitually  accompanied  by  an  extensive 
laceration  of  the  ligaments,  especially  the  anterior  and  external;  avul- 
sion of  the  posterior  lip  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  radius  may  take 
the  place  of  rupture  of  the  posterior  ligament.  The  extensor  tendons 
are  lifted  from  their  grooves  but  not  torn;  the  flexors  may  be  torn  or 
pushed  to  the  outer  side  by  the  projecting  radius;  the  median  nerve 
and  radial  artery  have  always  escaped  injury,  even  when  the  radius 
has  been  driven  through  the  skin.  The  carpus  may  be  displaced 
directly  backward  so  as  to  rest  upon  the  posterior  surface  of  the  radius, 
without  change  in  the  relations  of  the  several  bones  that  constitute  it, 
or  with  more  or  less  separation  of  them  from  one  another,  the  semi- 
lunar bone  in  two  cases  being  completely  detached  from  the  others  and 
remaining  attached  to  the  radius;  or  the  displacement  may  be  complete 
only  on  the  radial  side,  the  movement  being  one  of  rotation  (supina- 
tion) of  the  carpus  turning  on  its  inner  side  as  a  centre.  A  superficial 
transverse  rent  in  the  skin  on  the  palmar  surface  of  the  wrist  observed 
in  one  case  was  probably  caused  by  overstretching  of  the  skin  across 
the  projecting  end  of  the  radius. 

Symptoms.  The  deformity  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  that  of  Colles's 
fracture,  but  yet  the  differences  are  such  that  Albert^  says  he  was  able 
to  make  the  differential  diagnosis  at  sight.  These  differences  are  that 
the  swelling  on  the  anterior  aspect  of  the  wrist  and  lower  part  of  the 
forearm  extends  further  down,  nearer  to  the  hand,  in  dislocation  than 
in  fracture,  reaching  even  to  the  ball  of  the  thumb,  and  ends  more 

1  Dupuy  ;  Journ.  de  Bordeaux,  July,  1850,  quoted  by  Tillmanus. 

2  Albert :  Cbirurg.,  vol.  ii.  p.  440. 


664  DISLOCATIONS. 

abruptly;  that  on  the  back  of  the  wrist  is  more  sharply  outlined  at  its 
upper  border.  In  addition,  the  hand  and  wrist  are  commonly  more 
flexed  upon  the  forearm  and  less  movable  in  dislocation,  and  may  be 
adducted. 

On  palpation  the  styloid  processes  should  be  recognized,  and  their  rela- 
tions to  each  other  and  to  the  bones  of  the  hand  and  wrist  determined; 
in  fracture  the  styloid  process  of  the  radius  is  displaced  upward  to  or 
above  the  level  of  that  of  the  ulna,  its  distance  from  the  head  of  the 
second  metacarpal  bone,  for  instance,  is  unaltered;  while  in  dislocation 
the  styloid  process  of  the  radius  remains  on  a  lower  level  than  that  of 
the  ulna,  and  its  distance  from  the  head  of  the  second  metacarpal  bone 
is  lessened;  it  is  also  further  removed  anteriorly  from  the  back  of  the 
wrist. 

In  some  of  the  cases  the  upper  margin  of  the  dorsal  swelling  could 
be  distinctly  felt  to  be  hard  and  rounded,  the  convexity  directed  upward, 
and  the  bony  thickness  of  the  wrist  to  be  notably  increased  antero- 
posteriorly,  and  movable  upon  the  shaft  of  the  radius.  The  anterior 
swelling  is  hard  and  irregular. 

Reduction  has  usually  been  easily  effected  by  traction  upon  the  hand 
and  direct  pressure  on  the  carpus,  and  as  a  tendency  to  recurrence  is- 
not  to  be  anticipated,  no  other  dressings  are  needed  than  such  as  will 
secure  immobility. 

In  compound  cases  the  treatment  should  be  rigorously  antiseptic, 
with  ample  provision  for  drainage.  Many  surgeons  think  that  a  par- 
tial excision  in  such  cases  favors  recovery  without  accident,  but  I  believe 
that  opinion  to  be  a  survival  from  the  pre-antiseptic  days,  and  that 
cleanliness,  drainage,  and  rest  will  make  excision  unnecessary. 

The  prognosis  is  favorable  in  the  uncomplicated  cases,  and  even 
when  the  dislocation  has  remained  unreduced  the  re-establishment  of 
the  functions  of  the  joint  has  been  satisfactory. 

Dislocations  Forward. 

The  causes  of  the  forward  dislocations  have  commonly  been  a  forci- 
ble bending  of  the  hand  forward  or  backward.  In  two  cases  it  was 
direct  violence;  in  one  of  them,  Moore, ^  the  fall  of  a  heavy  weight 
upon  the  wrist  while  the  latter  was  resting  on  the  ground  (the  account 
does  not  state  whether  the  forearm  was  resting  on  its  anterior  or  pos- 
terior surface);  in  the  other,  Dieu,^  the  patient  was  kicked  on  the  back 
of  the  hand  by  a  horse. 

Pathology.  Seven  autopsies  have  been  reported,  Malle,^Letenneur,* 
Collin,^  Jarjavay,*^  Boinet,^  Goodall,^  and  Dubar.^  In  addition,  there 
is  a  compound  dislocation,  for  which  Bransby  Cooper^"  amputated;  the 
position  and  extent  of  the  wound  are  not  stated,  the  only  detail  that  is 

1  Moore :  New  York  Medical  Record,  1880,  vol.  xviii.  p.  96. 

2  Dieu  :  Bull,  de  la  Societe  de  Chirurgie,  1884,  p  296. 

3  Malle  :  Quoted  by  Malgaigne,  Tillmanns,  and  Servier. 

4  Letenneur:  Bull,  de  la  Sociei(J  Aimtomique,  1839,  vol.  xiv.  p.  162. 

6  Collin  :  Ibid.,  1844,  p.  335.  e  Jarjavay  :  Ibid.,  1861,  p.  812. 

■^  Boinet:  Bull,  de  la  Soci6te  de  Chirurgie,  1868,  p.  211.    This  specimen  was  taken  from  the  bodj' 
of  an  old  woman  in  the  dissecting-room ;  possibly  the  case  was  one  of  "  spontaneous  "  dislocation. 
8  Goodall :  Lancet,  1878,  vol.  i.  p.  937. 
s  Dubar:  Gaz  des  Hopitaux,  July  28,  1892.  w  Cooper  :  Loc.  eit.,  p  422. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST.  665 

given  being  that  ''  the  flexor  tendon  of  the  thumb  was  torn  through." 
These  autopsies  sliow  rupture  of  the  anterior  and  external  lateral 
ligaments,  and  sometimes  of  all,  the  carpus  being  displaced  well 
upward  along  the  anterior  aspect  of  the  radius  and  ulna;  in  one  case, 
Goodall,  the  connection  between  the  semilunar  and  cuneiform  was 
destroyed,  the  latter  bone  retaining  its  normal  relations  with  the  trian- 
gular fibro-cartilage,  while  the  scaphoid  and  semilunar  with  the  rest 
of  the  carpus  were  displaced  forward  and  upward,  so  that  these  two 
bones  passed  over  the  free  torn  border  of  the  ligament  stretching  from 
the  styloid  process  of  the  radius  to  the  cuneiform,  which  was  thus  left 
interposed  between  them  and  the  articular  surface  of  the  radius,  and 
prevented  complete  reduction.  Apparent  reduction  was  easily  effected 
during  life,  but  the  displacement  at  once  recurred;  there  were  other 
wounds,  and  the  patient  died  of  tetanus  on  the  eighth  day.  The  ante- 
rior lip  of  the  articular  surface  was  broken  off  in  two  cases,  and  in 
one  of  these  and  another  the  styloid  process  of  the  radius  was  broken 
off.  Fracture  of  the  styloid  process  was  observed  clinically  by  Mal- 
gaigne,  and  fracture  of  the  anterior  lip  was  suspected  in  a  case  treated 
by  me  in  1882,  because  of  crepitus  perceived  during  reduction,  and 
because  of  the  facility  with  which  the  dislocation  could  be  reduced  and 
reproduced.  Boinet  says  that  in  producing  the  dislocation  upon  the 
cadaver  he  always  fractured  the  anterior  lip  of  the  radius. 

Symptoms.  The  hand  may  occupy  any  position  between  moderate 
dorsal  and  palmar  flexion,  the  latter  being  the  more  common,  and  the 
fingers  slightly  flexed.  Voluntary  and  passive  movements  of  the  wrist 
are  restricted  and  painful.  In  a  case  reported  by  Roland,^  a  boy  twelve 
years  old,  who  had  fallen  five  or  six  feet  and  struck  upon  the  back  of 
his  flexed  right  hand,  the  wrist  was  immovable  in  right-angled  flexion, 
and  the  fingers  were  flexed  into  the  palm  and  could  not  be  straightened. 
During  the  struggles  of  etherization  the  bones  snapped  back  into  place; 
there  was  no  tendency  to  recurrence,  and  the  boy  made  a  prompt  recov- 
ery, using  the  hand  freely  in  a  few  days.  The  deformity  consists  in  a 
marked  depression  on  the  back  of  the  wrist,  the  upper  border  of  which 
is  marked  by  the  sharply  projecting  outline  of  the  radius  and  the  end 
of  the  ulna,  and  in  a  corresponding  rounded  prominence  on  the  front 
of  the  wrist,  formed  by  the  displaced  carpus.  The  hand  appears  to  be 
shortened  at  the  expense  of  the  wrist,  and  an  actual  shortening  can  be 
demonstrated  by  measurement  from  the  styloid  process  of  the  radius 
to  the  finger.     The  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  wrist  is  increased. 

In  the  old  cases  (Collin,  Jarjavay,  Boinet)  a  new  articular  surface 
had  formed  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  radius  and  ulna,  in  two  of 
the  cases  a  full  inch  above  their  lower  ends.  In  Collin's  the  limb  was 
equal  in  strength  and  freedom  of  use  to  the  other,  and  all  the  move- 
ments were  complete  except  those  of  abduction  and  adduction  of  the 
wrist,  in  which  there  was  slight  and  greater  loss  respectively. 

Reduction  has  been  easily  effected,  with  or  without  anaesthesia,  by 
traction  upon  the  hand  or  by  direct  pressure  on  the  displaced  bones,  or 
by  a  combination  of  the  two.  In  my  case  slight  displacement  forward 
persisted. 

1  Roland :  Philadelphia  Medical  Times,  1879,  vol.  ix.  p.  430. 


666  DISLOCATIONS. 

Dislocations  Outward. 

Of  this  form  of  dislocation  only  one  case  has  been  reported,  by  Chap- 
plain/  of  Marseilles.  The  patient  was  a  man,  forty-seven  years  old, 
who  had  fallen  from  a  height  of  four  metres,  the  weight  of  his  body 
being  received  upon  his  left  hand.  The  hand  was  widely  displaced  to 
the  outer  side,  and  through  a  wound  situated  upon  the  inner  side  of 
the  wrist  the  bones  of  the  forearm  projected  and  exposed  their  entire 
articular  surface.  The  wound  of  the  skin  extended  from  the  junction 
of  the  posterior  and  internal  surfaces  of  the  wrist,  around  the  latter, 
and  half-way  across  the  anterior  surface.  The  styloid  process  of  the 
radius  had  been  broken  off,  and  it  accompanied  the  carpus  in  its  dis- 
placement. The  pisiform  was  almost  completely  detached  and  crushed; 
the  connections  of  the  semilunar  with  the  carpal  bones  had  been  rup- 
tured, and  it  preserved  its  relations  with  the  radius.  There  was,  in 
addition,  a  dislocation  of  the  elbow  backward. 

The  fragments  of  the  pisiform,  the  styloid  process  of  the  radius,  and 
the  semilunar  were  removed,  and  the  dislocation  easily  reduced.  A 
single  suture  was  placed  at  the  centre  of  the  wound,  and  the  hand  and 
forearm  were  thickly  enveloped  in  cotton  firmly  bound  on  (Gu^rin's 
dressing).  A  second  dressing  was  applied  on  the  eleventh  day  and 
removed  on  the  twenty  second,  when  a  large  abscess  was  found  on  the 
back  of  the  hand  and  forearm,  and  the  wound  made  at  the  time  of  the 
accident  nearly  healed.  A  subsequent  note,  five  and  a  half  months 
after  the  injury  was  received,  states  that  the  wounds  were  all  healed, 
the  phalangeal  and  metacarpo-phalangeal  joints  had  almost  entirely 
regained  their  mobility,  the  wrist  was  completely  anchylosed,  and  the 
elbow  only  slightly  movable. 

Pathological  Dislocations  of  the  Radio-carpal  Joint. 

These  dislocations,  so  far  as  they  are  due  to  destructive  disease  of 
the  joint,  are  of  secondary  interest,  and  do  not  readily  lend  themselves 
to  a  general  description.  Malgaigne  quotes  a  few  cases,  generally 
reported  briefly,  of  dislocations  forward  that  had  been  slowly  produced 
in  consequence  of  hydrarthrosis,  arthritis,  permanent  contraction  of 
the  flexor  muscles,  and  the  retraction  of  cicatricial  bands;  he  refers 
also  to  two  cases  briefly  mentioned  by  Guerin  among  his  congenital 
dislocations,  one  in  a  child  of  six  years,  and  the  other  in  a  girl  of  four- 
teen years  with  incomplete  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  forearm,  in 
which  the  dislocation  was  backward  and  upward  and  backward  and 
outward  respectively.  A  more  common  form,  one  that  has  been  seen 
with  sufficient  frequency  to  have  received  special  study,  is  the  following: 

Spontaneous  Subluxation  Forward. 

This  affection  was  first  described  by  Dupuytren^  as  a  condition  of 
the  joint  which  might  be  mistaken  for  a  dislocation,  and  of  which  he 
had  seen  a  considerable  number  of  cases,  especially  in  men  whose  occu- 

1  Chapplain  :  Bull,  de  la  SockHe  de  Chirurgie,  1874,  p.  479. 

2  Dupuytren :  Clinique  Chirurgicale,  vol.  iv.  p.  209. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST.  667 

pations  compelled  them  to  make  repeated,  sudden,  and  violent  traction 
with  their  hands,  as  in  working  a  press  or  dressing  cloth.  He  said 
that  under  the  influence  of  these  efforts  the  ligaments  of  the  joint 
became  stretched  so  that  the  bones  were  capable  of  more  extensive 
change  of  place  than  was  normal;  the  carpus,  being  no  longer  held 
firmly  against  the  bones  of  the  forearm,  yielded  to  the  traction  of  the 
flexor  muscles  and  shifted  to  a  position  in  front  of  their  lower  ends. 
All  the  signs  of  a  dislocation  were  present  except  pain  and  inflamma- 
tion. The  more  or  less  considerable  deformity  and  weakness  were  the 
only  inconveniences  of  the  condition,  and  were  not  sufficient  to  cause 
the  patients  to  intermit  their  work  or  seek  medical  help.  Ordinarily 
the  deformity  could  be  reduced  by  traction,  but  it  recurred  as  soon  as 
the  parts  were  left  at  rest. 

Malgaigne,  referring  to  this  description,  says  that  he  had  for  twenty 
years  vainly  sought  an  example  of  the  condition  in  the  largest  press- 
rooms of  Paris,  and  had  met  with  only  one,  in  a  patient  thirty-six 
years  old,  in  whom  the  condition  developed  at  about  the  age  of  twelve 
years  apparently  as  the  result  of  carrying  heavy  burdens;  in  this  case 
the  carpus  was  displaced  forward  and  upward,  three  centimetres  above 
the  lower  end  of  the  ulna,  and  one  centimetre  above  that  of  the  radius, 
the  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  wrist  was  five  and  a  half  centi- 
metres on  the  ulnar  side,  but  could  be  reduced  to  four  and  a  half  cen- 
timetres by  pressure,  on  the  radial  side  it  was  only  four  centimetres, 
but  the  articular  edge  of  the  radius  [posterior?]  was  much  depressed 
and  apparently  inclined  forward.  Above  the  carpus,  on  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  radius,  and  apparently  adherent  to  it,  was  a  bony  promi- 
nence. All  movements  were  free,  except  dorsal  flexion,  which  was 
notably  diminished. 

In  1878  Madelung^  read  before  the  Seventh  Congress  of  German 
Surgeons  a  paper  upon  the  subject  based  upon  the  observation  of 
twelve  cases,  and  the  post-mortem  examination  of  one.  Of  his  twelve 
patients  the  dislocation  was  unilateral  in  ten  (four  on  the  right  side, 
five  on  the  left,  and  in  one  the  side  was  not  noted),  and  bilateral  in  two; 
eight  patients  were  females,  four  males.  The  earliest  age  at  which  the 
condition  originated  was  the  thirteenth  year;  in  only  two  cases  did  it 
begin  after  the  twenty-third  year.  All  but  one  of  the  patients  belonged 
to  the  working  class,  but  their  occupations  were  not  marked  by  great 
muscular  efforts.  The  specimen  was  obtained  from  the  body  of  a 
woman  about  twenty  years  old,  who  had  died  apparently  a  short  time 
after  confinement.  The  appearance  of  the  limb  was  so  typical  that  he 
was  convinced  of  the  correctness  of  the  diagnosis  of  spontaneous  sub- 
luxation, even  in  the  absence  of  any  history  of  the  case.  There  was 
no  sign  of  chronic  inflammation  of  the  bones  of  the  arm  or  of  any 
part  of  the  skeleton.  The  limb  was  frozen  and  then  sawn  longitu- 
dinally in  two  places.  The  first  section  was  made  through  the  centre 
of  the  OS  magnum  and  its  articulation  with  the  semilunar,  and  divided 
the  end  of  the  radius  so  near  its  ulnar  border  that  a  portion  of  the 
incisura  semilunaris  shows  in  the  section.     The  second  section  divides 

1  Madelung :  Deutsche  Gesellschaft  fiir  Chirurgie,  1878,  p.  259,  and  Archiv  fUr  klinische  Chirurgie, 
1879,  vol.  xxiii.  p  395. 


668 


DISLOCATIONS. 


the  lower  part  of  the  ulna  into  two  equal  parts  and  passes  through  the 
cuneiform,  pisiform,  and  unciform  bones.  The  sections  show  that  the 
radial  side  of  the  carpus  is  displaced  about  half  an  inch  forward  and 
an  equal  distance  upward  by  the  absorption  of  the  anterior  half  of  the 
loM^er  end  of  the  radius,  the  posterior  half  persisting  like  a  malleolus 
extended  over  the  dorsum  of  the  wrist,  and  the  displacement  forward 
of  the  ulnar  side  of  the  carpus  is  much  more  marked. 


Madelung's  case  of  spontaneous  dislocation  of  the  carpus  forward  ;  longitudinal  section  through 
(C)  the  OS  magnum  and  {L)  the  semilunar. 

Fig.  292. 


T\Qn^^      J/ef 


The  same ;  longitudinal  section  through  the  ulna,  [H)  the  unciform,  and  (T)  the  cuneiform. 

It  seems  probable  tliat  a  case  reported  by  Jean'  as  a  double  congen- 
ital dislocation  forward  was  of  this  character.  On  the  right  side  the 
cuneiform  was  placed  well  in  front  of  the  ulna;  the  semilunar  and 
scaphoid  not  so  far  in  front  of  the  radius,  which  had  formed  a  new 
articular  surface  by  loss  of  its  anterior  lip.  In  the  left  wrist  the  dis- 
placement was  of  the  same  character  but  less  marked.  Possibly,  also, 
Boinet's  case,  quoted  above,  page  665,  and  R.  W.  Smith's  case^  of  sup- 
posed congenital  dislocation  belong  to  this  class,  and  also  one  observed 
clinically  and  reported  by  Pooley^  as  a  double  congenital  dislocation 
forward. 

The  production  of  the  deformity  in  the  cases  observed  clinically  was 


1  Jean  :  Bull,  de  la  Socii?t6  Anatomique,  1875,  p.  398. 

2  R.  W.  Smith  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  251.  s  Pooley :  American  Practitioner,  1880,  vol.  sxi.  p.  216. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST.  669 

always  gradual,  requiring  from  six  months  to  two  years  for  its  full 
development,  and  in  no  case  could  it  be  attributed  to  a  traumatism, 
either  slight  or  severe,  and  in  no  case  were  there  any  signs  of  acute  or 
chronic  inflammation  of  any  part  of  the  joint.  In  most  cases  the 
patients  attributed  it  to  continuous  hard  labor  with  the  hands,  but  it  did 
not  appear  that  this  labor  was  more  than  usually  prolonged  or  hard. 
The  women  usually  attributed  it  to  washing  clothes;  two  of  the  men 
were  farmers,  one  a  tanner,  and  one  a  shoemaker.  In  the  discussion 
that  followed  the  reading  of  the  paper  Hirschberg  said  he  had  seen 
two  clearly  marked  cases,  the  result  of  practice  at  the  piano.  The 
deformity  in  all  the  cases  was  accompanied  by  pain  in  the  joint  and 
was  marked  especially  by  the  increasing  prominence  of  the  end  of  the 
ulna.  After  a  time  the  pain  ceased,  the  deformity  remained  stationary, 
and  the  freedom  of  use  of  the  limb  was  unimpaired  except  by  diminu- 
tion or  total  loss  of  dorsal  flexion. 

After  Madelung's  attention  had  been  called  to  the  subject  by  obser- 
vation of  his  earlier  cases,  he  took  pains  critically  to  examine  the  wrists 
of  people  in  all  classes  of  society,  and  was  astonished  to  find  how  fre- 
quently he  encountered  slight  deviations  from  the  normal  shape,  all  of 
which  were  of  the  type  of  spontaneous  dislocation  forward  and  were 
characterized  not  only  by  the  abnormal  projection  of  the  end  of  the 
ulna  but  also  by  change  in  the  articular  surface  of  the  radius  and 
the  position  of  the  carpus.  He  attributed  the  more  notable  changes 
in  the  end  of  the  radius  found  in  the  fully  developed  cases  to  the 
arrest  of  the  growth  of  its  anterior  portion  and  to  the  overgrowth  of 
its  posterior  portion  stimulated  by  the  loss  of  the  opposing  pressure 
normally  exerted  by  the  carpus,  and  he  sees  an  analogy  between  this 
change  and  those  observed  in  pes  valgus  and  genu  valgum.  I  have 
seen  one  case,  a  young  lady  who  spent  much  time  at  the  piano. 

Symptoms.  The  most  marked  deformity  is  seen  when  the  limb  is 
viewed  in  profile  from  the  ulnar  side;  the  end  of  the  ulna  projects 
markedly  at  the  back  of  the  wrist;  the  hand  is  displaced  toward  the 
palmar  side,  and  the  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  wrist  is  greatly 
increased.  Seen  from  the  radial  side  the  displacement  forward  does 
not  appear  so  great,  and  the  depression  below  the  end  of  the  radius  is 
bridged  over  by  the  extensor  tendons;  if  these  tendons  are  relaxed  by 
dorsal  flexion  of  the  hand  the  posterior  part  of  the  articular  surface  of 
the  radius  can  be  traced  with  the  finger,  and  its  edge  can  be  felt  to  be 
rounder  than  usual.  In  addition,  the  entire  epiphysis  appears  to  be 
bent  forward. 

By  traction  and  pressure  the  carpus  can  be  brought  nearer  to  the 
ulna,  but  it  returns  at  once  to  its  former  place  when  the  pressure  is 
removed.  No  change  can  be  effected  in  the  relations  of  the  carpus 
and  radius. 

Sometimes  the  region  is  very  painful;  points  that  are  tender  on 
pressure  are  seldom  found,  and  usually  only  at  the  upper  margin  of 
the  joint.  Every  movement  of  the  joint,  especially  dorsal  flexion,  is 
very  painful. 

Active  and  jDassive  dorsal  flexion  is  limited  to  an  extent  that  corre- 
sponds to  the  degree  of  the  subluxation,  and  in  the  most  marked  cases 


670  DISLOCATIONS. 

the  hand  cannot  be  carried  backward  beyond  straight  extension.  The 
range  of  pahnar  flexion  is  more  often  increased  than  diminished,  unless 
pain  is  present. 

Treatment.  The  alteration  in  the  shape  of  the  bones  fully  explains 
the  failure  of  the  few  attempts  that  have  been  made  forcibly  to  reduce 
the  displacement,  and  the  fact  that  the  limb  recovers  nearly  its  full 
usefulness  after  the  growth  of  the  skeleton  ceases  and  the  progress  of 
the  displacement  is  arrested,  furnishes  a  sound  reason  against  operative 
interference.  Prolonged  attempts  made  by  Madelung  to  improve  the 
position  by  fixation  in  gypsum  dressings  and  methodical  manipulations 
did  no  good  beyond  relief  of  pain,  and  after  he  had  learned  the  pathol- 
ogy and  nature  of  the  affection  he  limited  his  treatment  to  efforts  to 
increase  the  strength  of  the  arm  in  all  its  parts  by  methodical  use  and, 
in  some  cases,  to  the  wearing  of  a  moulded  leather  bracelet  which  could 
be  tightened  or  loosened  and  was  kept  in  place  by  a  loop  passing 
between  the  thumb  and  index  finger;  this  prevented  movements  of 
the  wrist  and  left  the  fingers  free. 

Congenital  Dislocations  of  the  Radio-carpal  Joint. 

The  question  of  congenital  dislocation  of  the  wrist  is  extremely  diffi 
cult  and  obscure,  for  in  the  great  majority  of  the  reported  cases  th- 
history  is  so  defective  that  the  period  at  which  the  displacement  took 
place  must  remain  uncertain,  although  in  most  of  them  it  was  certainly 
during  infancy  or  early  childhood.  In  some  the  congenital  origin  of 
the  malformation  can  hardly  be  called  in  question,  because  it  is  marked 
by  great  irregularities  of  shape  and  development  extending  over  sev- 
eral bones  and  joints,  but  the  propriety  of  classifying  such  cases  as 
dislocations  may  well  be  questioned,  for  not  only  do  the  joint  surfaces 
present  hardly  a  trace  of  their  normal  form,  but  also  one  or  more  of 
the  constituent  bones  may  be  entirely  lacking.  Such  cases  seem  much 
more  properly  to  belong  among  the  "  congenital  malformations"  and 
to  require  classification  as  ''  club-hands"  rather  than  as  dislocations. 
In  most  of  the  reported  cases  in  which  the  deformity  has  involved  only 
the  wrist  the  theory  of  congenital  origin  has  been  based  upon  the 
absence  of  the  history  of  any  traumatism  that  could  account  for  the 
deformity,  upon  the  statements  of  the  patient  or  his  friends  that  it  had 
existed  as  long  as  they  could  remember,  and  upon  its  symmetrical 
occurrence  in  both  wrists.  The  history  of  spontaneous  dislocations 
forward  shows  how  defective  this  argument  is. 

The  only  alleged  example  of  congenital  dislocation  which  is  accepted 
as  such  by  Bouvier^  and  Malgaigne  is  one  reported  by  Marigues  in 
1755;  it  was  observed  in  a  stillborn  child.  The  radius  was  widely 
separated  from  the  ulna  at  its  lower  end,  and  in  the  interval  between 
them  were  lodged  the  bones  of  the  first  row  of  the  carpus  which  were 
held  in  place  by  strong  ligaments;  the  hand  was  hooked  inward,  and 
it  was  held  in  this  position  especially  by  a  strong  ligament  which 
extended  from  the  second  row  of  the  carpus  to  the  end  of  the  radius. 

1  Bouvier :  Diet.  Eneyclopedique  des  Sc.  Med. ,  art.  Main  Bote,  p.  166. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST.  071 

R.  W.  Smith'  describes  in  detail  several  specimens  of  displacement 
and  deformity  which  he  deemed  of  congenital  origin,  and  quotes  a 
well-known  case  reported  by  Cruveilhier  in  the  ninth  livraison  of  his 
Anatomie  Patholoc/ique.  One  of  these  cases  and  two  or  three  others 
which  have  also  been  reported  as  congenital  have  been  mentioned  in 
the  preceding  section. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  CARPAL  BONES. 

These  present  themselves  as  isolated  dislocations  of  the  individual 
bones  or  as  partial  or  incomplete  dislocations  of  the  medio-carpal  joint. 

Of  the  eight  bones  which  form  the  carpus  only  the  pisiform  on  the 
ulnar  side  and  the  trapezium  on  the  radial  side  can  be  distinctly  pal- 
pated. The  former  is  felt  as  a  small,  hard  lump  at  the  junction  of  the 
palm  and  wrist  close  below  the  inner  end  of  the  lowest  of  the  transverse 
creases  that  cross  the  wrist;  it  rests  upon  the  anterior  face  of  the  cunei- 
form bone.  The  trapezium  can  be  readily  grasped  between  the  thumb 
and  finger  just  above  the  base  of  the  first  metacarpal  bone.  A  line 
drawn  straight  across  the  back  of  the  wrist  from  one  end  to  the  other 
of  the  lowest  transverse  crease  on  the  palmar  surface  crosses  the  neck 
of  the  OS  magnum  directly  above  the  base  of  the  third  metacarpal  when 
the  hand  is  extended  in  line  with  the  forearm,  and  the  finger  can  feel 
a  distinct  depression  at  this  point,  the  upper  margin  of  which  is  formed 
by  the  lower  face  of  the  semilunar;  if  now  the  wrist  is  flexed  forward 
the  hollow  becomes  filled  by  a  projecting  piece  of  bone,  the  head  of  the 
OS  magnum.  The  medio-carpal  joint  is  that  between  the  three  bones 
of  the  first  row  above  and  the  four  bones  of  the  second  row  below. 

Medio  carpal  Dislocations. 

Of  these,  one  dislocation  backward,  verified  by  autopsy,  and  two 
forward,  observed  clinically,  have  been  reported.  Possibly  some  of 
the  cases  reported  as  dislocations  of  the  os  magnum  were  of  this  kind. 

A  backward  dislocation  was  reported  by  Maisonneuve^  in .  a  patient 
who  had  fallen  from  a  height  of  forty  feet.  The  hand,  displaced  bodily 
to  a  plane  posterior  to  that  of  the  forearm,  was  shortened  several  lines; 
behind,  a  few  lines  below  the  styloid  processes,  was  a  transverse  bony 
prominence  more  than  a  centimetre  high,  with  a  depression  below, 
opposite  the  transverse  fold  of  the  wrist.  The  fingers  were  flexed,  and 
a  considerable  effort  was  required  to  extend  them.  The  bones  of  the 
second  row  were  completely  separated  from  those  of  the  first,  and  over- 
rode them  posteriorly  more  than  a  centimetre.  A  small  piece  of  the 
scaphoid  remained  attached  to  the  trapezium,  and  a  portion  of  the 
cuneiform,  with  the  pisiform,  accompanied  the  unciform.  The  internal 
and  external  lateral  ligaments  of  the  radio-carpal  joint  were  completely 
ruptured,  as  were  also  the  anterior  and  posterior  ligaments  uniting  the 
two  rows  of  the  carpus. 

An  incomplete  dislocation  forward  was  reported  by  Despres.^     The 

1  R.  W.  Smith  :  Fractures  and  Dislocations,  1847,  p.  238. 

2  Maisonneuve:  M6m.  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  quoted  by  Malgaigne. 

3  Despr^s  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chiruigie,  1875,  vol.  i.  p.  AVI. 


<572  J^^SL  0  CATIOSS. 

patient  was  presented  with  his  deformity  to  the  Societe  de  Chirurgie, 
and  as  there  was  a  difference  of  opinion  concerning  the  nature  of  the 
lesion  a  committee  was  appointed  to  examine  and  report  upon  it;  they 
unanimously  confirmed  the  diagnosis.  The  patient  was  a  man  twenty 
rears  old;  the  injmy  was  caused  by  a  faJl  from  a  swing,  probably  upon 
ithe  back,  the  hand  being  caught  between  the  body  and  the  ground. 
When  he  came  to  the  hospital,  a  week  later,  there  was  no  swelling  or 
redness  of  the  region:  on  the  back  of  the  wrist,  a  finger-breadth  below 
the  edge  of  the  radius,  was  a  depression  below  which  the  wrist  and 
hand  had  their  normal  appearance,  and  above  which,  between  it  and 
the  radius,  the  finger  recognized  a  distinct  bony  resistance.  The  axis 
of  the  hand  was  desdated  outward.  On  the  palmar  surface  the  tendon 
of  the  palmaris  longus  and  the  thenar  and  hypothenar  eminences  were 
prominent.  All  the  movements  of  the  wrist  were  preserved,  and  only 
forced  fiexion  was  painful.  Forced  extension  increased  the  displace- 
ment without  notably  changing  the  form  of  the  palmar  surface  of  the 
wrist.  During  flexion  the  prominence  of  the  head  of  the  os  magnum 
was  less  apparent  than  in  the  other  wrist;  the  movement  reduced  the 
dislocation. 

The  treatment  consisted  in  maintaining  the  hand  in  the  flexed  posi- 
tion in  which  the  bone  returned  to  its  place  by  means  of  a  spica  ban- 
dage; it  was  begun  eleven  days  after  the  accident,  and  by  the  fourth 
day  the  pain  had  disappeared  and  the  wrist  had  regained  its  form  and 
functions.      The  bandage  was  worn  a  week  longer. 

A  complete  dislocation  forward  has  been  reported  by  Eichmond;^  the 
patient  was  a  man.  forty-seven  years  old,  who  fell  upon  his  hand  from 
a  heisrht  of  about  nine  feet.  The  hand,  from  the  wrist  to  the  knuckles, 
was  very  noticeably  shortened;  there  was  a  prominent  transverse  ridge 
on  the  back  of  the  wrist  below  the  ends  of  the  radius  and  ulna,  and 
below  this  ridge  was  a  marked  depression.  On  the  palmar  aspect  the 
base  of  the  hand  was  unduly  prominent,  the  general  direction  of  the 
metacarpal  bones  being  quite  altered  by  their  bases  being  pushed  for- 
ward toward  the  palm.  Voluntary  flexion  and  extension  were  lost. 
The  ends  of  the  radius  and  ulna  seemed  separated  somewhat  from  each 
other;  the  transverse  dorsal  ridge  could  be  demonstrated  to  be  the  first 
row  of  carpal  bones  with  the  semilunar  unduly  prominent;  between  it 
and  the  radius  and  ulna  flexion  and  extension,  although  restricted, 
could  be  obtained  with  considerable  ease  and  without  crepitus.  ^Xone 
of  the  earpo-metacarpal  joints  had  sustained  any  injury.  On  the  pal- 
mar prominence  the  trapezoid  could  be  felt  placed  more  anteriorly  than, 
and  considerably  above,  the  level  of  the  trapezium;  and  nearer  the 
ulnar  side  the  head  of  the  os  magnum  could  be  felt  slightly  overlapping 
the  ends  of  the  radius  and  ulna,  which  on  the  palmar  surface  were 
quite  obscured ;  and  on  flexion  and  extension  of  the  hand  the  os  mag- 
num could  be  felt  to  ride  on  their  anterior  sm-face.  The  displacement 
of  the  unciform,  although  distinct,  was  much  less  marked. 

Isolated  dislocation  of  the  different  bones  of  the  carpus  is  a  rare  injury, 
yet  instances  have  been  reported  of  the  dislocation  of  almost  every  one 
of  them. 

1  Bichmond  ;  Lancet,  1879,  vol.  i.  p.  844. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST.  673 

Scaphoid.  The  only  reported  instances  of  dislocation  of  the  scaphoid 
alone  are  two  quoted  by  Cooj>er/  one  simple,  the  other  compound. 
The  former  was  reported  by  a  medical  student  who  was  serving  as 
'^  dresser"  in  the  hospital,  and  as  the  symptoms  are  not  described  in 
detail  some  doubt  must  remain  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the  diagnosis:  it 
was  complicated  by  fracture  through  the  lower  articular  surface  of  the 
radius.  It  is  as  follows  :  A  woman,  sixty  years  old,  fell  upon  the  back 
of  her  hand  and  ''fractured  the  radius  obliquely  outward,  through 
the  lower  articulating  surface.  The  fractured  portion,  with  the  os 
seaphoides,  was  thrown  backward  upon  the  carpus.  The  wrist  was 
slightly  bent,  and  there  was  an  evident  projection  at  the  back  of  the 
carpus.''  Crepitus  was  felt  in  moving  the  hand  or  the  styloid  process 
of  the  radius  backward  or  forward. 

In  the  other  the  dislocation  was  compound,  and  the  wound,  which 
was  caused  by  machinery,  was  so  extensive  as  to  make  it  the  most 
prominent  feature  of  the  injury;  it  extended  through  two-thirds  of  the 
circumference  of  the  wrist:  the  sc-aphoid  projected  at  the  back  part, 
being  attached  only  on  the  side  toward  the  joint;  the  radial  artery  and 
the  extensor  tendons  of  the  thumb,  middle,  and  forefingers  were  torn 
through.     The  scaphoid  was  removed.     The  patient  recovered. 

A  case  of  dislocation  forward  of  the  scaphoid  complicating  fracture 
of  the  lower  end  of  the  radius,  in  which  the  bone  was  removed  through 
an  incision,  was  reporred  by  Cameron.-  Six  years  later  he'  again 
reported  the  case,  this  time  as  one  of  dislocation  of  the  semilimar  bone, 
but  made  no  mention  or  explanation  of  the  previous  statement  con- 
cerning it,  although  he  described  the  case  in  the  same  terms  as  before. 

A  case  (Forguet  in  which  the  scaphoid  and  semilunar  were  together 
dislocated  forward  is  described  in  the  Gazette  hebdomadaire  de  Jloiit- 
pellier.  1887,  vol.  ix.  Xo.  1.  The  semilunar  had  undergone  complete 
rotation  and  presented  in  a  contused  wound  on  the  front  of  the  wrist. 

Semilunar.  Thirteen  cases  of  dislocation  of  the  semilunar  bone,  one 
of  them  double  (^Flower),  have  been  reported,  including  Cameron's 
case  above  mentioned.*  In  seven  of  them,  Mougeot,  Flower.  Gross, 
Buchanan.  Stimson.  and  Albertin,  the  dislocation  was  compound,  and  in 
six  of  these  the  bone  was  removed.  In  four  others  the  bone  was  removed 
through  an  incision  made  for  the  purpose.  In  all  the  cases  the  cause 
seemed  to  be  forced  flexion  of  the  wrist.  In  one  case,  Erichsen.  the 
dislocation  was  backward,  and  in  eight  forward;  in  the  others  the 
direction  is  not  stated.  In  the  forward  cases  the  bone  could  be  felt  or 
seen  on  the  palmar  aspect  of  the  wrist,  in  mine  distinctly  above  the 
level  of  the  edge  of  the  radius:  the  fingers  were  flexed  and  their  exten- 
sion was  resisted  and  painful.  Plate  XIX.  shows  the  position  of  the 
bone  in  my  simple  case. 

1  Cooper:  Loc.  cii..  pp  432  and  436.  -  Cameron  :  Gla^ow  Medical  Jonmal.  1S7S,  p.  102. 

s  Oameron,  Lancet.  1SS4.  voL  L  p.  S5o. 

•*  The  references  are :  Mougeot,  quoted  by  Malgaigne ;  Flower  and  Hulke.  Holmess  System  of 
SuTsery.  Am.  ed..  voL  i.  p.  SSI :  Erichsen,  Science  and  Art  of  Surgery,  Am.  ed..  1S7S,  vol.  L  p.  421 : 
Taalfe.Bridsh  Medical  Journai,  ISod,  voL  i.  p.  S35 :  CMsolm,  Philadelphia  Medical  Times,  lSTO-71, 
vol.  i.  p.  33-3 ;  Gios,  Philadelphia  Medical  Times,  ISSO-Sl.  vol.  siL  p.  220 :  Buchanan,  Medical  Times 
and  Gazette.  1&S3,  vol.  L  p.  113  :  Albertin,  I^  Province  Medicale,  lS?r,  p.  420.  and  a  second  ease  in 
Lyon  M^cale,  December  9. 1S94  ;  Gamgee.  Lancet,  July  6, 1595 :  Stimson,  ^^etr  York  Medical  Jour- 
nal, Jannary  3, 1S91,  p.  20,  and  a  second  case  in  Annals  of  Surgery,  March,  1S»5,  p.  3&c>. 

43 


674  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  the  single  case  of  backward  dislocation,  Erichsen,  the  patient  had 
fallen  from  a  height,  doubling  his  right  hand  under  him;  "a,  small 
hard  tumor  was  felt  projecting  on  the  dorsal  aspect  of  the  wrist;  it 
readily  disappeared  on  extending  the  hand  and  employing  firm  press- 
ure, but  started  up  again  so  soon  as  the  wrist  was  forcibly  flexed.  It 
was  evident  that  the  bone  belonged  to  the  first  row  of  the  carpus;  and 
from  its  size,  its  position  toward  the  radial  side  of  the  carpus,  and  its 
shape,  which  could  be  very  distinctly  made  out,  there  could  be  little 
doubt  that  it  was  the  semilunar  bone." 

The  frequent  association  of  a  wound  on  the  anterior  aspect  of  the 
wrist  and  the  nature  of  the  cause  make  it  probable  that  the  dislocation 
forward  is  effected  while  the  hand  is  in  dorsal  flexion,  yet  in  TaaftVs 
case  it  was  thought  the  blow  was  received  upon  the  back  of  the  hand. 

The  prognosis  is  unfavorable:  in  four  of  the  five  simple  forward  cases 
it  was  deemed  necessary  to  remove  the  bone  in  order  to  relieve  the  dis- 
ability; in  the  third  the  result  is  not  stated.  Of  the  seven  compound 
cases  there  was  profuse  suppuration  in  two,  leading  to  amputation  iu 
one  and  partial  anchylosis  in  the  other;  three  got  well  with  a  useful 
joint,  one  died  of  tetanus,  and  the  seventh  appears  to  have  died,  prob- 
ably of  associated  injuries,  as  the  fall  was  from  a  great  height. 

Unciform.  The  only  recorded  case  of  dislocation  of  the  unciform 
bone  is  one  very  briefly  reported  by  Buchanan:^  a  man  fell  from  a  rail- 
way car;  "  he  was  found  to  have  a  simple  luxation  of  the  unciform 
bone  anteriorly.  It  lay  just  beneath  the  skin,  and  its  process  could  be 
distinctly  outlined.  Reduction  was  effected  by  direct  pressure  on  the 
bone  while  the  borders  of  the  hand  were  approximated."  Considering 
that  the  case,  if  correctly  diagnosticated,  is  unique,  the  brevity  of  the 
report  is  to  be  regretted. 

Pisiform.  The  pisiform  has  been  reported  dislocated  in  three  cases  : 
in  two  (Erichsen,  Fergusson)  by  muscular  effort;  in  one  (Gras^)  by  the 
pressure  of  the  hand  upon  a  flat-iron  while  ironing  clothes.  In  Erich- 
sen's  case  the  bone  was  drawn  up  the  arm  for  a  distance  of  nearly  an 
inch.  Doubtless  the  displacement  was  the  result  of  rupture  of  the 
tendon  below  the  bone. 

Os  Magnum.  Many  authors  speak  of  partial  dislocation  of  the  head 
of  the  OS  magnum  backward  as  a  not  infrequent  accident  produced  by 
prolonged,  perhaps  not  violent,  use  of  the  hand,  or  by  a  sudden  effort, 
or  a  fall.  Malgaigne  classifies  the  former  as  pathological  dislocations; 
they  are  characterized  by  the  appearance  on  the  back  of  the  wrist  just 
above  the  base  of  the  third  metacarpal  bone  of  a  small,  hard,  round 
lump,  especially  during  palmar  flexion,  which  disappears  more  or  less 
completely  during  dorsal  flexion,  and  can  sometimes  be  temporarily 
reduced  by  pressure.     It  ordinarily  causes  little  or  no  disability. 

The  more  distinctly  traumatic  cases  are  those  of  Richerand  (quoted 
by  Cooper^)  and  Seeger  (quoted  by  Tillmanns).  Richerand' s  patient 
was  a  woman  who  grasped  the  side  of  her  bed  during  parturition,  turn- 
ing her  wrist  forward,  and  felt  a  sharp  pain  in  the  wrist.  A  fortnight 
later,  a  hard,  circumscribed  tumor  was  found  at  the  back  of  the  carpus, 

1  Buchanan  :  Philadelphia  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter,  1881-82,  vol.  xlvi.  p.  418. 
-  Gras:  Gazette  Medicale,  ISSi,  p.  512.  ^  Cooper  :  Loo.  cit.,  p.  434. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST.  675 

formed  by  the  head  of  the  os  magnum,  which  was  readily  replaced  by 
making  gentle  pressure  on  it,  and  extending  the  hand.  Richerand 
had  seen  another  similar  case,  as  had  also  Chopart  and  Boyer. 

Cooper's  patient  was  a  young,  muscular  man,  who  had  fallen  upon 
his  hand  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  the  palmar  aspect  of  the  fingers 
into  contact  with  the  forearm.  At  the  point  of  most  pain  was  a  round, 
hard  tumor,  rather  larger  tlian  a  marble,  which  produced  a  most  evi- 
dent deformity  on  the  back  of  the  wrist  opposite  to  and  above  the  base 
of  the  third  metacarpal.  The  hand  was  slightly  bent,  and  extension 
caused  considerable  pain;  the  tendon  of  the  extensor  carpi  radialis 
brevior  was  displaced  slightly  to  the  radial  side;  the  forefinger  was 
abducted  from  the  middle  one,  and  any  attempt  to  approximate  them 
gave  great  pain  at  the  base  of  their  metacarpal  bones;  and  opposite 
the  base  of  the  middle  one  was  a  depression,  quite  evident  to  both  sight 
and  touch.  Reduction  was  effected  by  making  traction  on  the  fore  and 
middle  fingers,  while  pressure  was  made  upon  the  os  magnum.  On 
flexing  the  hand  the  deformity  was  reproduced;  it  was  again  corrected, 
and  the  hand  placed  in  splints. 

Seeger^  saw  in  1829  and  1830  two  cases  of  dislocation  of  the  head 
of  the  OS  magnum  backward  caused  in  young  men  by  falls  upon  the 
closed  fist.  Reduction  was  effected  by  traction  and  forcible  flexion  of 
the  hand,  in  one  case  easily,  in  the  other  only  after  several  attempts. 
The  hand  was  kept  in  splints  in  the  extended  position  from  six  to  eight 
weeks,  with  compresses  in  front  and  behind.    Recovery  was  complete. 

Trapezoid.  The  diagnosis  of  dislocation  of  the  trapezoid  backward 
was  made  in  a  case  reported  by  Gay;^  the  patient  was  a  man,  thirty- 
two  years  old,  and  the  injury  was  caused  by  striking  with  the  fist  in 
play.  ''At  the  base  of  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  index  finger  was  a 
sharp,  hard,  slightly  movable  bunch,  raised  one-quarter  of  an  inch, 
and  tender  on  pressure."  There  w^as  no  crepitus;  the  metacarpal 
bones  were  of  the  same  length.  It  could  not  be  reduced.  Two 
months  later  the  deformity  was  unchanged,  but  the  hand  had  become 
nearly  as  good  as  the  other. 

Trapezium.  Two  cases  of  dislocation  backward  of  the  trapezium 
alone  have  been  reported  by  Uhde^  and  von  Mosengeil.* 

Uhde's  patient  was  a  man,  thirty-three  years  old,  who  had  been 
knocked  down  by  a  wagon.  The  right  thumb  and  the  region  of  its 
metacarpal  bone  was  bruised,  swollen,  and  painful,  and  ''  at  the 
junction  of  the  first  metacarpal  and  trapezium  an  unusual  mobility 
of  the  latter  bone  was  recognizable,  and  instead  of  the  normal  depres- 
sion between  the  tendons  of  the  extensor  secundi  and  extensor  primi 
internodii  on  extension  of  the  hand  there  was  to  be  seen  a  small 
angular  tumor  corresponding  to  the  trapezium,  which  projected  on 
flexion  of  the  first  and  second  metacarpals  about  three  and  a  half  lines 
above  the  level  of  the  back  of  the  hand,  and  disappeared  on  straight 
extension  of  these  bones  with  a  creaking  sound.  Six  months  later  the 
trapezium  was  found  to  project  one  and  a  half  lines  on  the  radial  side." 

1  Seeger:  Mittheilungen  der  Wiirtt.  arztl.  Vereins,  vol.  i.,  quoted  by  Tillmanns. 

2  Gay  :  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  1869,  vol.  Ixxxi.  p.  188. 

3  Uhde  :  Deutsche  Klinik,  1850,  vol.  ii.  p.  539. 

*  Von  Mosengeil :  Arch,  fur  klin.  Chirurgie,  1871,  vol-  xii.  p.  723. 


676  DISLOCATIONS. 

Von  Mosengeil's  patient  had  a  deformed  hand,  the  thumb  and  its 
metacarpal  bone  having  the  shape  and  position  of  a  finger;  the  dis- 
placement, half  a  centimetre,  was  produced  by  a  blow  received  upon 
the  palm  of  the  hand ;  it  was  reduced  by  flexion  and  pressure, 

Os  Magnum  and  Trapezoid.  Uhde^  briefly  describes,  under  the  title 
•"  luxatio  ossis  multanguli  minoris  et  ossis  capitati,"  a  case  of  injury  to 
the  wrist  marked  by  a  projection  on  the  back  of  the  hand  which  he 
attributed  to  the  displacement  of  the  trapezoid  and  os  magnum.  The 
injury  was  caused  by  a  fall  upon  the  ''  anterior  ends  of  the  metacarpal 
bones."  It  does  not  appear  from  the  description  whether  the  bones 
were  thought  to  be  dislocated  from  the  metacarpals  as  well  as  from  the 
first  row  of  the  carpus.  The  prominence  could  be  reduced  by  pressure, 
and  reappeared  on  flexion  of  the  wrist. 

A  case  reported  by  Alquie,  of  Montpellier,  has  been  frequently 
quoted;  there  was  much  displacement  of  the  carpal  bones  on  the  radial 
side,  but  not  only  was  its  character  uncertain,  but  in  addition  the  region 
had  suffered  from  two  different  accidents,  one  of  which  was  accompa- 
nied by  great  laceration  of  the  soft  parts. 


CARPO-METACARPAL  DISLOCATIONS. 

Cases  have  been  reported  of  the  isolated  dislocation  of  every  one  of 
the  metacarpal  bones  except  the  fifth,  and  of  the  combined  dislocation 
of  two  or  more. 

First  Metacarpal.  Dislocations  of  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  thumb 
are  the  most  frequent  and  important;  almost  all  have  been  back- 
ward. 

Yery  little  is  known  of  dislocations  fonvard.  Sir  Astley  Cooper^ 
says,  "  In  the  cases  which  I  have  seen  of  this  accident  the  metacarpal 
bone  has  been  thrown  inward,  between  the  trapezium  and  the  root  of 
the  metacarpal  bone  supporting  the  index  finger;  it  forms  a  protuber- 
ance toward  the  palm  of  the  hand;  the  thumb  is  bent  backward  and 
cannot  be  brought  toward  the  little  finger."  Poinsot  quotes  a  reference 
by  Yidal  de  Cassis  to  a  case  of  incomplete  dislocation  forward  which 
he  had  easily  reduced. 

Albert^  saw  two  cases  of  incomplete  dislocation  outward ;  one  was 
old,  the  other  recent.  In  the  latter  the  injury  was  produced  in  a  trial 
of  strength  by  grasping  hands.  The  displacement  was  easily  reduced, 
but  immediately  recurred.  After  reduction  the  thumb  was  fixed  in 
abduction  by  a  silicate  dressing  and  so  maintained  for  six  weeks. 
Complete  recovery. 

Dislocations  backward  may  be  complete  or  incomplete;  the  former 
are  infrequent,  the  latter  quite  common.  Of  the  28  cases  of  metacarpal 
dislocation  in  my  statistics  (Chapter  XXVII.)  almost  all  were  of  this 
bone  and  of  this  kind.  The  cause  may  be  a  forced  flexion  of  the 
thumb  into  the  palm  of  the  hand,  or  its  forced  movement  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  or  direct  violence  received  upon  the  thenar  eminence, 

1  Uhde:  Lnc.  cit.  "  Cooper:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  443. 

3  Albert:  Chirurgie,  vol.  ii.  p.  445. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST.  677 

as  in  striking  upon  the  handle  of  a  chisel,  or  in  striking  a  blow  with 
a  hammer,  or  in  the  bursting  of  a  gnn. 

Specimens  of  old  dislocation  have  been  dissected  by  Foucher^  and 
Geriu-Iiozef  in  the  former  the  upper  end  of  the  metacarpal  bone  was 
displaced  backward  and  a  little  inward,  and  was  flexed  at  a  right  angle 
to  and  fused  with  the  trapezium;  in  addition,  the  second  metacarpal 
was  displaced  upward  about  two  centimetres  on  the  back  of  the  wrist, 
retaining  the  insertion  of  the  extensor  carpi  radialis,  and  the  third 
metacarpal  had  been  broken  at  its  middle.  The  injury  was  caused  by 
the  bursting  of  a  gun.  In  Gerin-Hoze's  case  the  displacement  was 
directly  backward,  the  anterior  edge  of  the  base  of  the  metacarpal  rest- 
ing upon  the  posterior  edge  of  the  inferior  articular  surface  of  the 
trapezium;  incomplete  reduction  could  be  made. 

In  the  incomplete  form  the  posterior  edge  of  the  base  of  the  meta- 
carpal bone  can  be  seen  and  felt  in  the  interval  between  the  tendons  of 
the  extensor  primi  and  extensor  secundi  internodii  as  a  hard  lump 
continuous  with  the  shaft  of  the  bone  and  reducible  by  pressure.  The 
thumb  is  generally  somewhat  flexed  toward  the  palm,  but  may  be 
extended  or  "  straight."  Movement  is  limited  and  painful,  and  flex- 
ion increases  the  apparent  displacement. 

In  the  complete  form  the  dorsal  prominence  is  more  distinct,  and 
rests  upon  the  trapezium  which  forms  a  recognizable  lump  in  the  ball 
of  the  thumb.  The  thumb  is  shortened  by  the  ascent  of  the  meta- 
carpal bone,  its  first  phalanx  appearing  in  consequence  to  have  passed 
upward  into  the  thenar  muscles,  and  it  is  usually  flexed  at  the  carpo- 
metacarpal joint. 

In  some,  even  recent,  cases  reduction  has  been  impossible,  but  usually 
it  has  been  effected  without  difficulty  by  traction  on  the  thumb  and 
direct  pressure  forward  and  downward  upon  the  projecting  end  of  the 
bone.  Early  recurrence  has  been  noted  in  some  cases,  and  in  a  few 
prevention  of  recurrence  has  been  difficult  or  incomplete.  Moulded 
spints  of  leather,  plaster,  or  gutta-percha,  and  pasteboard  or  wooden 
splints  with  compresses  at  the  back  of  the  joint  are  ordinarily  used,  and 
have  given  satisfactory  results.  In  one  case  the  only  dressing  con- 
sisted of  strips  of  adhesive  plaster,  running  from  the  back  of  the  forearm 
around  the  ball  of  the  thumb,  and  back  between  it  and  the  index  finger 
to  the  forearm,  so  as  to  maintain  the  member  abducted  and  extended. 

The  restoration  of  function  after  reduction  is  complete,  and  even 
when  the  dislocation  has  remained  unreduced  some  patients  have  been 
able  to  make  good  use  of  the  thumb;  in  others  the  movement  of 
adduction  and  opposition  has  been  much  restricted. 

The  second  metacarpal  has  been  reported  dislocated  forward  in  two 
cases  and  backward  in  five  cases;  in  one  of  the  latter  together  with 
dislocation  of  the  first,  and  in  another  with  dislocation  of  the  third. 
An  additional  case,  observed  by  himself,  is  mentioned  by  Demarquay,^ 
in  which  the  first  and  second  were  together  dislocated,  but  the  direction 
is  not  stated,  and  no  details  are  given. 

1  Foucher:  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1856,  p.  6. 

2  G6rin-Roze  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1858,  p.  2fi6. 

3  Demarquay  :  Bull,  de  la  Soci(5t(5  de  Chirurgie,  1851,  vol.  li.  p.  171. 


678  DISLOCATIONS. 

The  forward  cases  are  those  of  Bourget  (quoted  by  Malgaigne)  and 
Marsh  (quoted  by  Hamilton).  In  Bourget' s,  the  cause  was  excessive 
pressure  on  the  upper  posterior  part  of  the  bone;  in  Marsh's,  it  was 
an  oblique  blow  with  a  hammer  on  the  back  of  the  clenched  hand.  In 
both  cases  the  proximal  end  of  the  bone  could  be  felt  in  the  palm,  and 
a  corresponding  depression  on  the  back;  in  the  former  case  the  lower 
end  of  the  bone  was  inclined  forward,  and  the  finger  appeared  short- 
ened nearly  one-fourth  of  an  inch.  Both  were  easily  reduced  by  trac- 
tion on  the  finger  and  pressure  on  the  end  of  the  bone. 

The  uncomplicated  backward  cases  are  those  of  Hamilton^  and  Hum- 
bert;^ the  former  was  caused  in  a  woman,  twenty-eight  years  old,  by  a 
fall  upon  the  closed  hand.  Keduction  was  easily  effected.  Humbert's 
patient  was  a  man  thirty  years  old,  who  was  kicked  by  a  horse  upon 
the  hand  that  held  the  reins,  the  blow  falling  on  the  back  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  second  metacarpal  bone  and  the  adjoining  phalanx;  the 
upper  end  of  the  bone  could  be  felt  as  a  hard,  circumscribed  promi- 
nence on  the  back  of  the  hand,  and  the  finger,  measured  by  the  adjoin- 
ing one,  appeared  five  millimetres  short.  Reduction  was  made  by 
traction  and  direct  pressure  downward  and  forward.  Apparently  the 
dislocation  had  been  caused  by  forced  palmar  flexion  of  the  bone. 

The  case  in  which  the  dislocation  was  associated  with  that  of  the 
first  metacarpal  is  that  of  Foucher,  mentioned  above. 

In  two  cases  seen  by  Hamilton  there  was  incomplete  dislocation  back- 
ward of  the  upper  end  of  the  second  and  third  metacarpals,  caused  by 
striking  a  blow  with  the  fist;  in  both  cases  the  dislocation  was  old,  and 
had  persisted  in  spite  of  attempts  to  maintain  reduction. 

Third  Metacarpal.  In  addition  to  these  two  cases,  in  which  the  injury 
was  associated  with  dislocation  of  the  second  metacarpal,  dislocation 
backward  of  the  third  metacarpal  has  been  reported  by  Blandin^  and 
Roux.^  Blandin's  patient  fell,  while  holding  a  roll  of  paper,  and 
struck  his  hand  against  a  post;  the  blow  was  slight,  and  caused  no 
pain  at  the  time,  but  the  middle  finger  promptly  became  powerless, 
and  the  hand  numb  and  swollen.  There  was  a  linear  transverse  ecchy- 
mosis  at  the  back  of  the  first  phalanx  of  the  middle  finger,  close  by 
the  metacarpal  joint,  and,  on  movement,  a  crackling  that  resembled 
crepitus.  No  other  symptoms  are  mentioned.  Blandin  made  the  diag- 
nosis of  "  diastasis  or  incomplete  dislocation"  of  the  third  metacarpal 
bone,  but  others  who  saw  the  case  thought  the  bone  was  broken.  The 
title  of  the  report  of  the  case  is  '^'  incomplete  dislocation  upward." 

Roux's  patient  had  been  injured  in  a  mine  explosion;  a  hard,  cir- 
cumscribed, subcutaneous  tumor  could  be  seen  and  felt  on  the  back  of 
the  wrist,  continuous  and  moving  with  the  third  metacarpal;  the  middle 
finger  was  shortened.  The  dislocation  was  reduced  by  direct  pressure, 
but  appears  to  have  recurred,  for  at  the  autopsy  the  base  of  the  bone 
was  found  resting  on  the  back  of  the  os  magnum ;  the  second  meta- 
carpal was  broken. 

Fourth  Metacarpal.  An  incomplete  backward  dislocation  of  the 
fourth  metacarpal  was  reported  by  Maurice.^     It  was  caused  by  the 

1  Hamilton  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  724.  2  Humbert :  Union  Medicale,  1868,  vol.  v.  p.  527. 

3  Blandin:  Gazette  des  HGpitaux,  1844,p.  552. 

4  Roux :  Union  M6dicale,  1848,  p.  224.  s  Maurice :  Gazette  Medicale,  1868,  p.  587. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  THE  WRIST.  679 

premature  explosion  of  a  cartridge  which  the  patient  was  putting 
into  a  Chassepot  gun ;  the  plunger  was  driven  backward  against  the 
palm  of  the  hand.  There  was  a  prominence  half  a  centimetre  high 
on  the  back  of  the  hand,  corresponding  to  the  upper  end  of  the  fourth 
metacarpal.     Reduction  was  easy,  and  recovery  prompt. 

The  four  inner  metacarpal  bones  (II.,  III.,  IV.,  V.)  have  been  simul- 
taneously displaced  in  four  cases,  Vigouroux,^  Hamilton"  Tillaux,^  and 
one  of  my  own;  in  the  first  and  second  the  dislocation  was  backward, 
in  the  others  forward. 

Vigouroux's  patient  was  injured,  when  eighteen  years  old,  by  the 
explosion  of  a  pistol  which  he  held  in  his  left  hand.  At  his  death,  at 
the  age  of  sixty-two  years,  there  was  found  a  complete  dislocation 
backward  of  the  last  four  metacarpal  bones;  these  bones  were  flexed 
forward  and  the  proximal  phalanx  of  each  of  the  last  three  fingers  was 
incompletely  dislocated  backward.  The  index  finger  and  the  lower 
part  of  its  metacarpal  bone  were  lacking.  All  the  joints  of  the  carpus, 
including  that  of  the  trapezium  and  first  metacarpal,  were  normal. 

Hamilton's  patient  was  struck  at  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg  by  a 
ball  which  entered  at  the  ulnar  side  of  the  hand  and  crossed  the  back 
of  the  wrist  between  the  last  row  of  carpal  bones  and  the  skin.  When 
seen  by  Hamilton  five  years  later  "  the  displacement  (backward)  was 
very  conspicuous;  no  fragments  of  bone  had  ever  escaped.  The  move- 
ments of  all  the  fingers,  except  the  index  and  little  fingers,  were  unim- 
paired." 

Tillaux's  patient,  whom  I  had  the  good  fortune  to  see  when  he  was 
admitted  to  the  Lariboisiere  Hospital,  was  twenty  years  old;  twelve 
days  before  admission  to  the  hospital  he  had  fallen  backward  from  a 
window,  about  ten  feet,  striking  upon  the  back  of  his  flexed  hand. 
The  hand  was  flexed  on  the  wrist  and  could  not  be  actively  extended. 
There  was  a  dorsal  depression  corresponding  to  the  line  of  junction  of 
the  carpal  and  metacarpal  bones,  sharply  limited  above  by  a  transverse 
prominence  which  was  evidently  formed  by  the  second  row  of  the  car- 
pus, and  on  the  palmar  surface  at  the  same  level  the  ball  of  the  hand 
was  more  prominent  than  usual.  The  relations  of  the  first  metacarpal 
with  the  trapezium  were  unchanged.  Moderate  traction  with  direct 
pressure  forward  reduced  the  displacement  with  a  click,  and  by  making 
pressure  in  the  opposite  direction  it  was  again  produced.  After  a 
second  reduction  the  limb  was  immobilized  for  a  fortnight.  Complete 
recovery. 

My  patient  was  a  lad  fifteen  years  old  who  was  admitted  to  the  Pres- 
byterian Hospital  in  January,  1887,  after  having  fallen  down  an  eleva- 
tor shaft,  a  distance  of  about  forty  feet,  and  received  a  compound 
fracture  of  the  right  forearm,  a  severe  injury  of  the  right  hip,  the 
nature  of  which  could  not  be  satisfactorily  made  out,  and  a  dislocation 
of  the  left  carpo-metacarpal  joints.  When  I  first  saw  the  patient,  three 
weeks  later,  the  last-named  injury  had  not  been  recognized.  The  hand 
was  then  in  almost  complete  extension  on  the  wrist  and  occupying  a 
plane  somewhat  anterior  to  that  of  the  wrist  and  forearm.     The  back 

1  Vigouroux  :  Bull,  de  la  Soci6t6  Anatomique,  1856,  p.  15.         2  Hamilton  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  724. 
s  Tillaux  :  Bull,  de  la  Socii5t6  de  Chirurgie,  1875,  p.  415. 


680  DISLOCATIONS. 

of  the  wrist  formed  a  rounded  resistant  prominence,  continuous  above 
with  the  back  of  the  radius  and  ulna  and  terminating  below  in  a  sharp, 
well-defined,  transverse  ridge,  which  extended  completely  across  from 
the  fifth  to  the  second  metacarpal  and  curved  upward  on  the  outer  side 
toward  the  styloid  process  of  the  radius.  The  finger,  passed  upward 
along  the  back  of  the  metacarpus,  was  arrested  by  this  ridge,  which 
appeared  to  be  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  high  and  corresponded  to 
the  line  of  the  carpo-metacarpal  joints.  The  first  row  of  carpal  bones 
was  in  normal  relations  with  the  forearm  and  with  most  of  the  second 
row,  but  the  relations  of  the  trapezium  could  not  be  clearly  made  out. 
1  was  under  the  impression  that  it  was  displaced  somewhat  forward 
from  the  scaphoid;  it  had  preserved  its  relations  with  the  first  meta- 
carpal bone.  The  ball  of  the  hand  was  abnormally  prominent,  and 
the  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  wrist  appeared  thereby  increased; 
the  transverse  diameter  was  unchanged. 

The  deformity  was  easily  reduced  by  traction  and  direct  pressure, 
but  immediately  recurred  when  the  pressure  was  removed.  Reduction 
was  maintained  for  ten  days  by  keeping  the  limb  in  a  plaster-of-Paris 
dressing;  on  removal  of  the  dressing  the  deformity  did  not  recur,  but 
a  few  hours  later  the  patient  reproduced  it  while  experimenting  to 
ascertain  if  the  reduction  was  permanent.  It  was  again  reduced,  and 
the  limb  dressed  as  before.  Three  weeks  later  the  reduction  was  com- 
plete and  permanent  except  for  some  projection  forward  of  the  first 
metacarpal  and  trapezium,  and  the  wrist  and  fingers  had  regained 
their  mobility. 

Dislocation  of  All  Five  Metacarpals.  Poulet'  reported  a  case  of  incom- 
plete dislocation  forward  of  all  five  metacarpal  bones;  the  injury  was 
caused  by  a  fall  from  a  horse  and  was  associated  with  a  wound  of  the 
skin  on  the  ball  of  the  hand  and  slight  chipping  of  the  anterior  edges 
of  the  carpal  bones.  The  swelling  and  the  inflammatory  reaction  were 
so  great  that  an  examination  was  not  made  until  after  the  lapse  of  a 
month.  There  was  then  found  on  the  back  of  the  hand  a  projection 
formed  mainly  by  the  os  magnum,  and  below  it  a  depression  extending 
from  the  trapezium  to  the  unciform.  On  the  palmar  surface  the  ball 
of  the  hand  projected  forward,  the  palmar  fold  was  effaced,  and  a  deep^ 
ill-defined  bony  prominence  could  be  felt.  The  interdigital  spaces  were 
two  centimetres  nearer  the  styloid  processes  than  on  the  other  hand. 
Partial  reduction  and  restoration  of  mobility  were  obtained. 

Erichsen  gives  a  woodcut  and  description  of  a  plaster  cast  in  the 
University  College  Museum,  London,  taken  from  a  patient  in  whom 
he  thinks  this  dislocation  must  have  existed;  and  Rivington^  reported 
the  case  of  a  patient  who  had  been  run  over  by  a  wagon  and  had  sus- 
tained a  compound  dislocation  forward  of  all  the  metacarpal  bones, 
the  base  of  the  third  projecting  through  a  transverse  wound  near  the 
centre  of  the  palm;  the  first  phalanx  of  the  thumb  was  also  dislocated, 
and  the  index  finger  so  injured  that  its  amputation  was  necessary. 
The  base  of  the  third  metacarpal  was  excised  and  the  dislocation 
reduced.  After  dangerous  suppuration  and  high  fever  the  patient 
recovered  with  a  fairly  useful  hand. 

1  Poulet :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1884,  p.  902.  -  Rivington  :  Lancet,  1873,  vol.  i.  p.  270. 


CHAPTER    XLIX. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  THUMB  AND   FINGERS. 

The  tables  ia  Chapter  XXVIl.  show  that  metaearpo-phalaugeal 
dislocations  of  the  thumb  and  fingers  and  dislocations  of  the  phalanges 
in  combined  hospital  and  polyclinic  services  amount  to  nearly  30  per 
cent,  of  all  dislocations.  Of  the  metacarpo-phalangeal  dislocations 
those  of  the  thumb  are  much  the  most  numerous. 

Dislocations  of  the  Proximal  Phalanx  of  the  Thumb. 

These  dislocations  are  not  only  the  most  frequent  of  those  involving 
the  phalanges,  but  they  also  derive  a  special  interest  from  the  fre- 
quency with  which  the  redaction  has  been  found  to  be  very  difficult 
or  has  entirely  failed.  The  cause  of  this  difficulty  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  much  study  and  experiment  upon  the  cadaver  during  the  last 
hundred  years,  which  may  be  said  to  have  culminated  in  an  elabo- 
rate paper  read  by  Farabeuf^  before  the  Societe  de  Chirurgie  of  Paris 
in  1875,  in  which  the  anatomy  of  the  joint  was  described  with  much 
detail.  This  description  and  his  explanation  of  the  cause  of  the  diffi- 
culty have  been  generally  copied  and  accepted  by  writers  in  Germany 
and  France.  The  experience  I  have  gained  in  arthrotomies  indicates 
that  he  has  somewhat  overestimated  the  importance  of  the  sesamoid 
bones  in  opposing  reduction. 

Anatomy.  The  head  of  the  metacarpal  bone  projects  on  its  palmar 
aspect  in  the  form  of  a  well-rounded  tubercle  or  condyle  covered  with 
cartilage,  and  more  prominent  on  its  outer  than  on  its  inner  side. 
The  ligaments  of  the  joint  here  concerned  are  the  two  lateral  and  the 
strong  anterior  or  glenoid;  the  latter  is  continuous  on  either  side  with 
the  others  and  is  stiffened  by  the  development  within  it  of  the  two  sesa- 
moid bones  belonging  to  the  short  muscles  attached  to  the  base  of  the 
phalanx.  The  tendon  of  the  flexor  longus  pollicis  lies  nearer  the  inner 
than  the  outer  side;  it  is  lodged  at  its  lower  end  in  a  firm  sheath,  which 
extends  upward  to,  and  is  connected  with,  the  glenoid  ligament. 

The  short  muscles  and  their  attachments  are  made  tense  by  abduct- 
ing the  thumb,  and  are  relaxed  by  pressing  the  metacarpal  bone  into 
the  palm  of  the  hand.  The  long  flexor  and  the  extensors  are  relaxed 
by  inclination  of  the  hand  toward  the  radial  side.  Consequently,  to 
relax  as  much  as  possible  the  various  muscles  attached  to  the  thumb, 
the  hand  should  be  held  in  straight  extension  and  slight  abduction, 
and  the  thumb  should  be  pressed  into  the  palm,  adduction. 

The  dislocation  may  be  forward,  backward,  or  to  the  inner  side; 
complete  or  incomplete. 

1  Farabeuf:  Bull,  de  la  SociL>t6  de  Chirurgie,  1876,  p.  21. 


682 


DISLOCATIONS. 


Backwaed  Dislocations. 

This  is  the  most  frequent  form,  and  the  one  in  which  reduction  of 
the  dislocation  is  often  difficult. 

The  common  cause  is  exaggerated  dorsal  flexion  of  the  first  phalanx. 
When  the  normal  limit  of  the  movement  is  reached  the  anterior  liga- 
ment is  put  upon  the  stretch  and,  the  movement  being  continued,  yields 
at  its  attachment  to  the  metacarpal  bone,  so  that  the  anterior  ligament 
accompanies  the  phalanx  in  its  movement. 


Fig.  293. 


Fig.  294. 


Incomplete  dislocation  of  the  thumb. 


Incomplete  dislocation.    (Faeabeuf.) 


a.  Incomplete  Form.  If  this  movement  is  not  carried  further  than 
to  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  293  the  articular  end  of  the  phalanx  rests 
against  the  posterior  margin  of  the  head  of  the  metacarpal  bone,  and 
is  maintained  in  this  position  by  the  tension  of  the  portions  of  the 
adductor  and  abductor  muscles  which  are  attached  directly  to  the 
phalanx,  for  their  line  of  traction  is  now  posterior  to  and  above  the 
new  centre  of  motion.  The  attitude  of  the  member  is  represented  in 
Fig.  294. 

This  incomplete  form  is  the  one  which  many  people,  especially  the 
young,  can  voluntarily  produce  by  contracting  the  extensor  muscles. 
The  anterior  ligament  and  the  sesamoid  bones  rest  like  an  apron 
against  the  antero-inferior  articular  surface  of  the  metacarpal  bone, 
and  the  dislocation  can  be  readily  reduced  by  moderate  traction  upon 
the  phalanx  and  flexion. 

h.  Complete  Form.  If,  however,  the  movement  is  carried  further, 
the  phalanx  entirely  leaves  the  articular  surface  of  the  metacarpal 
bone,  and  moves  upward  on  its  dorsum,  being  followed  by  the  anterior 
ligament  and  the  sesamoid  bones  (Figs.  295  and  296).  The  external  lat- 
eral ligament  is  torn,  and  usually  the  internal  one  also;  the  tendon  of  the 
flexor  longus  poUicis  may  remain  in  position,  and  be  tightly  stretched 
across  the  articular  face  of  the  metacarpal  bone,  as  has  been  seen  in 
some  compound  dislocations  {e.g.,  Esmarch^),  or,  and  more  com- 
monly, it  accompanies  the  inner  sesamoid  bone  to  the  inner  side  of  the 
metacarpal;  occasionally  it  passes  to  the  outer  side  of  the  metacarpal 
bone,  accompanying  the  external  sesamoid,  but  probably  it  does  so  only 

1  Esmarch  :  Berlin,  klin.  Wochenschrift,  1876,  p.  629,  first  case. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  THUMB  AND  FINGERS. 


683 


when,  in  the  production  of  the  dislocation,  the  thumb  is  bent  to  the 
outer  side  as  well  as  backward.  The  head  of  tlie  metacarpal  bone 
projects  through  the  rent  in  the  capsule,  and  the  tendons  of  the  adduc- 
tor, abductor,  and  the  two  portions  of  the  flexor  brevis  rest  against  its 


Fig.  295. 


Simple  complete  dislocation  ;  outer  side.    (Farabeuf.) 


sides.  The  phalanx  stands  erect  upon  the  dorsum  of  the  metacarpal 
bone,  being  held  there  by  the  tension  of  the  abductor  and  adductor. 
The  dislocation  is  sometimes  made  compound  by  the  rupture  of  the 
soft  parts  on  the  palmar  aspect  of  the  joint. 


Fig.  296. 


Fig.  297. 


Simple  complete  dislocation  ;  right 
thumb.  The  long  flexor  tendon  is  dis- 
placed to  the  inner  side.    (Farabeof.) 


Simple  complete  dislocation.    (Farabeuf.) 


The  appearance  of  the  member  is  characteristic  (Fig.  297).  The 
phalanx  is  thrown  back  vertically  upon  the  metacarpal  bone,  and  the 
latter  is  adducted,  the  thenar  eminence  being  consequently  increased  in 
thickness  and  diminished  in  breadth.  The  head  of  the  metacarpal 
bone  projects  in  front  as  a  round,  smooth  prominence  close  under  the 


684  DTSL  0  CA  TIONS. 

skin,  over  which  the  tendon  of  the  long  flexor  may  perhaps  be  felt.  The 
phalanx  is  quite  movable  from  side  to  side,  and  can  be  rotated;  it  can 
also  be  turned  down  so  as  to  be  parallel  with  the  metacarpal  bone,  but 
this  movement  should  be  avoided  lest  it  produce  the  condition  to  which 
Farabeuf  gave  the  name  of  complex  form,  the  essential  feature  of  which 
he  thought  to  be  the  interposition  of  the  sesamoid  bones  between  the 
phalanx  and  metacarpal,  and  which  presents  great  difficulty  of  reduc- 
tion. The  cause  of  this  difficulty,  in  all  the  cases  in  which  I  have 
exposed  the  joint,  has  been  the  torn  edge  of  the  anterior  ligament 
closely  drawn  across  the  back  of  the  metacarpal  behind  its  head,  and 
a  slight  nicking  of  that  edge  made  reduction  easy.  It  is  believed  that 
flexion  of  the  dislocated  phalanx  tends  to  produce  this  engagement  of 
the  capsule,  but  1  know  that  it  can  take  place  without  that  aid. 

Fig.  298. 


Complex  dislocation  of  the  thumb ;  outer  side.    The  hook  raises  the  periostealcontinuation  of  the 
lateral  ligament,  exposing  the  reflected  and  interposed  capsule.    (Farabeuf.) 

Treatment.  The  attitude  of  the  thumb  is  maintained  by  the  tension 
of  the  short  muscles  attached  to  it,  and  all  that  is  necessary  to  over- 
come that  opposition  is  to  relax  the  muscles  by  pressing  the  metacarpal 
bone  toward  the  palm;  then  reduction  is  made,  while  maintaining  the 
phalanx  in  rectangular  dorsal  flexion,  by  pressing  its  base  downward 
toward  the  end  of  the  metacarpal  and  flexing  when  the  proper  level  is 
reached.  If  the  torn  anterior  ligament  has  not  caught  behind  the 
head,  as  just  described,  it  will  be  pushed  before  the  base  of  the  phalanx 
and  the  latter  will  turn  past  the  head  of  the  metacarpal  in  flexion  as 
soon  as  it  descends  far  enough. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  ligament  has  caught  above  the  head  it 
becomes  a  serious  obstacle;  it  may  sometimes  be  freed  by  rotating  the 
phalanx  while  pressing  it  downward  as  just  described,  and  the  bone 
has  sometimes  been  got  into  place  by  forcible  traction  in  straight  exten- 
sion. The  latter  is  probably  only  accomplished  when  the  traction  has 
torn  the  attachments  sufficiently  to  permit  the  phalanx  to  be  drawn 
c[uite  away  from  the  metacarpal,  and  I  think  the  plan  is  distinctly 
inferior  to  an  open  arthrotomy. 

In  reduction  by  arthrotomy  the  incision  is  made  longitudinally  along 
the  projection  of  the  head  of  the  metacarpal;  as  soon  as  this  is  exposed 
the  sides  of  the  incision  are  drawn  apart  and  the  torn  edge  of  the  liga- 
ment, which  can  be  distinctly  seen  above  it  somewhat  as  in  Fig.  296, 
is  nicked  at  its  centre;  the  dislocation  is  then  easily  reduced.^     I  pre- 

1  Stimson  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  March  30, 1889. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  THUMB  AND  FINGERS. 


685 


Slime  the  nicking  might  be  done  without  an  incision,  by  passing  in  a 
sharp-pointed  tenotome.  In  some  cases  it  has  been  sufficient  to  lift 
the  long  flexor  tendon  around  to  the  front  from  the  side  of  the  head, 
which,  I  presume,  is  efficient  because  the  tendon  is  attached  to  the 
capsule  and  brings  it  with  it  in  the  movement. 


Fig.  299. 


Complex  dislocation.    (Farabeuk. 


The  prognosis  in  the  past  has  not  been  favorable.  Polaillon,^  analyz- 
ing 58  cases,  found  that  reduction  had  failed  in  11  and  had  been  effected 
only  after  numerous  and  prolonged  attempts  in  16;  in  8  the  dislocation 
was  compound,  and  in  3  of  these  the  head  of  the  metacarpal  bone  was 
excised.  In  one  case  (Bromfield),  nearly  a  hundred  years  ago,  such 
violent  traction  was  made  that  the  terminal  phalanx  was  torn  off;  the 
case  has  been  persistently  quoted  as  a  warning  ever  since,  but  if  it  is 
remembered  that  traction  is  especially  ill-adapted  to  effect  reduction  in 
difficult  cases  the  warning  will  not  be  longer  needed.  In  other  cases 
the  thumb  has  become  gangrenous  in  consequence  of  the  violence 
inflicted  upon  it  by  the  traction. 

In  the  cases  in  which  the  dislocation  has  been  left  unreduced  and  the 
phalanx  has  been  lowered  to  a  position  in  which  it  is  parallel  with  the 
metacarpal  bone,  the  usefulness  of  the  member  has  been  in  great  part 
restored,  although,  of  course,  the  deformity  persisted  and  the  joint  was 
immovable. 

FoRWAiiD  Dislocations. 

These  dislocations,  much  rarer  than  the  preceding  and  less  difficult 
to  reduce,  result  usually  from  a  fall  or  blow  upon  the  back  of  the 
flexed  phalanx — that  is,  by  exaggerated  palmar  flexion,  but  in  at  least 
one  case  (Lombard)  from  exaggerated  dorsal  flexion  presumably  com- 
bined with  direct  impulsion  of  the  phalanx  toward  the  palm;  according 
to  Foucarfc's^  experiments  dorsal  flexion  needed  to  be  combined  with 
forced  abduction  in  order  to  rupture  the  internal  lateral  ligament. 

Pathology.  The  pathology  has  been  shown  by  six  autopsies,  Wood,^ 
Meschede,*  Foucart,  two  cases,  Eve,^  and  one  of  my  own  not  before 

1  Polaillon:  Diet.  Encyclopedique  des  Sc.  Med.,  art.  DoiRt. 

2  Foucart :  Thc-se  de  Paris.  1876,  No.  199,  quoted  by  Poinsot. 

3  Wood  :  Transactions  Pathological  Society  of  London,  1853,  vol.  iv.  p.  250. 
*  Mesehede  :  Virchow's  Archiv,  1866,  vol.  xxxvii.  p.  510. 

«  Eve  :  Lancet,  1880,  vol.  1.  p.  133. 


686  -D-f'S'i  0  CA  TIONS. 

reported.  In  two  of  these  (Foucart,  Eve)  the  injury  was  recent;  in 
Meschede's  it  had  lasted  forty-eight  days;  and  in  Foucart's  second 
case,  in  Eve's,  and  in  mine  it  was  of  long  standing.  The  recent  cases 
show,  as  is  also  found  in  experiments  upon  the  cadaver,  that  the  pos- 
terior and  lateral  parts  of  the  capsule  are  torn,  including  the  lateral 
ligaments,  but  that  the  connection  between  one  or  both  sesamoid  bones 
and  the  metacarpal  bone  may  persist.  The  extensor  tendons  may  be 
stretched  directly  over  the  projecting  head  of  the  metacarpal  bone  or 
they  may  be  deviated  to  either  side;  in  my  case  the  tendon  of  the 
extensor  primi  internodii  appeared  to  have  been  detached  and  retracted. 
The  base  of  the  phalanx  lies  against  the  anterior  surface  of  the  meta- 
carpal bone,  and,  in  recent  cases  at  least,  does  not  appear  to  be  notably 
displaced  upward;  it  may  lie  directly  in  front,  or  be  somewhat  dis- 
placed to  either  side,  and  the  phalanx  may  be  in  straight  extension  or 
partly  flexed. 

In  the  older  cases  a  more  or  less  complete  nearthrosis  forms  between 
the  bones,  and  fibrous  bands  and  bony  outgrowths  give  the  joint  suffi- 
cient solidity  to  make  it  useful. 

Symptoms.  The  deformity  is  characterized  by  the  position  of  the 
phalanx  in  front  of  the  metacarpal  bone,  the  projection  of  the  head  of 
the  latter  on  the  dorsum  of  the  member,  and  the  rather  deeply  placed 
prominence  formed  by  the  base  of  the  phalanx  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
thenar  eminence.  The  thumb  appears  in  some  cases  to  have  undergone 
slight  rotation  about  its  long  axis,  and  the  attempt  has  been  made  to 
show  a  connection  between  the  direction  of  this  rotation  and  that  of 
the  lateral  displacement  of  the  extensor  tendons;  that  is,  it  has  been 
claimed  that  when  the  rotation  is  such  that  the  nail  looks  outward  the 
tendons  have  been  displaced  toward  the  outer  side,  and  vice  verso,. 

In  one  reported  case  the  dislocation  was  made  compound  by  rupture 
of  the  soft  parts  covering  the  back  of  the  joint;  recovery  was  delayed 
by  a  phlegmon  of  the  ball  of  the  thumb. 

Treatment.  Reduction  is  generally  easy,  and  is  effected  either  by 
traction  and  coaptation,  or,  better,  by  forced  flexion  of  the  thumb 
aided,  if  necessary,  by  impulsion  downward  of  its  base.  This  latter 
method  is  analogous  to  that  recommended  in  the  treatment  of  the 
dorsal  variety,  but  there  is  not  the  same  urgent  reason  for  it  that  arises 
in  the  latter  from  the  relations  of  the  capsule.  If  any  difficulty  should 
arise  from  the  tension  of  the  displaced  extensor  tendons  the  phalanx 
should  be  inclined  toward  the  side  on  which  they  lie  before  making 
the  usual  manoeuvre. 

Lateral   Dislocations. 

Bessel-Hagen^  reports  a  unique  case  of  dislocation  to  the  ulnar  side. 
The  patient  was  twenty-eight  years  old;  the  injury  was  caused  appar- 
ently by  forcible  bending  of  the  thumb  toward  the  opposite  side^ 
Reduction  by  traction  and  pressure. 

1  Bessel-Hagen  :  Arch,  fiir  klin.  Chir.,  1888,  p.  386. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  THUMB  AND  FINGERS.  687 

Metacarpo-phalangeal  Dislocations  of  the  Fingers. 

The  shallow  cavity  formed  by  the  articular  surface  of  the  base  of  the 
proximal  phalanx  is  deepened  by  the  thick  anterior  portion  of  the  cap- 
sule, which  forms,  as  in  the  thumb,  a  stout  transverse  band  or  apron 
which  accompanies  the  phalanx  in  its  displacement,  and  may  in  like 
manner  become  interposed  between  the  bones  in  a  backward  disloca- 
tion. The  resemblance  is  still  further  increased  by  the  occasional  devel- 
opment of  a  sesamoid  bone  in  this  ligament,  especially  at  the  index- 
finger;   its  next  most  frequent  appearance  is  at  the  little  finger. 

Dislocations  of  the  proximal  phalanges  of  the  fingers  are  much  less 
frequent,  even  when  taken  together,  than  those  of  the  thumb;  and 
those  of  the  index  finger  are  more  frequent  than  those  of  the  other 
three  fingers.  Of  28  cases  collected  by  Polaillon,  the  dislocation  in 
17  was  backward,  in  10  forward,  in  1  not  given;  15  were  of  the  index 
finger,  4  of  the  middle,  and  3  each  of  the  ring  and  little  fingers;  in 
2  adjoining  fingers  were  dislocated,  and  in  1  all  four. 

Backward  Dislocations. 

The  common  cause  is  hyperextension  (dorsal  flexion)  of  the  finger. 
Experiment  upon  the  cadaver  and  direct  observation  in  compound  dis- 
locations or  after  arthrotomy  in  irreducible  ones  (Lange,^  AYillemer^), 
show  that  the  rupture  of  the  capsule  takes  place  in  front  along  its 
attachment  to  the  metacarpal  bone.  In  the  case  reported  by  Willemer 
the  dislocation  was  irreducible  by  manipulation,  and  Kouig  resorted  to 
arthrotomy,  making  an  incision  on  the  ulnar  side  of  the  palmar  surface 
of  the  joint  (index  finger);  he  found  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule 
had  been  drawn  back  past  the  articular  surface  of  the  phalanx  so  that 
it  was  completely  interposed  between  the  two  bones,  and  that  a  sesa- 
moid bone  was  developed  on  it.  This  makes  the  case  strictly  analo- 
gous to  the  "complex"  form  of  backward  dislocation  of  the  thumb, 
and  corroborates  the  opinion  that  the  cause  of  the  irreducibility  in  the 
latter  is  to  be  found  in  the  position  of  the  torn  anterior  ligament  rather 
than  in  the  tension  of  the  tendons  of  the  short  muscles. 

Lange  says  :  "  The  smallest  possible  cord  of  the  capsule,  which  was 
torn  from  its  attachment  to  the  metacarpus,  had  interposed  itself  like 
an  apron  between  the  dorsum  of  the  metacarpus  and  the  border  of  the 
articular  plane  of  the  phalanx.  .  .  .  He  was  obliged  to  incise 
and  draw  outward  the  light  lateral  parts  of  the  capsule,  when  reduc- 
tion was  effected  without  difficulty.     A  fair  result  was  obtained." 

A  similar  condition  was  observed  in  a  case  upon  which  Volkmann^ 
operated  in  like  manner  with  a  good  result,  and  in  one  of  my  own. 

The  symptoms  are  the  prominence  of  the  base  of  the  phalanx  on  the 
dorsum  of  the  hand,  and  that  of  the  head  of  the  metacarpal  bone  in 
the  palm,  more  or  less  shortening  of  the  finger,  and  loss  or  diminution 
of  function.  The  finger  may  be  extended  or  slightly  flexed  upon  the 
metacarpus;  in  one  case  the  first  phalanx  was  in  rectangular  dorsal 

1  Lange  :  New  York  Medical  Record,  1879,  p.  100. 

2  Willemer  :  Centralblatt  far  Chirurgie,  1883,  p.  566. 

3  Volkmann  :  Reported  by  Ranke,  Berlin,  klin.  Wochensclirift,  1877,  p.  524. 


688  DISLOCATIONS. 

flexion.  The  middle  and  distal  phalanges  are  straight  or  slightly- 
flexed. 

In  5  of  Polaillon's  17  cases  the  dislocation  was  complicated  by  a 
wound  on  the  palmar  aspect  of  the  joint  through  which  the  head  of 
the  metacarpal  bone  projected,  and  in  another  the  skin  was  so  tightly 
stretched  over  the  end  of  the  bone  that  it  threatened  to  slough.  In  2 
cases  reduction  failed  (without  operation),  and  in  5  it  was  difficult,  and 
was  at  last  effected  by  a  rectangular  dorsal  flexion  of  the  phalanx  and 
direct  impulsion  downward  as  in  backward  dislocation  of  the  thumb. 

Treatment.  If  the  dislocation  is  incomplete  reduction  may  be  easily 
effected  by  moderate  traction  followed  by  flexion,  but  in  the  complete 
cases  it  is  certainly  more  prudent  to  act  as  in  the  similar  dislocations 
of  the  thumb  in  order  more  surely  to  avoid  the  interposition  of  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  capsule. 

FoRWAED  Dislocations. 

The  cause,  except  in  an  incomplete  case  observed  by  Malgaigne, 
has  always  been  notable  violence  received  upon  the  finger,  usually  in  a 
fall,  but  the  mode  of  production  is  not  clear.  Malgaigne's  patient  was 
a  shoemaker  and  caused  the  dislocation  by  turning  in  his  hand  the 
shoe  upon  which  he  was  at  work. 

The  symptoms  are  the  presence  of  the  base  of  the  phalanx  in  the 
palm  and  the  projection  of  the  head  of  the  metacarpal  bone  at  the 
back  of  the  hand.  The  finger  is  extended  or  slightly  flexed,  and 
appears  usually  to  be  deviated  to  one  or  the  other  side,  sometimes  very 
markedly,  with  displacement  of  the  extensor  tendons  toward  the  same 
side.  Reduction  has  been  effected  by  traction  and  coaptative  pressure. 
Possibly  flexion  would  be  efficient  in  the  more  difficult  cases,  as  in  the 
similar  dislocations  of  the  thumb. 

Dislocations  of  the  Middle  Phalanges. 
These  dislocations  may  be  forward,  backward,  or  lateral. 

Backward. 

The  usual  cause  is  a  fall  upon  the  palmar  surface  of  the  extended 
finger,  which  produces  the  dislocation  by  hyperextension  of  the  phalanx 
and  sometimes  ruptures  the  skin  over  the  front  of  the  joint.  The 
phalanx  may  remain  hyperextended  upon  the  proximal  one,  even  to  a 
right  angle,  or  may  be  lowered  so  that  its  axis  is  parallel  to  that  of  the 
other.  The  diagnosis  is  readily  made  by  examination  of  the  relations 
of  the  bones,  and  ordinarily  reduction  is  easily  made  by  direct  impul- 
sion of  the  hyperextended  phalanx  or  by  traction  and  flexion.  The 
anterior  portion  of  the  capsule  resembles  that  of  the  raetacarpo-pha- 
langeal  joints  in  being  thick  and  rigid,  and  it  is  quite  possible,  there- 
fore, that  it  may  become  interposed  as  above  described  and  make 
reduction  difficult  or  impossible,  as  in  a  case  treated  by  Polaillon^  in 
which  all  measures  failed.     It  seems  advisable,  therefore,  that  the  first 

1  Polaillon  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  184. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  THUMB  AND  FINGERS.  689 

trial  should  be  of  direct  impulsion  upon  the  hyperextended  phalanx, 
and,  this  failing,  the  phalanx,  still  extended,  should  be  pressed  bodily 
toward  the  side  on  which  the  flexor  tendons  may  be  displaced  and  then 
rotated  so  as  to  carry  the  tendons  forward  past  the  head  of  the  other 
phalanx. 

Forward. 

These  may  be  complete  or  incomplete,  according  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  base  of  the  middle  phalanx  is  displaced  upward  along  the 
palmar  aspect  of  the  proximal  one.  The  symptoms  are  the  well- 
marked  prominence  of  the  head  of  the  first  phalanx  on  the  back,  and 
the  less  marked  projection  of  the  base  of  the  second  phalanx  on  the 
palmar  surface  when  it  is  extended.  With  the  displacement  ujnvard 
may  be  associated  some  lateral  displacement  or  a  lateral  deviation  of 
the  axis  of  the  second  phalanx. 

Reduction  is  easily  made  by  traction  and  coaptativ^e  pressure,  but  in 
an  old  case  treated  by  Hamilton  the  effort  had  failed,  and  in  one  treated 
by  Thorens  the  aid  of  anaesthesia  was  necessary. 

Lateral. 

Of  these  but  few  cases  have  been  reported;  Polaillon  could  collect 
only  eight,  of  which  the  dislocation  was  to  the  inner  side  in  seven,  and 
to  the  outer  side  in  one.  In  a  case  quoted  by  him  from  Ch^dan  the 
middle  phalanges  of  the  last  three  fingers  were  simultaneously  dislo- 
cated toward  the  inner  side,  forming  almost  a  right  angle  with  the  side 
of  the  first  phalanx.  Duplay,^  who  saw  a  case,  says  "  the  dislocated 
phalanx  is  markedly  deviated  inward  so  as  to  form  almost  a  right  angle 
and  to  cross  the  course  of  the  adjoining  finger.  At  the  apex  of  the 
angle  the  lower  end  of  the  first  phalanx  can  be  felt;  the  dislocated 
phalanx  projects  on  its  inner  side." 

In  Rollet's  case  of  dislocation  to  the  outer  side  the  base  of  the  second 
phalanx  of  the  ring  finger  projected  upon  the  outer  side  of  the  first 
phalanx;  the  second  phalanx  was  somewhat  inclined  inward,  and  the 
distal  phalanx  was  slightly  flexed.  The  shortening  was  about  two- 
thirds  of  a  centimetre. 

In  two  of  the  eight  cases  the  dislocation  was  compound,  but  the 
patients  recovered  without  anchylosis. 

Reduction  was  easily  effected  in  every  case  by  traction  and  coaptation. 

Dislocations  of  the  Distal  Phalanges. 

These  dislocations  may  be  backward,  forward,  or  lateral,  the  former 
being  by  far  the  most  frequent;  forward  dislocations  have,  I  believe, 
been  encountered  only  in  the  thumb. 

Backward. 

Backward  dislocation  of  the  distal  phalanx  is  commonly  caused  by 
a  fall  or  blow  upon  the  end  of  the  outstretched  finger.  The  disloca- 
tion may  be  complete  or  incomplete,  simple  or  compound,  and  it  may 
be  directly  backward  or  backward  and  to  one  side.- 

1  Duplay :  Pathologie  Externe,  vol.  iii.  p.  332. 
44 


690  DISLOCATIONS. 

The  anterior  ligament  is  torn  away  from  one  or  the  other  bone,  in 
the  thumb  usually  from  the  proximal  phalanx,  in  the  lingers  from  the 
distal  one.  The  lateral  ligaments  remain  intact,  unless  the  dislocation 
is  to  one  side  as  well  as  backward.  The  flexor  tendon  may  be  torn 
away  from  its  attachment,  or  it  may  be  displaced  to  one  side. 

Reduction  is  usually  easy,  but  may  be  made  difficult  by  interposition 
of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule  when  this  accompanies  the  distal 
phalanx  or  by  the  tension  of  the  displaced  tendon.  In  several  com- 
pound cases  of  the  thumb  the  obstacle  created  by  the  tendon  was  clearly 
demonstrated  and  was  overcome  by  drawing  the  tendon  aside  with  a 
blunt  hook  or  dividing  it. 

The  phalanx  may  be  hyperextended,  or  straight,  or  flexed  across  the 
end  of  the  proximal  one.  The  coexistence  of  a  wound  on  the  palmar 
surface  of  the  joint  is  frequent,  thirty-two  times  in  fifty-five  cases  col- 
lected by  Polaillon,  and  has  led  to  very  serious  consequences,  anchy- 
losis, gangrene,  suppuration  extending  to  the  forearm,  tetanus. 

Although  ordinarily  of  easy  reduction,  yet  in  one-quarter  of  Polail- 
lon's  cases  reduction  failed.  As  his  list  is  made  up  largely  of  reported 
cases  it  undoubtedly  contains  an  exceptionally  large  proportion  of  diffi- 
cult and  complicated  ones,  but  still  the  number  of  failures,  thirteen,  is 
large  enough  to  indicate  that  reduction  may  often  require  much  care 
and  skill.  The  principles  controlling  it  are  the  same  as  in  the  back- 
ward dislocations  of  the  other  joints,  and  although  simple  traction 
has  often  sufficed  it  is  prudent  to  refrain  from  it  and  to  reduce  by 
direct  impulsion  of  the  hyperextended  phalanx,  especially  at  the 
thumb.  In  one  case  Hamilton  divided  the  lateral  ligaments  subcuta- 
neously. 

FORWAED. 

These  dislocations  have  been  observed  only  at  the  thumb,  and  in  a 
large  proportion  of  the  reported  cases  they  have  been  made  compound 
by  a  wound  on  the  palmar  surface.  The  cause,  in  the  few  reported 
cases,  has  been  a  blow  upon  the  end  of  the  phalanx  by  which  it  was 
forcibly  hyperextended.  In  some  cases  the  phalanx  remained  in  this 
position,  its  dorsal  surface  resting  against  the  articular  face  of  the 
proximal  phalanx,  and  its  base  projecting  on  the  palmar  surface;  in 
other  cases  the  phalanx  was  slightly  flexed,  and  its  base  displaced 
upward  along  the  anterior  surface  of  the  proximal  one. 

Reduction  has  usually  been  easy  by  traction  or  direct  pressure. 

Lateral. 

These  dislocations,  of  which  only  four  or  five  have  been  reported, 
have  been  caused  by  falls,  by  a  kick,  and  by  violently  shaking  the 
hand  while  grasping  it  by  the  end  of  the  finger.  The  phalanx  may 
preserve  its  parallelism  with  the  other,  being  simply  displaced  upward 
along  its  side,  or  it  may  form  a  lateral  angle  with  it,  its  base  resting 
against  the  side  of  the  other.  In  Gogue's  case,  quoted  by  Malgaigne, 
there  was  a  transverse  wound  fifteen  millimetres  long  through  which 
the  head  of  the  middle  phalanx  protruded.  In  Duges's  case  reduction 
was  not  attempted;  in  the  others  it  was  easy. 


CHAPTEE     L. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  PELVIS.    DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE 

COCCYX. 

The  union  of  the  two  innominate  bones  at  the  symphysis  pubis  is 
by  a  solid  fibro-cartilaginous  band,  and  without  an  articular  cavity, 
and  the  rupture  of  this  band,  or  its  separation  from  one  or  the  other 
bone,  belongs  more  properly  among  fractures  than  among  dislocations. 
Between  the  articular  surfaces  of  the  ilium  and  sacrum  there  is  usually 
an  articular  cavity,  but  it  is  often  more  or  less  obliterated  by  fibrous 
union  between  the  opposed  cartilaginous  surfaces.  Pure  separations 
at  these  points  without  fracture  are  rare,  and,  except  at  the  pubic  sym- 
phyis,  hardly  to  be  diagnosticated  with  certainty  during  life.  The 
reader  is,  therefore,  referred  for  most  that  pertains  to  the  subject  to  the 
chapter  upon  fractures  of  the  pelvis. 

Malgaigne  described  the  lesions  as  dislocations,  and  most  writers  have 
followed  his  example.     His  classification  is  as  follows  : 

Dislocations  of  the  pubic  symphysis. 

Dislocations  of  the  sacro-iliac  symphysis. 

Dislocations  of  these  two  symphyses,  or  of  the  ilium. 

Dislocations  of  the  two  sacro-iliac  symphyses,  or  of  the  sacrum. 

Dislocations  of  the  three  symphyses,  or  of  the  three  bones  simulta- 
neously. 

Dislocations  of  the  coccyx. 

Of  these,  only  the  last  is,  strictly  speaking,  to  be  deemed  a  disloca- 
tion. 

Dislocations  of  the  Coccyx. 

The  systematic  descriptions  of  dislocations  of  the  coccyx  which  are 
given  by  the  earlier  writers  were  called  in  question  by  those  of  the  first 
half  of  the  present  century,  some  of  whom,  especially  Boyer,  went  so 
far  as  to  deny  that  the  lesion  had  ever  occurred.  Malgaigne,  however, 
collected  six  cases  of  dislocation  forward,  and  described  a  backward 
form  on  the  authority  of  Lauverjat.  To  these  six  may  be  added  four 
that  have  been  since  reported,  Roeser,'  Bonnefont,^  two  cases,  and 
Mouret,^  the  first  of  which  is  an  example  of  a  variety,  lateral  disloca- 
tion, that  has  not  heretofore  been  described.  It  must  further  be  said 
that  many  cases  have  been  encountered  and  reported  in  which  a  group 
of  symptoms  identical  with  those  observed  in  cases  reported  as  dislo- 
cations, and  following  similar  accidents,  falls,  blows  upon  the  anal 
region,  has  been  presented,  and  the  conclusion  seems  to  be  unavoid- 
able, either  that  dislocations  or  fractures  of  the  coccyx  are  much  more 

1  Roeser  :  Froriep's  Notizen,  1857,  vol.  ii.  No.  10.    Abstract  in  Brit,  and  For.  Med.  Chir.  Rev.,  1857, 
vol.  XX.  p.  414. 
-  Bonnefont :  Union  M(5dicale,  1859,  vol.  i.  p.  136. 
3  Mouret :  Rec.  de  M6m.  de  Med.  Chir.  et  Pharm.  militaires,  1859,  vol.  i.  p.  350. 


692  DISLOCATIONS. 

frequent  than  the  number  of  reported  cases  indicates,  or  that  the  prom- 
inent symptoms  which  accompany  the  recognized  cases,  the  excessive 
pain,  disability,  and  general  nervous  disturbance,  are  due  to  something 
else  than  the  displacement  of  the  bone.  Against  the  latter  alternative 
may  be  urged  the  immediate  relief  and  prompt  recovery  which  have 
followed  the  reduction  of  the  displacement.  Six  cases  in  which  the 
general  symptoms  were  similar  to  those  of  dislocation,  but  in  which  no 
displacement  was  recognizable,  are  reported  by  Warren,'  and  Mouret's 
case  may  perhaps  be  classed  with  them. 

Of  eight  of  the  above  cases  in  which  the  sex  is  noted,  six  were 
women,  and  two  men;  all  were  adults;  and  the  obscure  injury  just 
referred  to,  in  which  the  symptoms  are  the  same,  except  that  no  dis- 
placement is  recognizable,  is  also  much  more  frequent  in  women  than 
in  men. 

Dislocations  Forward. 

The  usual  cause  is  violence  received  upon  the  region  of  the  coccyx 
in  a  fall  upon  the  buttocks  or  astride  a  bar,  or  by  the  breaking  of  a 
chamber  upon  which  the  patient  was  sitting.  The  two  men,  Ravaton, 
Mouret,  were  injured  while  on  horseback,  one  of  them  suddenly  in 
jumping  a  ditch,  the  other  without  special  cause  or  incident,  the  pain 
coming  on  gradually,  and  increasing  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  then 
suddenly  becoming  very  severe  after  a  slight  change  of  position,  with 
a  sensation  of  something  slipping  in  the  rectum. 

The  pain  at  the  moment  of  the  accident  is  so  severe  as  sometimes  to 
cause  the  patient  to  faint;  there  is  pain  in  defecation,  and  frequent  calls 
to  urinate.  The  pain  radiates  down  the  thighs,  and  sometimes  over 
the  trunk,  head,  and  arms;  the  patient  is  unable  to  sit  up,  and  the 
slightest  movement  may  greatly  increase  the  suffering.  Coughing  and 
sneezing  and  sometimes  even  every  act  of  inspiration  increase  the  local 
pain.  If  the  condition  remains  unrelieved  (Turner,  a  week;  Ravaton, 
seventeen  days;  Bonnefont,  a  month)  the  general  health  suffers  seri- 
ously, the  patient  becomes  feverish,  and  the  mind  dulled. 

External  examination  may  show  an  ecchymosis  and  swelling  over 
the  situation  of  the  coccyx  and  a  displacement  of  this  bone  forward; 
the  finger  introduced  into  the  rectum  recognizes  an  angular  displace- 
ment of  the  coccyx,  in  which  its  point  is  directed  forward,  and  which 
is  sometimes  so  great  that  the  bone  stands  almost  at  right  angles  to  its 
normal  position,  and  presses  the  posterior  wall  of  the  rectum  sharply 
forward. 

If  now  the  finger  is  hooked  over  the  projecting  end  of  the  coccyx 
it  can  be  readily  drawn  back  into  place,  and  the  reduction  is  followed 
by  immediate,  instantaneous  relief  of  all  the  symptoms.  A  marked 
tendency  to  recurrence  usually  exists  and  may  make  it  necessary  to 
repeat  the  reduction  several  times.  In  one  of  Bonnefont's  cases  a  gum 
catheter  with  a  stylet  was  bent  into  the  shape  of  a  hook  and  so  placed  in 
the  anus  that  by  traction  upon  the  projecting  portion  the  bone  could  be 
kept  in  place.   In  Turner's  case  the  cure  was  less  complete;  the  coccyx 

1  Warren  :  Surgical  Observations,  Boston,  1867,  p.  593. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  COCCYX.  693 

preserved  an  abnormal  mobility  for  many  years,  and  the  patient  was 
obliged  to  facilitate  defecation  by  introducing  her  finger  into  the  anus. 

Dislocation  Backward. 

Dislocation  backward  is  lightly  mentioned  by  some  writers  as  a  not 
infrequent  accident  during  parturition.  Malgaigne  quoted  Lauverjat 
as  follows  :  "■  The  considerable  deviation  backward  of  this  bone  some- 
times causes  its  dislocation.  I  have  seen  one  case.  The  patient  suf- 
fered astonishingly,  and  could  not  sit;  I  reduced  the  coccyx  and  she 
was  immediately  cured." 

Lateral  Dislocation. 

Of  this  only  one  case,  Roeser,  has  been  reported.  The  patient,  a 
large,  corpulent  woman,  thirty-six  years  old,  fell  astride  the  back  of  a 
chair.  She  at  once  suffered  severe  pain  in  the  coccygeal  region,  much 
aggravated  by  attempts  to  sit,  but  she  was  able  to  go  about  for  some 
hours.  At  last  the  pain  became  so  severe  that  she  took  to  her  bed, 
when  she  found  she  could  neither  move  nor  turn.  When  seen  the  next 
day  there  was  so  much  immobility  and  stiffness  of  the  body  as  to  sug- 
gest tetanus.  Besides  the  severe  pain  in  the  coccygeal  region  she  com- 
plained of  a  painful,  tense,  dragging  sensation,  extending  up  toward 
the  nape,  and  along  the  arms  to  the  fingers,  which  felt  numb.  She 
could  not  bear  to  make  the  slightest  movement.  The  head  was  con- 
fused, and  the  intellect  somewhat  clouded.  No  unnatural  sensation  in 
the  lower  limbs;  urine  and  feces  were  passed  naturally. 

A  small  swelling  was  felt  on  the  left  side  of  the  fissure  of  the  but- 
tocks, which  proved  to  be  the  coccyx  torn  away  from  the  sacrum,  and 
carried  toward  the  left  ischium.  The  end  of  the  sacrum  from  which 
it  had  been  displaced  could  be  plainly  felt.  The  finger  in  the  rectum 
showed  the  exact  nature  of  the  displacement  still  better,  and  when  firm 
pressure  was  made  downward  and  to  the  right  against  the  displaced 
bone,  it  suddenly  resumed  its  normal  position.  The  patient  declared 
she  immediately  felt  quite  another  being,  the  confusion  of  the  head  and 
painful  sensation  along  the  spine  and  arms  disappearing.  At  the  end 
of  the  fifth  day  no  inconvenience  beyond  a  slight  burning  pain  near 
the  sacrum  remained. 

The  severity  of  the  symptoms  in  all  these  forms  appears  to  be  due 
to  a  special  sensitiveness  of  the  region  which,  as  has  been  said,  is  m'ani- 
fested  by  similar  symptoms  associated  with  no  traumatism  or  local 
change,  or,  as  in  a  case  of  my  own,  only  with  a  dry  arthritis  of  the 
joint.  The  removal  of  the  coccyx  in  the  non-traumatic  cases  (coccy- 
godynia)  gives  great  relief. 


CHAPTER    LI. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP. 

ANATOMY.     CLASSIFICATION.     BACKWARD  DISLOCATIONS. 

Anatomy.  The  bony  constituents  of  the  hip-joint  are  the  acetabulum, 
or  cotyloid  cavity  of  the  os  inuominatum,  and  the  globular  head  of  the 
femur.  The  former  is  an  almost  hemispherical  cavity,  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  ilium,  ischium,  and  pubis,  and  formed  by  the  projection 
from  their  outer  surface  of  a  strong  bony  rim,  which  is  especially  thick 
and  prominent  behind  and  above,  and  is  lacking  below  for  nearly  an  inch 
at  the  point  where  the  cavity  adjoius  the  foramen  ovale,  the  cotyloid 
notch.  The  depth  of  the  cavity  is  increased  by  a  fibro-cartilaginous  rim 
set  upon  its  edge,  the  labrum  cartilagineum,  or  cotyloid  ligament,  which 
crosses  the  cotyloid  notch,  and  is  there  termed  the  transverse  ligament. 
The  centre  of  the  cavity  lies  in  a  line  drawn  from  the  anterior  superior 
spine  of  the  ilium  to  the  lowest  or  most  anterior  part  of  the  tuberosity 
of  the  ischium.  The  wall  of  the  cavity  is  thin  at  its  centre  and  lower 
part,  and  is  elsewhere  very  thick  and  strong.  Its  growth  takes  place 
at  the  junction  of  the  three  bones  which  combine  to  form  it,  this  junc- 
tion being  marked  during  the  period  of  growth  by  a  thin  layer  of  con- 
jugal cartilage  having  the  shape  of  an  inverted  Y. 

The  head  of  the  femur  is  rather  more  than  half  of  a  sphere,  having 
a  radius  of  about  an  inch,  and  is  so  placed  upon  the  neck  that  rather 
more  than  half  of  its  cartilage-covered  surface  is  in  front  and  above 
(in  the  upright  position)  and  rather  less  than  half  is  behind  and  below. 
At  a  point  a  little  below  that  at  which  a  prolongation  of  the  long  axis 
of  the  neck  would  touch  its  surface  is  a  depression,  within  which  the 
upper  end  of  the  ligamentum  teres  is  attached. 

The  neck  is  directed  inward,  upward,  and  slightly  backward  from 
its  junction  with  the  shaft,  the  angle  which  it  makes  with  the  long  axis 
of  the  latter  being  about  130  degrees.  The  great  trochanter,  continu- 
ous with  the  outer  surface  of  the  shaft,  overlaps  the  neck  above  and 
behind,  its  highest  part  being  situated  posteriorly  and  curved  inward; 
the  portion  which  is  most  external  and  most  nearly  subcutaneous  is 
about  an  inch  below  the  upper  margin. 

The  capsule  is  attached  above  along  the  entire  periphery  of  the  coty- 
loid cavity,  just  outside  the  free  margin  of  the  labrum  cartilagineum, 
and  below  to  the  femur  at  or  near  the  junction  of  the  neck  and  shaft, 
extending  in  front  to  the  inter-trochanteric  line,  above  nearly  to  the 
root  of  the  great  trochanter  in  the  digital  fossa,  behind  to  the  neck 
itself  a  little  short  of  its  outer  limit,  and  below  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  lesser  trochanter.  It  is  composed  of  fibres  arranged  longitudinally 
and  circularly,  and  varies  greatly  in  strength  and  thickness  at  different 
points.     Those  portions  which  are  especially  thickened  by  multiplica- 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP. 


cm 


tion  of  the  longitudinal  fibres  are  known  as  accessory  ligaments;  of 
these  the  strongest  and  most  important  is  the  one  situated  in  the  ante- 
rior part  of  the  capsule,  and  known  as  the  ilio-femoral  ligament,  or  the 
ligament  of  Bertin,  or  Blgelow's  Y-ligament  (Fig.  300).  This  arises 
from  the  anterior  inferior  spine 

of  the  ilium,  and  from  the  sur-  fig.  aoo. 

face  of  the  bone  immediately  be- 
hind it  and  above  the  edge  of  the 
acetabulum,  and  its  fibres  passing 
downward  diverge  to  form  two 
strong  bands,  of  which  the  inner 
passes  almost  vertically  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  anterior  inter- 
trochanteric line,  and  the  outer 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  same 
line.  The  ligament  is  about  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  thick  at  its 
thickest  part,  and  is  very  strong, 
perhaps  the  strongest  in  the 
body,  and  will  sustain  without 
rupture  a  strain  of  from  250  to 
750  pounds  (Bigelow).  Its  inner 
portion  is  especially  concerned  in 
limiting  extension  of  the  limb; 
its  outer  portion  in  limiting  ever- 
sion. 

The  other  thickened  portions 
of  the  capsule  are  those  known 
as  the  pubo-femoral  and  ischio- 
femoral ligaments;  the  former 
arises  from  the  anterior  and  in- 
ferior portion  of  the  acetabular 
margin  and  the  pubis  as  far 
inward  as  the  pectineal  eminence,  and  extends  in  the  anterior  and 
lower  part  of  the  capsule  to  its  insertion  above  the  small  trochanter. 
The  ischio-femoral  ligament  is  a  strong  band  of  fibres  on  the  outer  and 
posterior  portion  of  the  capsule,  arising  from  the  groove  on  the  ischium 
below  the  acetabulum.  The  pubo-femoral  ligament  limits  abduction; 
the  ischio-femoral  limits  inversion.  On  each  side  of  the  pubo-femoral 
band  the  capsule  is  very  thin ;  outside  and  behind  the  Y-ligament  the 
capsule  is  very  strong,  limiting  adduction  and  inward  rotation  (Bige- 
low). 

The  joint  is  thickly  covered  in  by  muscles,  of  which  it  is  desirable 
here  to  mention  only  one,  the  obturator  internus,  which  plays  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  backward  dislocations.  This  muscle,  arising  from  the 
inner  surface  of  the  obturator  foramen  and  the  surface  of  bone  between 
it  and  the  great  sacro-sciatic  notch,  passes  outward  through  the  small 
sacro-sciatic  notch,  turns  sharply  forward,  and  is  inserted  upon  the 
front  part  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  great  trochanter  in  conjunction 
with  the  two  gemelli  which  arise  respectively  from  the  spine  and  tuber- 


The  iliofemoral,  or  Y-ligament.    (Bigelow.) 


696  DISLOCATIONS. 

osity  of  the  ischium.  Above  it  is  the  pyriformis,  below  it  the  quad- 
ratus  femoris. 

The  centre  of  the  head  of  the  femur  lies  about  two  inches  directly 
below  the  anterior  inferior  spine  of  the  ilium,  and  at  about  the  same 
distance  downward  and  outward  from  the  centre  of,  and  in  a  direction 
at  right  angles  to,  a  line  drawn  from  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the 
ilium  to  the  spine  of  the  pubis.  When  the  bones  are  normal  and  in 
place,  and  the  limb  is  partly  flexed,  a  line  drawn  across  the  outer  aspect 
of  the  thigh  from  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium  to  the  lowest 
part  of  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium  will  cross  the  upper  part  of  the 
great  trochanter.  This  is  known  as  Nelaton's,  or  the  ischio-iliac  line; 
its  relations  to  the  trochanter  have  great  diagnostic  importance.  In 
the  child,  according  to  Hueter,  the  trochanter  is  brought  somewhat 
higher  by  the  relative  shortness  of  the  neck  of  the  femur. 

Extension  and  abduction  are  checked  in  the  living  by  the  ligaments 
of  .the  joint,  flexion  and  adduction  by  the  muscles  or  by  the  contact  of 
the  limb  with  the  abdomen  in  flexion.  The  range  of  abduction  and 
adduction  is  further  modified  by  the  position  of  the  limb  as  regards  its 
flexion  and  its  rotation  about  the  long  axis. 

The  position  of  the  limb  in  which  dislocation  of  the  hip  most  fre- 
quently occurs  is  that  of  flexion,  adduction,  and  inward  rotation,  and 
the  dislocation  which  then  occurs  is  usually  one  of  the  backward  forms, 
although  after  the  head  of  the  bone  has  left  the  socket  abduction  and 
outward  rotation  of  the  limb  may  lodge  it  in  the  obturator  foramen. 
In  this  position  the  posterior  and  inferior  portion  of  the  capsule  is  put 
upon  the  stretch  and  ruptured.  By  outward  rotation  and  abduction  the 
head  may  be  forced  out  at  the  lower  and  inner  part  of  the  capsule  below 
the  pubo-femoral  ligament,  toward  the  obturator  foramen;  in  each  case 
a  new  centre  is  found  for  the  exaggerated  movement  in  the  more  or 
less  direct  contact  between  the  neck  of  the  femur  and  the  margin  of 
the  acetabulum  or  in  the  tension  of  part  of  the  Y-ligament.  The  force 
which  produces  the  dislocation,  therefore,  almost  always  acts  indirectly, 
either  by  moving  the  limb  upon  the  fixed  trunk  or  by  moving  the 
trunk  upon  the  fixed  limb.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the 
Y-ligament  remains  untorn,  and  by  the  restraint  which  it  exerts  upon 
the  movements  of  the  displaced  femur  it  determines  in  a  large  measure 
the  character  of  the  secondary  displacement,  the  attitude  in  which  the 
limb  comes  to  rest,  and  the  manipulations  by  which  the  dislocation  can 
be  reduced.  This  influence  is  so  great  that  Bigelow  based  upon  it  the 
distinction  which  he  made  between  '^regular"  and  ''irregular"  dis- 
locations, the  former  including  those  cases  in  which  the  ligament 
remained  untorn  and  the  attitude  of  the  limb  was  in  consequence  char- 
acteristic; the  latter  those  in  which  the  ligament  was  more  or  less  torn 
and  the  attitude  and  displacement  variable.  The  distinction  has  some- 
times an  important  bearing  upon  the  treatment  and  deserves  to  be 
preserved. 

Statistics.  The  tables  in  Chapter  XXVII.  show  that  the  percentages 
of  dislocation  of  the  hip,  compared  with  all  dislocations,  vary  from 
1.25  to  2  per  cent.     Agnew^  says  that  of  912  dislocations  admitted  to 

1  Agnew  :  Surgery,  vol.  ii.  p.  89. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  697 

the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  89  (9.75  per  cent.)  were  of  the  hip.  Of 
Kronlein's  8  cases  4  were  in  patients  not  more  than  ten  years  old,  and 
of  Prahl's'  41  cases  12  were  of  the  same  age,  8  were  between  eleven 
and  twenty,  and  11  were  between  twenty-one  and  thirty  years  old. 
This  preponderance  in  youth  is,  however,  not  found  in  Agnew's  list  or 
in  the  41  cases  collected  by  Malgaigne  or  the  84  cases  collected  by 
Hamilton.     The  latter  were  divided  as  follows  : 

Under  15  years  ........  15 

15    to  30     "  32 

30     "  45     "  29 

45     "  60     "  7 

60     "  85     "  1 

Agnew's  89  cases  are  thus  divided  : 

15  to  25  years 39 

25  "  35  '  "             26 

35  "  45     "             12 

45  "  65     "             6 

55  "  65     "             5 

65  "  75     "             1 

Although  the  numbers  are  larger  in  Hamilton's  collection  than  in 
Prahl's,  yet,  as  the  latter  are  the  integral  statistics  of  a  single  hospital 
and  dispensary,  I  think  its  percentages  are  more  likely  to  represent  the 
actual  proportions  than  those  of  a  collection  of  published  cases  are. 
I  do  not  know  how  to  account  for  the  absence  from  Agnew's  list  of 
patients  under  fifteen  years  of  age. 

The  earliest  age  at  which  a  dislocation  has  been  reported  is  six 
months;^  it  w^as  a  dislocation  upon  the  obturator  foramen,  and  was 
caused  by  the  fall  of  a  chair  in  which  the  child  was  tied.  In  the 
report  by  W.  A.  Johnson,^  of  a  clinical  lecture  by  Prof.  Gross,  it  is 
said,  ''  upward  of  six  years  ago  this  child,  M.  S.,  aged  seven  years,  had 
a  fall,"  and  received  a  dorsal  dislocation  of  the  hip.  The  note  is 
entitled  "  Dislocation  of  the  hip-joint  in  a  child  six  months  of  age." 
Bartels*  reported  a  dorsal  dislocation  at  eleven  months  caused  by  the 
effort  made  to  put  on  a  shoe.  Several  others  have  been  reported 
between  the  ages  of  eighteen  months  and  five  years. 

The  oldest  patient  is  one  reported  by  Kennedy,^  a  woman,  aged 
ninety-one  years  and  five  months,  who  received  a  dorsal  dislocation  of 
the  right  hip  by  a  fall,  while  walking  across  a  smooth  floor;  it  was 
reduced  on  the  twelfth  day  by  manipulation,  and  two  days  later  the 
patient  died.  The  autopsy  verified  the  diagnosis.  The  next  oldest 
patient,  eighty-six  years,  was  also  a  woman, ^  and  the  next  a  man 
eighty-one  years  old,  whose  dislocation  was  suprapubic  and  was  veri- 
fied by  autopsy  four  years  later;  the  neck  of  the  bone  was  broken  by 
an  attempt  to  reduce  while  the  injury  was  recent;  the  case  was  reported 
by  Verneuil.'' 

1  Prahl ;  Inaug.  Dis.,  Centbl.  fUr  Chir.,  1881,  p.  57. 

2  Powdrell :  Lancet,  1868,  vol.  i.  p.  617. 

3  Johnson  :  Philadelphia  Medical  Times.  1876-7,  vol.  vii.  p.  5. 
*  Bartels  :  Arch,  fiir  klin.  Chir  ,  1874.  vol.  xvi.  p.  650. 

5  Kennedy  :  Cincinnati  Lancet  and  Clinic,  1878,  vol.  i.  p.  256. 

s  Gauthier  :  Quoted  by  Malgaigne,  loc.  cic,  p.  805. 

7  Verneuil :  BuU.  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1865,  vol.  vi.  p.  495. 


698  DISLOCATIONS. 

The  injury  is  much  more  common  in  males  than  in  females;  of 
Agnew's  89,  11  were  women;  of  115  cases  collected  by  Hamilton,  104 
were  males. 

Concerning  the  relative  frequency  of  the  different  varieties  it  can  be 
said  that  those  in  which  the  head  of  the  femur  is  found  resting  upon 
the  lower  part  of  the  ilium  behind  the  outer  posterior  half  of  the  ace- 
tabulum, the  so-called  "  iliac"  dislocation,  to  preserve  for  the  moment 
the  old  classification,  or  still  lower  down  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
ischium,  "  ischiatic"  dislocations,  are  much  more  frequent  than  those 
in  which  it  rests  in  front  or  on  the  inner  side  of  the  acetabulum,  the 
suprapubic  and  obturator  dislocations.  The  dislocations  upon  the  dor- 
sum of  the  ilium  are  generally  thought,  on  clinical  evidence,  to  be 
more  frequent  than  the  ischiatic,  but  a  comparison  of  the  cases  exam- 
ined after  death  does  not  corroborate  this  view;  Malgaigne  collected 
10  autopsies  of  ischiatic  dislocations,  and  only  6  of  the  iliac,  one  of 
these  being  primarily  ischiatic,  and  Lossen,^  taking  only  cases  reported 
since  1855,  found  19  ischiatic  and  only  5  iliac.  Probably  Malgaigne's 
supposition  is  correct  that  many  ischiatic  cases  observed  clinically  are 
thought  to  be  iliac;  indeed,  it  will  further  appear  that  in  many  "  iliac  " 
dislocations  the  head  of  the  femur  has  primarily  passed  downward  and 
backward,  and  that  its  presence  upon  the  dorsum  of  the  ilium  is  due 
to  a  secondary  displacement  upward.  Roser  goes  so  far  as  to  claim 
that  the  iliac  dislocations,  in  which  the  head  of  the  femur  has  left  the 
cotyloid  cavity  by  its  upper  posterior  portion,  are  the  rarest  of  all  the 
principal  forms.  Of  the  two  anterior  forms  the  obturator  seems  to  be 
more  frequent  than  the  suprapubic,  but  the  reported  cases  are  too  few 
to  justify  a  positive  assertion. 

Simultaneous  dislocation  of  both  hips  has  been  reported  in  about  thirty 
cases  (see  Chapter  LIII.). 

Compound  dislocations  are  very  rare,  as  might  be  expected  from  the 
thickness  of  the  soft  parts  which  everywhere  cover  in  the  joint.  The 
recorded  cases  are  those  of  Walker,"  Bransby  Cooper,^  Macouchy,* 
Moxon,^  a  German  military  surgeon,^  Taylor,''  Woodward,^  Langmaid 
and  Cabot,  reported  by  Perkins,^  and  Cheever.^'*  In  the  first  case  the 
patient  fell  under  a  wagon,  the  wheel  passing  over  the  back  of  his 
pelvis  and  right  thigh;  the  head  of  the  femur  was  forced  "  forward 
upon  the  groin"  and  through  the  skin.  Reduction;  suppuration; 
death  in  three  weeks.  The  second  is  not  spoken  of  by  Cooper  as  a 
compound  dislocation,  but  the  history  indicates  that  it  probably  was 
one;  the  patient,  a  lad  seventeen  years  old,  was  run  over  by  a  wagon, 
the  wheel  passing  across  the  back  of  his  thigh  and  producing  a  dislo- 
cation forward  and  inward,  the  head  of  the  femur  lying  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  great  vessels.    A  rather  large  lacerated  wound  was  situated 

1  Lessen  :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  65,  p.  30. 
"  Walker :  Quoted  by  Cooper,  loo.  cit.,  p.  80. 

3  Cooper:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  76. 

4  Macouchy :  Dublin  Hospital  Gazette,  1872,  vol.  i.  p.  21. 
6  Moxon  :  JMedical  Times  and  Gazette,  1872,  vol.  i.  p.  96. 
6  Centralblatt  fiir  Chirurgie,  1880,  p.  504. 

1  Taylor :  Lancet,  1881,  vol.  i.  p.  732. 

8  Woodward  ;  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  1883,  vol.  cviii.  p.  129. 
3  Perkins :  Ibid.,  October  16,  1890,  p.  362. 
10  Cheever  :  Ibid  ,  May  28, 1891,  p.  523. 


DISL  0  GA  TIONS  0  F  THE  HIP.  699 

just  below  Poupart's  ligament,  a  little  to  the  inner  side  of  its  centre. 
Profuse  suppuration  followed,  and  the  patient  died  on  the  twentieth 
day. 

Macouchy's  patient  was  a  boy  fourteen  years  old,  who  fell  from  a 
mast  to  the  deck,  a  distance  of  sixty  feet,  and  received,  in  addition  to 
the  dislocation,  a  fracture  of  the  base  of  the  skull.  When  seen,  he 
was  sitting  on  the  deck  with  the  head  of  the  femur  appearing  between 
his  legs,  through  his  pilot-cloth  trousers,  as  if  protruded  from  his  anus. 
The  head,  neck,  and  great  trochanter  protruded  through  the  integu- 
ments covering  the  posterior  third  of  the  ischium,  the  head  of  the  bone 
resting  on  the  posterior  part  of  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium  of  the 
opposite  side.  The  head  was  sawn  off,  and  the  shaft  replaced.  The 
patient  died  two  days  later. 

Moxon's  patient,  a  railway  porter,  was  injured  by  a  moving  train 
and  died  shortly  afterward  in  Guy's  Hospital.  The  position  of  the 
limb  was  that  of  dislocation  on  the  dorsum  ilii.  There  was  a  large 
irregular  rent  in  the  skin  corresponding  to  the  junction  of  the  left 
sacro-sciatic  ligament  with  the  tuber  ischii.  On  passing  three  or  four 
fingers  into  the  hole  a  way  was  found  through  a  pulp  of  torn  muscles 
and  bloodclot,  till  the  fingers  rested  on  the  naked  head  of  the  thigh 
bone.  The  gluteal  muscles  were  much  torn  up  and  infiltrated  with 
blood.  The  head  of  the  thigh  bone  lay  half  an  inch  outside  the  great 
sciatic  nerve,  free  under  the  remains  of  the  glutei.  It  had  escaped 
through  the  muscles  immediately  around  the  joint  by  passing  between 
the  quadratus  femoris  and  obturator  internus.  A  portion  of  the  head 
of  the  bone  remained  in  the  socket,  attached  by  the  round  ligament. 

The  fifth  case  was  that  of  an  artilleryman  who  fell  in  front  of  the 
gun;  his  left  leg  was  bent  back  so  that  the  heel  lay  against  the  back 
of  the  shoulder,  and  the  head  of  the  femur  projected  through  the  fold 
of  the  groin.  There  was  profuse  bleeding  from  the  femoral  vein. 
Death  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Taylor's  patient  was  a  lad  seventeen  years  old,  who  was  overthrown 
by  a  falling  tree  and  received  a  dislocation  into  the  obturator  foramen 
together  with  an  irregular  wound  nearly  two  inches  long  in  the 
perineum  through  which  the  head  of  the  femur  could  be  distinctly 
felt.  Most  of  the  muscles  had  been  separated  from  the  descending 
ramus  of  the  pubis  and  the  ascending  ramus  of  the  ischium.  Reduc- 
tion was  made  with  some  difficulty,  and  the  limb  immobilized  on  a  long 
side  splint.  The  wound  healed  promptly,  and  at  the  end  of  nine  weeks 
the  splint  was  removed,  but  on  the  next  day  inflammatory  symptoms 
appeared  on  the  side  of  the  hip,  and  an  abscess  formed  and  was 
opened.  Eight  months  later  Taylor  met  the  patient  riding  on  horse- 
back. 

Woodward's  patient,  a  boy  twelve  years  old,  was  caught  under  a 
freight  car  and  rolled  over  and  over,  receiving  several  fractures  in 
addition  to  the  dislocation.  The  wound  was  a  slit  about  two  inches 
long  on  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh  two  and  a  half  inches  below  the 
angle  of  the  pubes.  The  head  of  the  femur,  together  with  the  great 
trochanter  entirely  stripped  of  its  muscles,  projected  completely  through 
the  opening  for  about  four  inches  and  lay  across  the  scrotum.    Its  point 


700  DISLOCATIONS. 

of  exit  was  just  anterior  to  the  adductor  longus.  No  fracture  of  the 
femur  or  pelvis  was  detected,  and  the  great  vessels  were  uninjured. 
The  p'^tient  died  in  five  hours,  and  after  death  reduction  could  not  be 
made. 

Langmaid's  patient  was  a  girl  eight  years  old  who  had  been  run 
over  by  a  heavy  wagon.  The  wound  extended  from  a  point  one  inch 
above  and  within  the  anterior  superior  spine  across  the  groin  to  the 
inner  side  of  the  thigh,  the  head  of  the  femur  presenting  in  it  near  its 
centre.  "  The  muscles  directly  under  the  wound  were  severed,  the 
adductor  longus  completely,  the  pectineus,  psoas,  and  gracilis  partially." 
Considerable  hemorrhage;  the  femoral  vessels  were  "outside  and 
beneath  the  neck  of  the  femur."  Reduction.  The  wound  suppu- 
rated, but  the  child  recovered  with  complete  anchylosis. 

Cheever's  patient,  a  man  fifty  years  old,  was  thrown  down  by  the 
fall  of  a  heavy  case;  the  head  of  the  femur  protruded  through  a  wound 
in  the  groin  below  the  outer  part  of  Poupart's  ligament.  The  head 
was  excised;  patient  died  on  the  third  day.  The  autopsy  showed  the 
femoral  vessels  to  be  intact.  Death  was  apparently  due  to  associated 
injuries,  shock,  and  extensive  fat  embolism  of  the  lungs. 

The  gravity  of  the  condition,  7  deaths  in  9  cases,  is  largely  due  to 
associated  injuries  and  shock,  5  deaths;  in  the  remaining  4  the  wound 
suppurated  after  reduction,  and  2  of  them  died.  The  urgent  question 
is  whether  or  not  to  excise  the  head  of  the  femur  in  order  to  diminish 
the  danger  if  suppuration  should  follow.  In  fresh,  uninfected  cases 
I  should  think  it  unnecessary  if  ample  drainage  was  provided. 

Classification.  The  classifications  adopted  by  the  earlier  writers  were 
necessarily  faulty  and  deficient  because  of  the  lack  of  recorded  experi- 
ence and  post-mortem  examinations.  That  of  Hippocrates,  containing 
four  principal  forms,  outv\^ard,  inward,  forward,  and  backward,  was 
employed,  according  to  Malgaigne,  until  the  seventeenth  or  eighteenth 
century,  although  the  terms  do  not  seem  always  to  have  been  applied 
in  the  same  sense.  Petit,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  made  two  main 
groups,  inward  and  outward,  each  with  two  subdivisions,  the  four 
being  upward  and  inward,  downward  and  inward,  upward  and  out- 
ward, and  downward  and  outward,  but  he  thought  it  impossible  that 
the  latter  form  could  occur.  Verduc,  about  the  same  time  or  a  little 
earlier,  sought  to  establish  a  classification  based  upon  the  place  at  which 
the  head  of  the  femur  came  to  rest,  and  in  this  he  was  supported  by 
Duverney  and  Bertrandi,  and  thus  arose  the  terms  dislocation  upon  the 
ilium,  upon  the  ischium;  upon  the  pubes,  into  the  foramen  ovale.  Sir 
Astley  Cooper  gave  us  dislocations  upward,  or  on  the  dorsum  ilii,  down- 
ward, or  into  the  foramen  ovale,  backward,  or  into  the  ischiatic  notch,  and 
dislocation  on  the  pubes ;  and  Gerdy  followed  with  suprapubic,  sub- 
pubic, iliac,  sacro-sciatic,  and  ischiatic,  the  latter  being  directly  down- 
ward. 

Malgaigne  was  the  first  to  bring  to  the  subject  the  results  of  careful 
study  of  many  pathological  specimens;  he  showed  that  in  the  back- 
ward dislocations  the  head  of  the  femur  did  not  go  so  far  as  the  ana- 
tomical terms  used  in  Cooper's  classification,  for  example,  would 
indicate,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  it  usually  remained  so  near  the 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  701 

cotyloid  cavity  tliat  it  partly  overlapped  it,  "incomplete"  disloca- 
tions, as  he  called  them,  aud  he  proposed  a  classification  in  four  groups, 
of  which  the  first  two  were  the  same  as  Petit's,  though  the  names  are 
different,  as  follows: 

-r^.  ,       ,.        ,1  1        f   iliac,  complete,  incomplete. 

Dislocations  backward      |  i.ehiatic,  complete,  incomplete. 

Dislocations  forward         {  |J;.hio"plfbic. 
Dislocations  upward  supracotyloid. 

-r^.  ,      ,.        J  J      r  subcotyloid. 

Dislocations  downward     <^  s^bpe/ineal. 

The  names  ilio-pubic  and  ischio-pabic  were  taken  from  those  of  cor- 
responding depressions  on  the  margin  of  the  cotyloid  cavity  along 
which  the  head  of  the  femur  was  thought  to  pass,  and,  acting  on  the 
same  plan,  Nekton  gave  the  name  ilio-ischiatic  to  all  the  backward 
dislocations,  which  Malgaigne  preferred  to  divide  into  two  groups. 

In  Germany  Roser  aud  Busch  adhered  to  the  method  of  classifica- 
tion according  to  the  direction  taken  by  the  head  of  the  femur;  later, 
Albert  made  three  groups:  backward ,  forward  and  upward,  and  for- 
ward and  downward,  and  Konig  and  Lossen  four:  backward  (iliac  and 
ischiatic),  forward  {suprapubic  and  infrajmbic),  supracotyloid,  infra- 
cotyloid. 

In  England  Sir  Astley  Cooper's  classification  has  been  quite  closely- 
adhered  to,  although  some  surgeons  (Erichsen)  place  the  backward 
dislocations,  those  "upon  the  dorsum  ilii"  and  "into  the  sciatic 
notch,"  in  one  group  and  call  them  "dislocations  backward  and 
upward." 

In  America  Hamilton  used  Cooper's  classification;  and  Agnew  does 
the  same,  although  he  groups  the  iliac  and  ischiatic  together  as  vari- 
eties of  a  single  form  "  upward  and  backward." 

Bigelow,^  to  whose  researches  and  writings  so  much  of  the  recent 
advance  in  the  knowledge  of  the  subject  and  in  the  treatment  of  the 
injury  is  due,  made  a  classification  of  seven  regular  and  principal 
forms,  which  he  based  not  merely  upon  the  direction  in  which  the  bone 
had  been  dislocated  or  the  point  at  which  it  came  to  rest,  but  also  upon 
the  integrity  of  the  Y-ligament  or  the  rupture  of  its  out^r  branch,  and 
the  changes  in  the  attitude  of  the  limb  which  arise  from  such  rupture. 
Such  a  classification  was  open  to  the  objection  that  it  gave  equal  rank 
to  forms  which  were  only  variations  of  others,  and  a  few  years  later  he 
modified  it^  by  grouping  all  under  four  heads  and  by  suppressing  the 
distinction  between  the  "  dorsal"  and  the  "  dorsal  below  the  tendon," 
which  latter  name  he  had  previously  given  to  the  lower  of  the  two 
dorsal  varieties,  the  "dislocation  into  the  sciatic  notch"  of  Cooper. 
His  new  classification,  then,  was  the  following  : 

External  to  the  socket;  comprising  the  dorsal  and  the  dorsal  with 
aversion. 

Internal  to  the  socket;  on  the  perineum,  the  thyroid  foramen,  and 
the  pubes, 

1  Bigelow:  The  Hip.  2  Bigelow  :  Lancet,  1878,  vol.  i.  p.  894. 


702  DISLOCATIONS. 

Below  the  socket;  dislocation  toward  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium. 

Above  the  socket;  the  subspinous,  the  supraspinous,  and  the  anterior 
oblique. 

This  also  was  open  to  the  serious  objection  that  varieties  which  were 
alike  in  their  mode  of  production,  in  the  point  at  which  the  head  of 
the  femur  left  the  socket,  in  the  direction  it  afterward  took,  and  in 
treatment  were  placed  in  different  main  divisions,  and  he,  therefore, 
went  further  and  presented  in  the  same  paper  the  following  classifica- 
tion which  he  recommended  as  a  sufficient  "  practical  grouping." 

Dorsal,  comprising  the  dislocation  on  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium, 
the  dorsal,  the  everted  dorsal,  the  anterior  oblique,  and  the  supra- 
spinous. 

Thyroid,  comprising  that  in  the  perineum  and  that  on  the  thyroid 
foramen. 

Pubic,  comprising  the  pubic  and  the  subspinous. 

Turning  now  to  the  results  of  the  examination  of  specimens  and  of 
experiments  upon  the  cadaver,  it  appears  that  in  the  more  frequent 
forms  the  head  of  the  femur  passes  over  the  outer,  posterior,  margin 
of  the  cotyloid  cavity,  usually  at  or  below  its  horizontal  diameter^ 
while  the  limb  is  flexed,  adducted,  and  rotated  inward;  then  by 
the  sinking  of  the  knee  the  femur  turns  upon  its  attachment  to  the 
Y-ligament  as  a  centre,  and  the  head  rises  to  a  higher  level  along  the 
outer  surface  of  the  acetabulum  or  further  backward  on  the  flat  surface 
of  the  ilium  in  front  of,  and  seldom  higher  than  the  apex  of,  the  great 
sciatic  notch.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  apex  is  not  very 
much  above  the  level  of  the  highest  part  of  the  cotyloid  margin.  In 
this  movement  the  head  of  the  femur  frequently  passes  behind  the 
untorn  tendon  of  the  obturator  internus,  leaving  that  tendon  between 
itself  and  the  acetabulum.  Or,  if  it  crosses  the  margin  of  the  coty- 
loid cavity  at  or  above  its  horizontal  diameter,  it  may  tear  the  obturator 
internus  and  pyriformis  or  pass  between  these  muscles  and  come  to 
rest  at  the  same  point  as  before.  The  former  is  the  dislocation 
'^  below  the  tendon,"  the  latter  the  '^dorsal"  or  the  dislocation 
'^  upon  the  dorsum  ilii,"  as  these  terms  were  orginially  used,  but  the 
distinction  is  one  which  cannot  often  be  made  clinically.  The  impor- 
tant difference  between  them  is  in  the  situation  of  the  rent  in  the  cap- 
sule, which  is  higher  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former,  and  will  probably 
permit  reduction  by  traction  downward. 

Exceptionally,  if,  after  the  dislocation  has  occurred,  the  knee  is  still 
further  lowered  and  the  limb  abducted  and  rotated  outward,  the  outer 
branch  of  the  Y-ligament  ruptures  and  the  head  of  the  femur  passes 
forward  along  the  ilium  toward  its  anterior  inferior  spine  or  the  inter- 
val between  the  two  spines,  the  '^  everted  dorsal"  of  Bigelow,  the 
^'  supraspinous  "  or  part  of  the  ''  supracotyloid  "  of  others.  The  atti- 
tude of  the  limb  in  this  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  common  back- 
ward dislocation  of  which  this  is  a  variety  by  secondary  displacement. 

But  the  head  of  the  femur  may  not  only  come  to  rest  directly  above 
the  cotyloid  cavity  by  a  secondary  displacement  forward  and  inward; 
it  may  also  reach  nearly  the  same  point  by  a  secondary  displacement 
outward  and  backward  from  a  primary  dislocation  forward  upon  the 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  703 

pubis.  The  distinction  between  the  two  is  radical,  for  in  the  former 
the  root  of  the  Y-ligamcnt  lies  on  the  inner  side  of  the  head,  which 
must  be  returned  to  its  socket  by  passing  backward  behind  the  ace- 
tabulum; and  in  the  latter  the  Y-ligament  lies  to  its  outer  side  and 
the  head  must  be  returned  along  the  front  or  inner  side  of  the  acetab- 
ulum. There  is  still  a  third  way  in  which  the  head  may  be  placed 
above  the  acetabulum,  although  at  a  somewhat  lower  level,  and  that  is 
by  direct  displacement  upward,  with  rupture  of  the  u})per  part  of  the 
capsule  and  of  the  Y-ligament,  but  this  is  extremely  rare. 

The  dislocations  forward  (or  inward)  and  upward  and  inward  and 
downward  offer  no  difficulties  in  classification ;  each  has  its  character- 
istic symptoms,  although  the  perineal  variety  of  the  latter  is  somewhat 
sharply  distinguished  from  the  obturator  or  thyroid  variety  by  the 
greater  flexion  and  abduction  of  the  limb.  Bigelow  thinks  the  supra- 
pubic can  be  produced  by  a  secondary  disi^lacement  upward  after  the 
head  has  escaped  at  the  lower  part  of  the  capsule  during  flexion  of  the 
limb,  in  a  similar  manner  and  by  the  same  mechanism  (lowering  of  the 
knee)  as  a  secondary  "•  iliac"  dislocation  is  produced  from  a  primary 
'^  ischiatic  "  one.  In  short,  he  thinks  {Lancet,  1878)  that  in  most  cases 
the  head  of  the  femur  escapes  over  the  lower  margin  of  the  acetabulum 
and  then  passes  upward  as  the  limb  is  lowered,  and  either  behind  or 
in  front  of  the  acetabulum  according  as  the  limb  is  adducted  or 
abducted,  and  upon  this  theory  he  bases  a  simple  rule  of  treatment 
applicable  to  both  anterior  and  posterior  dislocations,  namely,  flex  the 
limb  at  a  right  angle  to  bring  the  head  below  the  socket,  and  then  lift 
it  into  place. 

Finally,  the  head  may  be  displaced  downward  upon  the  adjoining 
branch  of  the  ischium,  and  rest  there  (subcotyloid);  the  position  is  one 
from  which  the  head  can  be  easily  displaced,  either  backward  or  for- 
ward, and  the  dislocation  thereby  transformed  into  a  dorsal  or  obtura- 
tor one. 

The  distinction  between  the  two  backward  forms,  upon  the  dorsum 
ilii  and  toward  the  sciatic  notch,  which  has  already  been  abandoned  by 
eminent  surgeons  (Bigelow,  Erichsen,  Albert),  does  not  appear  to  de- 
serve to  be  retained,  except,  perhaps,  to  establish  corresponding  vari- 
eties in  the  group,  and  the  anterior  oblique,  everted  dorsal,  and  supra- 
spinous clearly  belong  in  the  same  class  by  their  mode  of  production 
and  treatment.  The  class  of  supracotyloid  dislocations,  made  by  some 
writers  to  contain  the  two  last  mentioned,  the  rare  dislocations  directly 
upward,  and  some  of  the  suprapubic,  will  be  limited  to  those  in  which 
the  head  appears  to  have  moved  directly  upward.  The  corresponding 
class  and  term  of  ''  subcotyloid"  must  be  retained  for  the  rare  dislo- 
cations downward  '^  upon  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium." 

The  terms  upward  and  downward  must  not  be  taken  too  literally. 
They  appear  to  have  been  rather  carelessly  used  at  first  without  strict 
regard  to  the  normal  position  of  the  pelvis.  When  the  body  is  upright^ 
the  upper  border  of  the  symphysis  pubis  lies  a  little  below  the  level 
of  the  centre  of  the  cotyloid  cavity,  and  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium 
lies  not  directly  below  this  cavity,  but  below  and  behind.  The  classi- 
fication, then,  which  will  here  be  used  is  as  follows : 


704  ^^SL  0  CA  TIONS. 


Dislocations  backward 


f  dorsal,  comprising  the  "iliac"  and  "ischiatic," 
I       or  those  "upon  the  dorsum  ilii"  and  "into 
I       the  ischiatic  notch  "  of  the  writers, 
everted  dorsal,  comprising  the  anterior  oblique, 

"supraspinous,"    and    some   of    the    "supra- 

cotyloid." 

Dislocations  downward       f  obturator. 

and  inward  1  perineal. 

T^.  ,       ,.        r.  T  I  r ilio-pectineal. 

Dislocations  forward  suprapubic       \  pubic. 

and  upward  |       ^     ^  [  intrapelvic. 

Dislocations  directly  upward  (supracotyloid  or  subspinous). 
Dislocations  downward  on  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium. 

As  in  the  classification  of  dislocations  of  the  shoulder,  the  names 
of  the  principal  groups  indicate  the  direction  of  the  primary  displace- 
ment and,  consequently,  the  position  of  the  rent  in  the  capsule,  and 
the  names  of  the  varieties  show  either  the  place  at  which  the  head  of 
the  femur  comes  to  rest  or  the  special  symptomatic  feature  which 
marks  the  variety. 

Backward  Dislocations. 

1.  Dorsal. 

2.  Everted  dorsal. 

In  this  class  of  dislocations  the  head  of  the  femur  in  leaving  the 
cotyloid  cavity  passes  over  its  posterior  margin  at  a  higher  or  lower 
point  while  the  limb  is  flexed,  adducted,  and  rotated  inward.  In  the 
great  majority  of  cases  the  limb  preserves  this  attitude,  and  the  head 
rests  not  far  from  and  behind,  or  behind  and  above,  the  margin  of  the 
acetabulum,  between  it  and  the  great  sciatic  notch,  or  it  may  lie  a  little 
higher  upon  the  concave  surface  of  the  ilium;  these  constitute  the 
dorsal  variety,  and  include  the  ^Mliac^'  and  "ischiatic"  of  other 
Avriters.  In  other  cases  external  rotation  of  the  limb  takes  place  Math 
or  without  abduction  and  extension;  in  the  latter  case  the  limb  crosses 
the  opposite  thigh  and  the  toes  are  everted,  the  head  of  the  femur  lies 
above  the  socket,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  corresponds  to  the 
upper  and  posterior  margin  of  the  acetabulum,  the  anterior  oblique 
variety;  in  the  former  case  (with  abduction  and  extension)  the  outer 
branch  of  the  Y-ligament  is  ruptured,  the  head  of  the  femur  lies  above 
the  socket,  and  the  everted  limb  lies  parallel  to  its  fellow,  or  slightly 
abducted — the  everted  dorsal  variety.  The  class  includes  all  the  back- 
ward dislocations  of  other  authors,  and  most  of  those  that  have  some- 
times been  grouped  under  the  term  "  supracotyloid." 

1.  Dorsal  Dislocations. 

In  these  dislocations,  which  are  by  far  the  most  common  of  all 
dislocations  of  the  hip,  the  head  of  the  femur  lies  behind  and  above 
the  cotyloid  cavity,  either  close  to  and  overlapping  its  edge  (Mal- 
gaigne's  "incomplete"  form)  or  further  away  upon  the  ihum.  It 
may  pass  below  the  obturator  internus  and  rise  behind  it,  or  between 
it  and  the  pyriformis,  or  above  the  latter,  or  both  muscles  may  be  com- 
pletely torn  across.     The  group,  therefore,  includes  the  dislocations 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  705 

^' upon  the  dorsum  ilii "  and  those  '^  into  the  ischiatic  notch"  of 
Cooper,  or  the  ''  dorsal"  and  the  '^  dorsal  below  the  tendon"  of  Bige- 
low's  first  classification,  or  the  "  iliac"  and  ''  ischiatic"  of  others. 

Causes.  Dorsal  dislocations  are  commonly  caused  by  violence  that 
approximates  the  knee  and  the  pelvis  while  the  thigh  is  flexed,  adducted, 
and  rotated  inward,  as  in  a  fall  from  a  height,  or  in  the  fall  of  a  heavy 
body  upon  the  back  of  the  patient  while  he  is  stooping  forward.  Less 
frequently  but  little  or  no  violence  acts  to  cause  the  overriding  of  the 
femnr  upon  the  pelvis,  and  the  dislocation  is  produced  mainly  or  solely 
by  flexion,  adduction,  and  inward  rotation,  one  of  the  three  movements 
being  exaggerated.  Thus,  in  a  case  reported  by  Moffat,'  the  patient 
was  drawing  a  railway  carriage  along  the  track;  he  fell  forward  and 
rolled  upon  his  back  outside  the  rail  to  escape  the  car,  but,  as  it  passed, 
the  end  of  the  footboard  caught  his  leg  and  bent  it  upon  and  across 
his  belly  (flexion  and  adduction).  The  car  had  to  be  raised  wdth  a 
jack-screw  to  free  him,  and  when  released  he  was  lying  upon  his  back 
with  the  limb  in  the  position  described.  When  examined  at  the  hos- 
pital, the  thigh  was  slightly  flexed  and  rotated  inward,  the  toes  over- 
lapping those  of  the  other  foot. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Dupuytren,  exaggerated  adduction  appears  to 
have  been  the  chief  factor.  A  delicate  man,  twenty-one  years  old, 
was  thrown,  while  wrestling,  upon  his  left  side,  and  in  the  fall  the  left 
thigh  was  forcibly  carried  across  the  front  of  the  other  by  contact  of 
the  side  of  the  knee  with  the  ground.  In  a  case  observed  by  Mal- 
gaigne,  and  in  another  quoted  by  him  from  Mercier,  exaggerated 
inward  rotation  appeared  to  be  the  principal  cause;  both  patients  were 
women  who  slipped  and  twisted  the  foot  inward  while  walking. 

A  case,  exceptional  not  only  by  its  mode  of  production  but  also  by 
the  age  of  the  patient,  was  reported  by  Bartels  and  has  been  referred 
to  above.  The  patient  was  a  child  eleven  months  old,  and  the  dislo- 
cation was  caused  by  the  effort  of  a  shoemaker  to  put  on  its  shoe  while 
it  was  sitting  on  its  nurse's  knee. 

In  two  cases  in  which  the  head  was  split  into  two  pieces,  one  of 
which  remained  in  the  socket  attached  to  the  ligamentum  teres,  it  is 
evident  that  the  flexion,  adduction,  and  rotation  were  not  carried  far 
enough  to  turn  the  head  out  of  the  socket,  and  the  dislocation,  strictly 
speaking,  was  a  complication  of  a  fracture  of  the  head  produced  by 
violent  pressure  of  the  inner  segment  against  the  outer  and  upper 
margin  of  the  cavity;  in  like  manner  the  dislocation  may  be  facilitated 
by  the  breaking  off  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  acetabular  ring. 
There  is  reason  to  think  that  some  dislocations  are  produced  in  this 
manner  by  violence  acting  directly  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh, 
as  in  the  passage  across  it  of  the  wheel  of  a  heavy  wagon. 

It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  for  a  dorsal  dislocation  to  be  produced 
by  the  transformation  of  one  downward  and  inward  (obturator)  during 
manipulations  made  to  effect  reduction,  the  head  passing  below  and 
behind  the  acetabulum  during  flexion  and  adduction  of  the  limb,  and, 
in  like  manner,  a  dorsal  may  be  transformed  into  an  obturator  dislo- 
cation. 

1  Moffat :  Lancet,  1878,  vol.  ii.  p.  251. 

45 


706  -O-^'^^  0  CA  TIONS. 

Occasionally  dorsal  dislocation  takes  place  gradually  while  the 
patient  is  confined  to  bed  by  illness,  especially  by  acute  articular  rheu- 
matism and  the  infectious  or  eruptive  fevers.  These  "  spontaneous" 
dislocations  are  considered  in  Chapter  LIII. 

Pathology.  The  condition  of  the  capsule  and  of  the  muscles  about 
the  joint  and  the  position  of  the  head  of  the  femur  have  been  clearly 
shown  by  direct  examination  of  a  considerable  number  of  specimens 
of  recent  dislocation,  and  by  old  ones,  and  by  experiment  upon  the 
cadaver.  Among  the  autopsies  of  fresh  dislocations  recently  reported 
may  be  mentioned  those  by  Moxon,'  MacCormac,^  Adams, ^  Morris,* 
Lee,^  Humphry^  three  cases,  Kutherford,^  and  Stimson.^ 

The  capsule  is  torn  always  in  its  lower  posterior  part,  and  usually 
also  in  its  under  part,  but  the  rent  varies  greatly  in  extent  and  shape. 
Frequently  it  lies  about  midway  between  the  upper  and  lower  posterior 
insertions  of  the  capsule;  sometimes  the  capsule  is  torn  away  from  the 
femur,  and,  rarely,  away  from  the  acetabulum. 

In  Morris's  and  Lee's  cases  the  conditions  were  exceptional;  in  the 

former  (Fig.  301)  '^  the  capsule  was  ruptured  on  its  lower  and  inner 

side,  and  was  clearly  peeled  up  from  off  the  back  of  the  neck  of  the 

femur  as  far  as  the  digital  fossa.      The  rent 

Fig.  301.  •       commenced  below  the  pectineo-femoral  band, 

midway  between  the  acetabulum  and  the  femur, 

and  ran  (1)  outward  and  backward  to  the  neck 

of  the  latter,  which  it  reached  just  above  and 

behind  the  small   trochanter,  and   (2)   inward 

and   backward  across  the  thin  portion  of  the 

capsule  toward  the  acetabulum,  which  it  nearly 

reached  a  little  behind  the  ischial  border  of  the 

cotyloid  notch.     It  thus   formed  two  sides  of 

Morris's  case  of  dorsal  disio-  a  large  Opening  which  was  made  quadrilateral 

cation;  femur  flexed  and  ab-  -^^  ^^^.^  ^    ^j^^  detachment  of  the  flap  from  the 

ducted  to  show  the  rent  in  the    ,       ,  <•     .1         p  ^  i     5?       t?i    -i       ii       ^i 

capsule.  back    of    the   femoral  neck.        Lvidentiy  the 

head  had  escaped  downward. 

In  Lee's  case  the  capsule  was  ''  freely  lacerated  all  around,  a  small 
portion  remaining  attached  to  the  femur  in  front  and  behind."  This 
was,  therefore,  an  "  irregular"  dislocation,  and  to  the  extensive  lacera- 
tion of  the  capsule  corresponded  a  variation  in  the  symptoms  which 
fully  corroborates  Bigelow's  views;  the  report  says:  '^  Two  of  the 
main  signs  of  dislocation  were  absent,  namely,  the  advanced  position 
of  the  knee  with  the  foot  resting  upon  the  opposite  one,  and  marked 
shortening."  The  head  of  the  femur  was  below  the  pyriformis  muscle 
and  immediately  behind  the  acetabulum. 

The  preservation  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule,  the  ilio- 
femoral ligament,  is  constant,  as   has  been  said,  in  the   cases  which 

1  Moxon  :  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1872,  vol.  i.  p.  96. 

"  MacCormac:  St.  Thomas's  Hospital  Reports,  1871,  vol.  ii.  p.  143. 

3  Adams :  Transactions  of  the  Pathological  Society  of  London,  1870,  vol.  xxi.  p.  305. 

*  Morris  :  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,  1877,  vol.  Ix.  p.  161. 

5  Lee  :  St.  George's  Hospital  Reports,  1872-74,  vol.  vii.  p.  169. 

6  Humphry :  Lancet,  1886,  vol.  ii.  p.  1011. 

7  Rutherford  :  Glasgow  Medical  Journal,  May,  1889. 

8  Stimson  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  August  10, 1889,  p.  163. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP. 


707 


Bigelow  terms  "  regular,"  those  which  are  marked  by  the  common 
and  characteristic  symptoms  of  the  dislocation,  and,  as  he  also  pointed 
oat,  the  strong  portion  of  the  capsule  at  its  upper  and  posterior  part  is 
also  usually  uutorn  and  opposes  the  ascent  of  the  head  upon  the  ilium. 

The  ligamentum  teres  is  usually  torn  from  its  attachment  to  the 
femur,  but  sometimes  is  ruptured. 

Of  the  muscles,  the  quadratus  femoris  is  usually  completely  torn 
across,  but  sometimes  (Humphry's  third  case)  is  intact;  the  gemelli 
commonly  are  torn,  but  the  obturator  intern  us  which  is  so  closely  asso- 
ciated with  them  frequently  escapes  or  is  only  partly  lacerated,  prob- 
ably because  of  its  greater  length.  The  pyriformis  and  obturator 
extern  us  are  sometimes  torn  partly  or  entirely  across;  the  glutei 
usually  escape  injury  entirely  or  are  only  slightly  lacerated. 

The  head  of  the  femur  may  lie  close  to  the  margin  of  the  acetabu- 
lum, even  overlapping  the  cavity,  or  it  may  be  displaced  to  a  variable 
distance  backward  or  backward  and  upw^ard.  The  lowest  point  at 
which  its  centre  rests  is  the  base  of  the  spine  of  the  ischium  (Adams^ 
and  Quain^)  overlapping  both  sciatic  notches;  and  the  highest,  except 
perhaps  in  exceptional  cases,  appears  to  be  opposite  the  apex  of  the 
great  sciatic  notch,  which,  in  the  recumbent  position,  is  directly  below 
the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium,  the  line  uniting  the  two  pass- 
ing about  an  inch  above  the  margin  of  the  cotyloid  cavity.  Fifty 
years  ago  Quain  demonstrated  by  autopsy  the  error  contained  in  the 
name  given  by  Sir  Astley  Cooper  to  the  lower  form  of  dislocation 
''into  the  sciatic  notch,"  and  formally  called  attention  to  it;  and  a 
few  years  later  Malgaigne  showed  that  the  head  of  the  bone  was  much 
less  upon  the  ilium  in  the  higher  foroi  than  was  supposed,  and  further 
that  in  many,  perhaps  a  majority,  of  the  dislocations  ''  upon  the  dor- 
sum ilii"  the  femur  left  the  socket  at 
its  lower  posterior  part  and  subsequently 
passed  upward,  so  that  in  such  cases  the 
primary  dislocation  was  ''  ischiatic," 
and  the  "iliac"  was  secondary.  This 
view  has  been  amply  confirmed.    In  11 

which 
of  the 


Fig.  302. 


Pyrlfurm 


Obt.  ezt. 


Obt.  hit 


specimens  of  old  dislocations 
Malgaigne  examined,  the  head 
femur  rose  in  5  only  to  the  level  of  a 
line  drawn  from  the  anterior  superior 
spine  of  the  ilium  to  the  apex  of  the 
great  sciatic  notch,  in  2  it  rose  half  a 
centimetre  above  this  line,  in  2  one 
centimetre,  in  1  one  and  a  half  centi- 
metres, and  in  1  two  centimetres.    There 

is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  in  old  dislocations  the  head  is  at  a  lower 
level  than  in  recent  ones,  indeed  it  is  probably  somewhat  higher. 

When  the  head  of  the  femur  leaves  the  socket  at  its  lower  part  it 
passes  usually  below  the  obturator  internus  and  then  rises  behind  it, 
so  that  this  muscle  is  interposed  between  it  and  the  acetabulum  (Fig. 


Dislocation  below  and  then  behind  and 
above  the  obturator  Internus. 


1  Adams :  Loc.  cit. 

2  Quain  :  Medico-Chirurglcal  Transactions,  1848,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  337, 


708 


DISLOCATIONS. 


302).  Or  it  may  be  immediately  beneath  the  obturator  internus  and 
press  it  forcibly  upward,  as  in  Adams's  case  (Fig.  303),  which  remained 
unreduced  until  the  patient's  death  on  the  fourteenth  day,  and  in  which 
the  muscle  was  so  tightly  stretched  over  the  upper  part  of  the  head 
that  a  deep  groove  had  formed  in  the  articular  cartilage  of  the  latter 
exactly  corresponding  in  size  and  direction  to  the  tendon;  the  head 
rested  on  the  spine  of  the  ischium,  and  the  obturator  extern  us  and 
quadratus  femoris  were  ruptured.  Or  the  head  may  pass  above  the 
obturator  internus,  between  it  and  the  pyriformis,  as  in  MacCormac' s 
case  (Fig.  304),  in  which  it  rested  ''behind  the  acetabular  ridge  opposite 


Fig.  303. 


Fig.  304. 


Adams's  case:  a,  head  of  femur;  h,  obturator 
externus  ruptured ;  c,  quadratus  femoris  rup- 
tured ;  d,  sciatic  nerve. 


MacCormac's  specimen  of  recent  dorsal  dis- 
location. Tine  head  of  the  femur  lies  just  be- 
hind the  acetabulum,  below  the  pyriformis, 
and  above  the  obturator  internus  and  the  torn 
gemellus  muscles. 


the  middle  and  upper  part  of  the  great  ischiatic  foramen,  behind  the  pos- 
terior border  of  the  gluteus  medius,  and  only  covered  by  the  gluteus 
maximus  and  the  integument."  This  is  an  example  of  a  real  primary 
*'  iliac"  dislocation,  and  the  rent  in  the  capsule  was  ''  merely  on  the 
back  part,  and  the  neck  was  as  it  were  locked  over  the  acetabular  ridge, 
and  the  strong  anterior  part  of  the  capsule  was  tightly  stretched." 

The  edge  of  the  acetabulum  is  sometimes  chipped,  and  in  two  of 
the  cases  above  quoted  (Quain,  Morris)  there  was  a  fracture  through 
the  ilium  into  the  cotyloid  cavity,  and  in  the  latter  there  was  also  a 
fracture  of  the  ramus  of  the  ischium.  In  both  cases  the  injury  was 
caused  by  great  violence. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Birkett^  the  head  of  the  femur  was  split  ver- 
tically, the  inner  half  remaining  in  the  acetabulum  and  still  attached 
to  the  ligaraentum  teres,  and  the  other,  continuous  with  the  neck, 
being  displaced  backward  above  the  obturator  internus.     A  similar 


1  Birkett:  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,  1869,  vol.  lii.  p.  133. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  709 

case,  quoted  above  among  compouucl  dislooatious,  p.  699,  was  reported 
by  Moxon;  and  in  another  reported  by  RiedeP  the  head  and  neck  were 
split  longitudinally,  both  fragments  being  displaced  from  the  socket. 
CVile^  reported  a  case  of  fracture  of  the  ))osterior  third  of  the  head 
and  of  the  posterior  half  of  the  rim  of  the  acetabulum.  In  my  case 
the  head  of  the  femur  was  deeply  indented,  apparently  by  contact  with 
an  osteophyte  close  behind  the  rim  of  the  acetabulum,  and  a  portion 
of  the  labrum  cartilagineum  had  been  broken  off.  In  a  case  seen  by 
Lossen^  the  neck  of  the  femur  had  been  broken  at  the  moment  of  dis- 
location, but  doubtless  after  the  head  of  the  bone  had  left  the  socket. 
In  several  reported  cases  the  neck  has  been  broken  during  an  attempt 
to  reduce,  and  in  a  few  in  which  fracture  has  been  recognized  it  has 
remained  uncertain  whether  it  occurred  simultaneously  with  the  dislo- 
cation or  was  caused  by  the  surgeon.     (See  Chapter  LIII.) 

The  sciatic  nerve  commonly  lies  behind  the  head  of  the  femur  and 
at  the  most  is  only  slightly  pressed  upon,  but  in  Quain's  case  it  was 
stretched  over  the  neck  of  the  femur. 

Symptoms.  The  patient  is  unable  to  bear  his  weight  upon  or  volun- 
tarily to  move  his  injured  limb;  if  he  stands  upright  it  shows  moder- 
ate flexion  and  adduction,  marked  inversion,  and  more  or  less  shorten- 
ing, the  toes  resting  on  those  of  the  other  foot.  When  he  is  placed 
upon  his  back  the  apparent  adduction  and  flexion  are  increased,  the 
knee  resting  just  above  the  other  patella  or  crossing  the  thigh  at  a 
higher  point.  The  contours  of  the  outer  and  posterior  regions  of  the 
hip  are  changed  by  loss  of  the  normal  depression  behind  the  trochanter, 
elevation  of  the  gluteal  fold,  and  abnormal  fulness  due  to  the  approxi- 
mation of  the  insertions  of  the  gluteal  muscles.  The  trochanter  rises 
to  a  variable  distance  above  the  line  drawn  from  the  anterior  superior 
spine  of  the  ilium  to  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium,  and  its  distance 
from  the  first-named  prominence  is  increased.  The  head  of  the  femur 
can  be  obscurely  felt  through  the  gluteus  maximus  and  recognized  by 
its  movements  when  the  limb  is  flexed  or  rotated.  The  empty  socket 
cannot  be  felt  from  in  front,  because  it  is  covered  by  the  anterior  por- 
tion of  the  capsule  and  the  psoas  and  iliacus,  but  the  depressibility 
of  the  soft  parts  in  Scarpa's  space  is  as  great  as,  or  greater  than,  that 
on  the  opposite  side,  whereas  in  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  this 
depressibility  is  diminished. 

The  limb  can  be  still  further  adducted  and  flexed,  but  it  cannot  be 
abducted  or  rotated  outward.  The  apparent  shortening  varies  greatly 
in  degree  in  different  cases, and  the  actual  shortening  cannot  always  be 
determined  with  accuracy  because  of  the  difficulty  in  placing  the  limbs 
symmetrically.  Concerning  this  shortening  the  most  contradictory 
statements  have  been  made;  some  surgeons,  relying  solely  upon  the 
appearance  of  the  limb  and  seeing  that  the  knee  lay  well  above  the 
opposite  one,  have  described  the  shortening  as  great  ;  others,  looking 
only  to  the  new  relations  of  the  bones  as  shown  upon  the  skeleton, 
have  described  the  shortening  as  moderate  or  even  as  absent  in  the 

1  Riedel :  Beilage  znm  Centbl.  fur  Chir.,  1885,  p.  92. 

2  Crile  :  Annals  of  Surgery,  May,  1891.  3  Lessen :  Deutsche  Chin,  Lief.  65,  p.  55. 


710 


DISLOCATIONS. 


lower  forms.  The  error  in  the  first  arises  from  not  taking  into  account 
the  effect  of  adduction  to  create  an  apparent  shortening  of  the  adducted 
limb  when  compared  with  its  non-adducted,  still  more  with  its  abducted, 
fellow;  that  in  the  second  arises  from  considering  the  question  only 
with  reference  to  the  position  of  extension.  If  the  head  of  the  femur 
is  displaced  backward  toward  the  spine  of  the  ischium,  the  length  of 
the  limb  measured  in  extension  from  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the 
ilium  to  the  knee  or  ankle  will  not  be  dimin- 
^^^  ^"^-  ished,  for  the  movement  backward  of  the  head 

has  been  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  measure- 
ment and  has  not  brought  the  knee  any  nearer 
to  the  pelvis;  but  if  the  measurement  is  made 
while  the  thigh  is  flexed  at  about  a  right 
angle  the  measured  length  will  be  less  by 
about  two  inches  than  that  of  the  other  limb 
in  the  same  position,  for  now  the  measured 
line  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  direction  of  dis- 
placement. When  the  head  is  displaced  up- 
ward as  well  as  backward  the  difference  in  the 
amount  of  shortening  in  these  two  positions 
of  the  limb  is  much  less,  for  the  direction  of 
the  displacement  deviates  at  about  the  same 
angle  from  the  measured  line  in  each  attitude. 
Of  course,  in  each  limb  the  measured  length  is 
less  when  the  thigh  is  flexed,  but  the  difference 
in  the  comparative  measurements  of  the  two 
limbs  is  not  affected  in  the  high  dislocations 
and  is  greatly  affected  in  the  low  ones.  In 
making  measurements  the  two  limbs  must  be 
symmetrically  placed  as  regards  flexion  and  ad- 
duction, and  the  fixed  adduction  of  the  injured 
limb  sometimes  interferes  seriously  with  the 
accomplishment  of  this  condition,  for  its  knee 
occupies  the  position  to  which  the  other  one 
Dorsal  dislocation.  sliould    be    brought,  and,  therefore,  an    equal 

adduction  cannot  be  given  to  the  sound  limb 
without  carrying  its  knee  across  at  a  higher  or  lower  level,  and  thus 
giving  it  an  unsymmetrical  flexion.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that 
apparent  symmetry  of  position  is  not  sufficient,  the  symmetry  must  be 
real  in  that  the  angles  of  flexion  and  adduction  on  the  pelvis  are  the 
same.  Fortunately  the  exact  determination  of  the  shortening  is  not 
necessary  to  the  diagnosis  of  the  dislocation. 

When  the  head  passes  below  the  tendon  of  the  obturator  internus 
and  does  not  secondarily  rise  upon  the  ilium,  the  inversion  and  flexion 
of  the  limb  are  greater  than  when  the  head  comes  to  rest  at  a  higher 
point,  and  may  be  so  great  that  the  limb  crosses  the  opposite  thigh  as 
high  as  its  middle.  The  flexion  may  be  so  masked  by  the  tilting  of  the 
pelvis  that  the  thigh  will  lie  nearly  along-side  the  other,  parallel  to  the 
long  axis  of  the  body,  but  the  condition  can  be  recognized  by  attention 
to  the  compensatory  curve  (lordosis)  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae;  indeed, 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  711 

Syme'  said  be  made  the  diagnosis  of  ischiatic  dislocation  without  other 
handling  of  the  patient  than  that  necessary  to  recognize  tlie  lordosis. 

The  cause  of  the  comparative  fixation  of  the  limb,  of  its  attitude, 
and  of  the  loss  of  even  passive  abduction  and  external  rotation  was 
first  clearly  shown  by  Bigelow,  in  his  classical  monograph  upon  the 
Hip.  Others  had  recognized,  in  a  measure,  the  part  taken  by  the 
strong  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule  in  determining  the  attitude  of 
the  limb,  but  he  was  the  first  to  study  the  subject  in  all  its  bearings 
and  to  present  a  complete  account  of  the  relations  and  influences  of  the 
Y-ligament  in  all  forms  of  dislocation,  one  which  was  at  once  and  every- 
where accepted  and  has  been  made  the  basis  of  the  present  methods  of 
reduction.  He  says,^  ''  The  inversion  is  chiefly  due  to  the  outer  branch 
of  the  Y-ligament,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  characteristic  sign 
disappears  when  this  branch  is  divided." 

Diagnosis.  The  recognition  of  the  character  of  the  injury  is  rarely 
difficult.  The  group  of  prominent  symptoms — loss  of  function;  adduc- 
tion, inversion,  and  flexion  of  the  limb;  resistance  to  abduction,  exten- 
sion, and  outward  rotation;  elevation  of  the  trochanter  above  Nelaton's 
line — are  not  found  in  any  other  affections  except  perhaps  hip-joint  dis- 
ease of  long  standing.  The  mistake  most  frequently  made  is  that  of 
confounding  it  with  a  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  or,  to  speak 
more  definitely,  is  that  of  supposing  a  fracture  of  the  neck  to  be  a 
dislocation.  I  have  met  with  several  instances  of  this,  some  of  which 
led  to  litigation.  The  differences  between  the  symptoms  of  the  two 
injuries  are  striking  and  usually  sufficient  to  make  the  mistake  impos- 
sible if  ordinary  attention  is  paid  to  them;  the  fixity  of  the  limb  in  dis- 
location, with  the  knee  thrown  forward  and  inward  against  or  upon  the 
opposite  thigh,  the  prominence  of  the  trochanter,  and,  usually,  its 
increased  distance  from  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium,  con- 
trast strongly  with  the  straight,  everted,  powerless  limb  and  flattened 
hip  of  fracture  of  the  neck.  Fractures  with  inversion  and  dislocations 
with  eversion  are  entirely  exceptional.  When  the  two  injuries  have 
coexisted  the  diagnosis  has  sometimes  been  made  by  recognizing  that 
the  head,  which  could  be  felt  out  of  its  place,  did  not  share  in  the 
movements  communicated  to  the  shaft,  ^  and  sometimes  by  the  splitting 
and  enlargement  of  the  great  trochanter. 

2.  Everted  Dorsal  Dislocatioxs. 

In  this  class,  of  which  there  are  but  few  recorded  cases,  are  here 
included  Bigelow' s  anterior  oblique,  everted  dorsal,  and  some  of  the 
supraspinous.  It  is  characterized,  as  the  name  indicates,  by  eversion 
of  the  limb  in  place  of  the  inward  rotation  which  is  so  prominent  a 
feature  of  the  common  dorsal  dislocation,  and  this  symptom  is  due  in 
all  cases,  except  perhaps  the  very  rare  anterior  oblique,  to  rupture  of 
the  outer  branch  of  the  Y-ligament.  In  the  supraspinous  variety  the 
head  of  the  bone  lies  above  the  anterior  inferior  spinous  process  of  the 
ilium  in  the  notch  between  it  and  the  superior  spine. 

1  Svme :  London  and  Edinburgh  Monthly  Journal,  1843,  vol.  iii.  p.  498. 

2  Bigelow  :  The  Hip,  p.  38. 

3  Koch :  Berlin,  kliu.  Wochenschrift,  1882,  p.  492. 


712  DISL  0  CA  Tl  ONS. 

Although  occasional  cases  had  been  previously  reported,  the  variety- 
was  not  described  by  systematic  writers  before  Bigelow,  and  was  not 
even  mentioned  by  Malgaigne,  although  possibly  one  or  two  of  the 
cases  classed  by  him  as  supracotyloid  may  have  been  of  this  kind. 
In  a  paper  by  Blasius'  on  supracotyloid  dislocations  several  cases  of 
this  variety  (everted  dorsal)  are  included,  together  with  others  in  which 
the  head  had  reached  nearly  the  same  position  bypassing  outward  after 
primary  dislocation  forward  and  upward  upon  the  pubis,  and  a  few 
in  which  the  dislocation  was  primarily  directed  upward.  The  same 
grouping  has  been  followed  by  other  writers,  and  in  no  reported  case 
previous  to  1850  does  it  appear  to  have  been  recognized  that  the  head 
had  reached  this  position  by  a  secondary  displacement  after  dislocation 
backward  and  upward.  Blasius's  paper,  although  published  in  1874, 
must  be  classed  with  those  of  an  earlier  period,  for  it  is  really  the 
republication  by  his  son  in  a  graduating  thesis  of  researches  made 
some  time  earlier,  and  it  makes  no  mention  of  Bigelow's  work.  It 
is,  in  one  respect,  a  publication  to  be  regretted,  for  the  authority  of 
its  writer  and  its  date  combine  to  further  the  acceptance  without  exami- 
nation of  the  grouping,  or  classification,  which  cannot  properly  be 
accepted  in  view  of  the  important  pathological  differences  between  the 
individual  cases  of  which  it  is  made  up. 

Cases  reported  before  1850  and  quoted  as  of  this  kind  by  Bigelow 
and  as  possibly  such  in  my  first  edition,  appear  to  me  to  be  more  prob- 
ably dislocations  directly  upward  by  hyperextension  of  the  limb;  I 
have  recently  seen  such  a  one  the  symptoms  of  which  closely  resem- 
bled those  quoted.     (See  Upward  Dislocations.) 

In  1850  the  possibility  of  the  production  of  this  form  by  transfor- 
mation of  a  dorsal  dislocation  was  shown  in  an  attempt  made  in  the 
New  York  Hospital  to  reduce  a  dislocation  '^  into  the  sciatic  notch." 
The  case  is  reported  by  Lente;^  after  traction  had  been  made  and  sud- 
denly relaxed  the  thigh  was  abducted  and  rotated  outward,  and  this 
brought  the  head  of  the  femur  above  the  acetabulum,  and  below  the 
anterior  superior  spinous  process;  the  shortening  was  then  about  two 
inches;  the  limb  very  much  rotated  outward,  the  rotundity  of  the  hip 
greater  than  that  of  the  other,  and  the  trochanter  major  one  inch 
further  from  the  anterior  superior  spinous  process. 

Five  years  later  Van  Buren^  observed  in  the  same  hospital  a  case 
which,  so  far  as  I  know,  is  the  first  in  which  the  absence  of  inversion 
and  marked  adduction  was  noted  in  a  case  recognized  as  a  dorsal  dis- 
location. The  limb  ''  was  shortened  about  an  inch;  the  foot  and  leg 
were  slightly  everted.  This  eversion,  it  was  afterward  ascertained, 
could  be  readily  increased  by  manipulation;  but  there  was  an  evident 
obstacle  at  the  hip  to  inversion  of  the  foot.  The  knee  was  slightly 
flexed,  so  that  the  width  of  the  hand  could  be  readily  passed  between 
its  popliteal  aspect  and  the  surface  of  the  bed.  The  obliquity  of  the 
femur  toward  its  fellow  was  very  slightly  increased.  Upon  the  front 
of  the  thigh  at  its  upper  third  a  very  manifest  concavity  or  sinking  in 

1  Blasius:  Arch,  fiir  kliii.  Chir.,  1874,  vol.  xvi.  p.  207. 

2  Lente:  New  York  .Tournal  of  Medicine,  1850,  p.  314. 

3  Van  Buren :  New  York  Medical  Times,  1S5C,  vol.  v.  p.  126,  and  reprinted  in  his  Contributions  to 
Practical  Surgery,  p.  157. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  713 

was  noticeable,  the  usual  anterior  convexity  of  the  limb  being  lost. 
The  trochanter  was  about  an  inch  and  a  half  behind  and  above  its  usual 
position,  and,  during  etherization,  it  was  quite  movable  on  attempting 
rotation  of  the  limb.  Finally,  the  head  of  the  femur  could  be  felt 
obscurely  but  pretty  certainly  rotating  in  the  ischiatic  notch,  low  down, 
and  in  contact  with  its  posterior  margin.  The  anterior  convexity  of 
the  spine  at  the  loins  was  also  very  much  increased,  so  that  under  ether 
more  than  the  width  of  the  hand  could  be  passed  between  it  and  the 
surface  of  the  bed.  Thus  the  case  presented  all  the  classical  features 
of  luxation  into  the  ischiatic  notch,  and  more  than  usually  well  marked, 
with  the  exception  of  adduction  of  the  lower  end  of  the  femur  and 
inversioQ  of  the  foot."  After  several  failures  to  reduce  by  manipula- 
tion and  traction  downward,  reduction  was  effected  by  traction  while 
the  limb  was  flexed  at  right  angles  to  the  pelvis,  followed  by  abduction 
and  extension. 

In  1864  Symes^  reported  a  case,  and  suggested  for  the  variety  the 
name  of  ''  dorsal  with  eversion."  This  was  subsequent  to  Bigelow's 
researches  but  previous  to  his  publication  of  them  except  in  his  lec- 
tures. The  limb  was  shortened  two  inches,  the  foot  extremely  everted, 
the  buttock  flattened,  and  the  head  of  the  femur  two  inches  below  the 
anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium.  By  flexion  of  the  limb  the  dislo- 
cation was  made  dorsal,  and  a  feature  of  special  interest  is  that  then, 
as  the  limb  lay  untouched  upon  the  table,  eversion  gradually  took  place 
under  the  influence  of  gravity,  and  the  head  returned  to  its  former 
place. 

In  1874  Kocher^  observed  a  similar  case  in  a  woman,  forty-nine 
years  old;  the  limb  was  fully  extended,  markedly  everted,  and  short- 
ened three  centimetres;  the  head  could  be  felt  below  and  to  the  outer 
side  of  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium.  By  flexion  and  inward 
rotation  the  dislocation  became  dorsal  with  the  characteristic  symp- 
toms, and  then  by  extension  and  outward  rotation  the  original  symp- 
toms were  reproduced. 

Pathology.  In  a  case  which  I  reported  to  the  New  York  Surgical 
Society,  December,  1887,  and  January,  1888,^  the  head  could  be  dis- 
tinctly felt  below  and  rather  to  the  outer  side  of  the  anterior  superior 
spinous  process;  the  outer  branch  of  the  Y-ligament  was  ruptured  and 
the  muscles  behind  the  trochanter  extensively  lacerated.  Complete 
reduction  was  prevented  by  interposition  of  the  antero-inferior  part  of 
the  capsule. 

Van  Buren's  case,  and  a  very  similar  one  reported  by  Annandale,* 
show  that  the  head  may  lie  much  further  to  the  outer  side  and  lower. 

Bigelow's  experiments  show  that  this  eversion  depends  upon  the 
rupture  of  the  outer  branch  of  the  Y-ligament.  The  head  of  the 
femur  escapes  at  the  back  of  the  joint  while  the  limb  is  flexed, 
adducted,  and  rotated  inward,  and  then  by  external  rotation  the  outer 
branch  is  torn;  if,  then,  the  head  remains  in  its  position  opposite  or 

1  Symes  :  Dublin  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  1864,  vol.  xxxviii.  p.  272. 

2  Kocher:  Volkmann's  Sammlung  klin.  Vortriige,  No.  83.  p.  631. 

3  Stimson  :  Nevv  York  Medical  Journal,  January  and  February,  1888. 
*  Annandale :  Lancet,  1876,  vol.  i.  p.  208. 


714 


DISLOCATIONS. 


below  the  sciatic  notch,  the  position  and  symptoms  are  such  as  are 
noted  in  Yan  Ruren's  and  Annandale's  cases,  the  flexion  and  slight 
adduction  being  due  to  the  remaining  untorn  branch  of  the  ligament. 
The  change  in  the  position  of  the  head  noted  in  the  other  cases  Bige- 
low  was  able  to  reproduce  experimentally  from  a  common  dorsal  dis- 
location by  carrying  the  limb  "  across  the  symphysis,  so  that  the  outer 
and  convex  surface  of  the  socket  shall  correspond  to  the  hollow  beneath 
the  neck  of  the  femur.  With  some  force  the  thigh  can  now  be  everted, 
and  afterward  brought  down  across  the  upper  part  of  its  fellow." 
(This  is  the  form  to  which  he  gave  the  name  ^' anterior  oblique.") 
^^If,  in  this  position,  it  is  desired  to  bring  the  limb  toward  a  perpen- 
dicular, the  outer  branch  of  the  Y-ligameut  must  be  ruptured.  Thus 
liberated,  it  hangs  suspended  by  the  inner  ligament,  and  becomes  capa- 
ble of  lateral  motion  and  of  rotation;  and  this  is  probably  the  con- 
dition under  which  supraspinous  luxation,  although  rare,  usually 
occurs." 

Fig.  306  shows  in  the  dotted   lines  the  head  of   the  femur  thus 
hooked  over  the  remaining  part  of  the  ligament. 


Fig.  306. 


Fig.  307. 


Supraspinous  dislocation.  When  the  femur  takes  the 
position  indicated  by  the  dotted  line,  only  the  inner 
branch  of  the  Y-ligament  remains  untorn.    (Bigelow.) 


Anterior  oblique  dislocation. 
Oldnow's  case. 


The  anterior  oblique  is  a  variety  which  I  feel  some  hesitation  in  pre- 
serving, because  Bigelow  appears  to  have  observed  it  only  in  experi- 
ments upon  the  cadaver,  and  to  have  known  of  only  one  recorded  case^ 
in  which  the  attitude  resembled  that  found  in  his  experiments.  The 
specimen  in  that  case  is  represented  in  Fig.  307.     The  mode  of  pro- 


Oldnow  :  Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  1836,  vol.  i  p.  97. 


DISL  0  CA  TIONS  0  F  THE  HIP.  715 

duction  has  been  quoted  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  The  Y  ligament 
is  untorn. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  of  the  everted  dorsal  may  be  the  same  as 
those  of  the  common  dorsal  dislocation,  with  the  exception  that  there 
is  marked  or  slight  eversion  of  the  limb  instead  of  inversion;  or,  if  the 
head  of  the  femur  has  moved  forward  above  the  anterior  inferior  spi- 
nous process,  they  may  differ  widely,  for  the  limb  is  then  shortened 
about  two  inches,  slightly  abducted,  more  or  less  everted,  and  fully 
extended.  In  my  case,  a  woman  fifty-five  years  of  age,  the  limb  was 
parallel  with  the  other  and  so  far  everted  that  the  foot  rested  on  its 
outer  border;  it  could  be  adducted  and  flexed  but  not  abducted  or  rotated 
inward.  Shortening  one  and  three-quarter  inches.  By  flexing  and 
adducting  the  limb  and  then  rotating  inward  the  attitude  and  appear- 
ance became  that  of  the  common  dorsal  variety.  Reduction  was  made 
by  flexing  to  a  right  angle,  rotating  inward,  and  then  lifting.  The 
dislocation  recurred  several  times.  The  patient  died  about  a  month 
after  the  accident  (associated  injuries  and  phthisis).  The  eversion  of 
the  limb  is  liable  to  lead  to  the  mistake  of  supposing  the  injury  to  be 
a  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  especially  in  the  cases  in  which 
the  limb  is  also  extended.  The  greater  fixation  of  the  limb  and  the 
recognition  of  the  position  of  the  head  and  of  its  continuity  with  the 
shaft,  as  shown  by  its  sharing  in  the  movements  communicated  to  the 
latter,  will  establish  the  diagnosis. 

The  rupture  of  the  outer  branch  of  the  Y-ligament  is  the  explana- 
tion of  the  inability  noted  in  some  of  the  cases  to  reduce  by  manipu- 
lation alone;  traction  in  the  flexed  position  is  needed  to  bring  the  head 
forward  into  the  socket;  abduction  fails  to  do  it  because  of  the  loss  of 
the  support  of  the  outer  branch  of  the  ligament. 

Treatment  of  Backward  Dislocations. 

The  method  of  reduction  so  long  in  use,  and  which  left  so  many 
dislocated  hips  unreduced,  that  in  which  it  was  sought  to  draw  the 
bone  into  place  by  traction  upon  it  with  compound  pulleys  while  the 
limb  was  almost  fully  extended,  has  at  last  been  abandoned  in  favor 
of  the  methods  of  simple  manipulation  or  of  moderate  traction  in  the 
flexed  position,  or  of  a  combination  of  the  two.  The  advantages  of 
the  flexed  position,  the  possibility  of  reducing  by  the  aid  of  moderate 
traction  when  the  thigh  is  flexed  at  a  right  angle  with  the  trunk,  were 
repeatedly  pointed  out  by  different  writers  during  the  last  century  and 
the  first  half  of  the  present  one  (see  Chapter  XXXIII.),  and  the  pos- 
sibility of  reducing  by  manipulation  alone  (flexion,  outward  rotation, 
and  abduction)  was  also  demonstrated,  but  neither  seems  to  have  had 
any  influence  in  modifying  the  general  practice,  although  some  sur- 
geons, notably  Prof.  Nathan  Smith  of  New  Haven,  taught  and  habit- 
ually practised  traction  with  the  limb  flexed  at  a  right  angle,  and  he 
also,  in  1831,  formulated  a  method  by  manipulation  alone. 

Despr&s,^  in  1835,  independently  formulated  the  method  by  flexion 

1  Despres:  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  September,  1835,  p.  4. 


716  DISLOCATIONS. 

and  outward  rotation;  and  Reid,'  in  1851,  did  the  same,  preceding  the 
flexion  with  marked  adduction;  but  they  assumed  that  the  principal 
obstacle  to  reduction  lay  in  the  resistance  of  the  muscles,  and  their 
manipulations  were  designed  to  overcome  or  avoid  this. 

Bigelow^  quotes  Smith's  description  of  this  method  by  manipulation 
from  his  Medical  and  Surgical  llemoirs,  edited  in  1831  by  his  son, 
Nathan  R.  Smith,  as  follows:  '^  The  first  effort  which  the  operator 
makes  is  to  flex  the  leg  upon  the  thigh,  in  order  to  make  the  leg  a  lever 
with  which  he  may  operate  on  the  thigh  bone.  The  next  movement 
is  a  gentle  rotation  of  the  thigh  outward,  by  inclining  the  foot  toward 
the  ground  and  rotating  the  knee  outward.  Next,  the  thigh  is  to  be 
slightly  abducted  by  pressing  the  knee  directly  outward.  Lastly,  the 
surgeon  freely  flexes  the  thigh  upon  the  pelvis  by  thrusting  the  knee 
upward  toward  the  face  of  the  patient,  and  at  the  same  moment  the 
abduction  is  to  be  increased."  Bigelow  adds,  "  this  covers  the  ground 
of  priority  of  invention.  It  belongs  to  Nathan  Smith.  ...  In 
1835,  Despres,  and  in  1851,  Reid,  of  Rochester,  enunciated  the  same 
views  ;  the  practice  was  good,  but  both  Prof.  Smith  and  Dr.  Reid  based 
the  method  upon  and  sought  its  mechanism  in  the  erroneous  theory  of 
muscular  resistance." 

After  1850  the  attention  of  surgeons  and  anatomists  began  to  be 
directed  more  specifically  to  the  opposition  offered  by  the  untorn  por- 
tions of  the  capsule  and  to  the  position  of  the  rent  in  it,  and  many 
experiments  were  made  upon  the  cadaver  to  obtain  a  more  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  matter.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  those  of 
Meyer,  =*^  Gunn,''  Roser,^  Bigelow,^  Gelle,^  Busch,^  and  Tillaux.^  Of 
these  Bigelow' s  researches  were  by  far  the  most  complete  and  accurate, 
and  to  his  classical  work  must  be  referred  the  popularization  and  gen- 
eral acceptance  of  the  views  now  held  and  the  methods  of  treatment 
based  upon  them.  The  importance  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  cap- 
sule, the  Y-ligameut,  had  indeed  been  specifically  pointed  out  by  one  or 
two  earlier  writers — it  is  mentioned  in  Hyrtl's  Topographische  Anato- 
mie,  in  Meyer's  paper  in  1850,  and  by  von  Pitha^*^  in  1863 — but  Bigelow 
was  the  first  to  study  its  influence  in  detail,  to  show  its  constant 
action  in  all  typical  forms,  and  to  base  upon  it  methods  of  reduction 
for  the  different  forms,  and  to  him  belongs  the  credit  not  only  of 
independent  discovery  but  also  of  the  still  more  important  benefit 
conferred  by  impressing  the  facts  upon  the  profession  by  his  careful, 
thorough  investigations  and  his  clear  exposition  of  the  facts  and 
principles." 

It  is  now  generally  recognized  that  the  chief  obstacle  to  reduction 

1  Reirt  :  Buffalo  Medical  Journal,  August,  1851. 

2  Bigelow  :  Lancet,  1878.  vol.  i.  p.  861. 

s  H.  Meyer :  Zeitschrift  fur  rat.  Med.,  1850,  vol.  ix.  p.  250. 
*  Gunn :  Penins.  Journal  of  Medicine,  1853-4,  vol.  i.  p.  97. 

5  Roser  :  Archiv  flir  phys.  Heilkunde,  1857,  vol.  i.  p.  42. 

6  Bigelow  :  The  Hip,  1869.    E.xperiments  made  in  1860. 

7  Gell6:  Arch.  g(5n.  de  Med.,  1861. 

8  Busch  :  Arch,  flir  klin.  Chir,,  1863,  vol.  iv.  p.  11. 

9  Tillaux  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1868,  p.  274. 

w  Von  Pitha  :  Pitha  and  B'illroth's  Chirurgie,  vol  iv.  part  2,  B,  p.  161. 

11  The  claim  of  priority  in  the  discovery  of  the  part  played  by  the  anterior  portion  of  the  capsule 
made  for  Prof  Gunn,  of  Chicago,  is,  I  think,  sufficiently  answered  by  Prof.  Bigelow  in  a  letter 
published  in  the  Chicago  Medical  Examiner,  January,  1870,  p.  25. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  Ill 

is  created  by  the  tension  of  the  Y-ligameut  in  the  partly  extended  posi- 
tion of  the  limb,  and  that  this  is  to  be  removed  by  flexion  of  the  limb 
upon  the  trunk.  At  the  same  time  the  movement  of  flexion  brings 
the  head  of  the  femur  down  along  the  back  of  the  acetabulum  so  that 
it  lies  opposite  the  opening  in  the  capsule  if,  as  is  usually  the  case,  it 
has  left  the  socket  at  its  lower  posterior  part  and  has  risen  to  a  higher 
level  by  the  subsequent  extension  of  the  limb,  enlarging  the  rent 
upward  in  the  movement;  if,  more  rarely,  the  head  has  left  the  socket 
at  a  higher  level  while  the  limb  was  only  slightly  flexed,  this  move- 
ment of  flexion  in  reduction,  unless  carried  beyond  a  right  angle,  does 
not  place  the  head  below  the  opening,  or  at  least,  if  it  does  so,  the 
movement  enlarges  the  rent  downward  so  that  the  way  is  still  open 
for  the  return  of  the  head  to  its  place.  Another  reason  for  making 
this  movement  is  found  in  some  cases  in  the  interposition  of  the  obtu- 
rator internus  between  the  head  and  the  socket,  the  cases,  so-called,  of 
^'dislocation  below  the  tendon"  in  which  the  head  has  secondarily 
risen  toward  the  dorsum  ilii.  During  the  movement  the  adduction 
and  internal  rotation  of  the  limb  are  preserved  or  even  somewhat 
increased  in  order  to  lift  the  head  of  the  femur  away  from  contact 
with  the  pelvis  and  from  behind  the  projecting  rim  of  the  acetab- 
ulum. 

The  directions  given  by  Bigelow  in  his  first  publication^  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

'^'By  Traction.  Lay  the  patient,  when  etherized,  on  his  back  upon 
the  floor,  bend  the  limb  at  the  knee,  flex  the  thigh  upon  the  abdomen, 
adduct  and  rotate  it  a  little  inward,  to  disengage  the  head  of  the  bone 
from  behind  the  socket.      The  Y-ligament  is  then  relaxed. 

"  If  the  bone  can  now  be  abducted  beyond  the  perpendicular,  the 
capsule  and  other  tissues  are  probably  so  torn  or  relaxed  that  reduction 
may  be  accomplished  without  much  difficulty;  the  thigh  need  only  be 
forcibly  lifted  or  jerked  toward  the  ceiling,  with  a  little  simultaneous 
circumduction  or  rotation  outward,  to  direct  the  head  of  the  bone 
toward  the  socket." 

In  his  later  paper  in  the  Lancet,  1878,  he  gives  them  more  briefly 
in  the  following  terms  : 

''1.  Flex  and  forcibly  lift.     If  this  fails, 

"^  2.  Flex  and  lift  while  abducting.  If  this  fails,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  rent  in  the  capsule  has  been  so  enlarged  that  the  first  method 
may  now  prove  successful." 

Bigelow  adds  to  his  first  description  three  other  methods  of  making 
the  manipulation  and  applying  the  force,  and^  although  the  mechanism 
is  the  same  in  all,  the  multiplicity  of  the  directions  has  been  criticised 
by  recent  German  writers,  who  seem  to  regard  the  four  as  essentially 
different  from  one  another. 

Kocher,^  after  making  this  criticism,  describes  what  he  calls  his  own 
method,  and  this  is  quoted  approvingly  by  Albert  and  Konig,  Its 
identity  with  Bigelow' s  appears  to  me  to  be  complete,  although  it  com- 
bines iiis  two  methods  by  traction  and  by  manipulation.  It  is  as 
follows  : 

1  Bigelow  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  4G.  2  Kocher  :  Volkmann's  kliuische  Vortrage,  No.  83. 


7 1 8  DISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

1.  Inward  rotation  to  relax  the  capsule  and  lift  the  head  from  the 
posterior  surface  of  the  pelvis. 

2.  Ilexion,  to  a  right  angle  and  gently,  preserving  the  existing 
adduction  and  inward  rotation. 

3.  Traction,  to  make  the  capsule  tense,  so  that  it  can  be  utilized  in 
the  following  movement,  and  to  raise  the  head  to  the  level  of  the 
acetabular  margin,  thus  overcoming  the  action  of  gravity. 

4.  Outward  rotation;  this  makes  the  posterior  part  of  the  capsule 
and  outer  band  of  the  Y-ligament  tense,  and  turns  the  head  forward 
into  the  socket. 

There  are  a  number  of  practical  points  connected  with  the  carrying 
out  of  these  directions  which  require  attention.  The  pelvis  may  need 
to  be  steadied  or  immobilized  during  traction,  in  order  that  the  limb 
may  not  be  too  soon  or  unwittingly  abducted,  and  this  may  be  done 
either  by  the  hands  of  assistants  or  by  the  pressure  of  the  surgeon's 
foot  upon  the  anterior  superior  spinous  process  of  the  ilium  of  the 
iujured  side  while  he  is  lifting  the  thigh. 

The  traction  upon  the  thigh  may  be  made  by  the  hands  of  the  sur- 
geon, but  if  the  patient  is  a  muscular  adult  the  force  that  can  be  thus 
exerted  may  be  insufficient,  and  it  can  then  be  conveniently  supple- 
mented by  passing  a  bandage  tied  in  a  long  loop  under  the  patient's 
flexed  knee  and  over  the  surgeon's  shoulders;  this  leaves  his  hands 
free  to  rotate  the  thigh  by  means  of  the  leg.  It  is  important  to  remem- 
ber that  reduction  is  to  be  made  by  traction,  not  by  manipulation,  for 
if  the  thigh  falls  backward  by  its  own  weight  or  is  pressed  back  by 
the  surgeon  while  he  is  '^  manipulating"  it  may  seriously  change  its 
relations  with  the  tissues  about  it. 

A  much  more  convenient  plan,  one  which  I  have  habitually  em- 
ployed for  many  years,  ^  is  to  place  the  patient  face  downward  upon  a 
table  with  his  legs  projecting  so  far  beyond  the  edge  that  the  injured 
thigh  hangs  directly  downward  while  the  surgeon  grasps  the  ankle, 
the  knee  being  flexed  at  a  right  angle.  The  other  limb  is  held  hori- 
zontal by  an  assistant.  The  weight  of  the  limb  now  makes  the  needed 
traction  in  the  desired  direction,  and  the  surgeon  has  only  to  wait  for 
the  muscles  to  relax  and  the  bone  to  resume  its  place  without  further 
effort  on  his  part  than  a  slight  rocking  or  rotation  of  the  limb.  Occa- 
sionally I  have  added  the  weight  of  a  small  sand-bag  at  the  knee  or 
have  made  sudden  slight  pressure  at  the  same  point.  It  will  often 
succeed  without  anaesthesia  and  sometimes  so  quietly  that  there  is  no 
jar  or  sound  indicating  the  return  to  place.  In  only  two  cases  has  it 
failed  in  my  hands;  both  were  then  reduced  by  traction  in  the  axis  of 
the  partly  flexed  limb.  I  presume  that  in  both  the  bone  had  left  the 
socket  at  its  upper  posterior  segment — ^'  iliac"  dislocation. 

If  manipulation  alone  is  used  external  rotation  must  be  carefully 
avoided  during  the  first  steps,  lest  it  should  convert  the  dislocation  into 
an  everted  dorsal  by  throwing  the  head  forward  above  the  socket;  and 
extreme  flexion  and  abduction  without  simultaneous  traction  are  also 
to  be  avoided,  in  order  to  escape  the  conversion  of  the  dislocation  into 

1  Stimson  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  August  3, 1889. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  719 

one  upon  the  obturator  foramen  by  the  passage  of  the  head  below  the 
socket. 

The  everted  dorsal  dislocations  are  reduced  after  first  converting  them 
into  the  dorsal  form.  This  conversion  is  effected  by  flexion  and  inward 
rotation,  with  adduction,  if  necessary,  to  make  room  for  the  head  of 
the  bone  to  slide  upon  the  ilium;  the  rupture  of  the  outer  branch  of 
the  Y-ligament  deprives  the  operator  of  much  of  the  advantage  of  rota- 
tion, and  the  dislocation  must,  therefore,  be  reduced  by  direct  traction 
toward  the  socket,  with  local  guidance  of  the  head.  In  my  own  case, 
in  which,  after  conversion  into  the  dorsal  form  the  tendency  of  the 
head  again  to  pass  forward  above  the  acetabulum  was  very  marked, 
outward  rotation  had  to  be  carefully  avoided. 

The  possibility  of  fracturing  the  neck  of  the  femur  during  manipu- 
lation must  be  borne  in  mind  (see  Chapter  LIII.). 


CHAPTEE    LII. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.— (Continued.) 

DISLOCATIONS  DOWNWARD  AND  INWARD— OBTURATOR,  PERI- 
NEAL. FORWARD  AND  UPWARD— SUPRAPUBIC,  ILIOPECTI- 
NEAL.  UPWARD— SUBSPINOUS,  SUPRACOTYLOID.  DOWN- 
WARD ON  THE  TUBEROSITY  OF  THE  ISCHIUM. 

DISLOCATIONS  DOWNWARD  AND  INWARD. 

1.  Obturator  or  thyroid  dislocations,  or  dislocations  upon  the 
thyroid  foramen;  and  2,  perineal  dislocations. 

In  this  class  of  dislocations  the  head  of  the  femur  leaves  the  socket 
at  its  lower,  or  lower  and  inner,  part,  and  passes  forward  and  inward 
to  rest  upon  the  obturator  foramen  (obturator  dislocation),  or  passes 
still  further,  and,  crossing  the  ischio-pubic  ramus,  projects  in  the  per- 
ineum (perineal  dislocation).  The  limb  is  flexed,  abducted,  and  usually 
rotated  outward. 

Obturator  or  Thyroid  Dislocations. 

These  dislocations,  although  infrequent,  are  apparently  the  second  in 
■  order  of  frequency  of  those  of  the  hip,  and  it  seems  not  improbable 
that  this  form,  in  part  at  least,  is  the  first  stage  in  the  production  of 
some  of  the  suprapubic,  and  even  some  of  the  dorsal  dislocations;  that  is, 
the  head  of  the  bone,  having  left  the  socket  at  its  lowest  part  in  forced 
flexion  of  the  limb,  may  either  be  turned  backward  behind  the  acetab- 
ulum by  adduction,  internal  rotation,  and  diminution  of  the  flexion,  or 
forward  and  upward  upon  the  pubis  by  external  rotation  and  exten- 
sion; the  obturator  form  is  produced  by  its  passage  more  directly  for- 
ward and  inward  upon  the  obturator  foramen  by  abduction  and 
external  rotation. 

Cause,  The  commonest  cause  appears  to  be  great  violence  acting 
upon  the  back  of  the  pelvis  while  the  limb  is  flexed  and  abducted,  as 
in  the  fall  of  a  heavy  object  upon  the  back  of  a  man  who  is  stooping 
forward  with  his  legs  separated.  Simple  abduction  of  the  extended 
limb  is  apparently  sufficient  to  produce  the  injury,  as  is  shown  by  a 
case  reported  by  Corne,^  in  which  the  thigh  of  a  drunken  soldier  was 
forcibly  abducted  by  his  comrades.  In  a  case  reported  by  Keate,^  and 
another  by  Barker,^  the  mechanism  was  apparently  the  same;  in  the 
former  the  patient,  while  riding,  fell  into  a  ditch,  his  horse  falling  upon 
him  and  widely  separating  his  legs;  the  head  of  the  femur  lay  close 
to  the  tuber  ischii.  In  the  latter  the  patient  fell  from  a  height  of 
about  thirty  feet,  striking  upon  a  sandbank  and  having  his  legs  widely 
separated;  both  thighs  were  dislocated. 

1  Corne  :  Recueil  de  M6m.  de  M6d.  Mil.,  February,  1867,  quoted  by  Lossen. 

2  Keate:  London  Medical  Gazette,  vol.  x.  p.  19,  quoted  by  Bigelow. 

3  Barker:  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  1854,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  412. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP. 


721 


Fig.  308. 


In  another  set  of  cases  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  the  cause 
has  been  direct  impulsion  of  the  head  of  the  femur  downward  and 
inward  by  a  force  acting  on  the  outer  side  of  the  great  trochanter,  or 
whether  it  has  been  exaggerated  abduction  by  pressure  forward  of  the 
outer  part  of  the  pelvis,  as  in  a  case  reported  by  Treub,^  in  which  a 
man  while  lying  on  his  face  was  run  over  by  a  wagon,  the  wheels  pass- 
ing obliquely  across  his  left  hip  at  the  level  of  the  trochanter  and  the 
pelvis  from  left  to  right,  and  received  a  dislocation  of  the  left  hip. 

Pathology.  The  reported  autopsies  in  recent  cases  are  very  few.^ 
They  show  rupture  of  the  capsule  on  the  inner  and  lower  side,  usually 
near  the  acetabulum  and  sometimes  extending  along  the  neck,  and 
laceration  of  the  obturator  externus  and  pectineus.  Sometimes  the 
obturator  is  pushed  before  the  head  of  the  bone.  In  one  case  (Duboue) 
the  femoral  vein  was  torn.  The  head  of  the  femur  rests  on  the  obtu- 
rator foramen  or  on  the  ramus  beyond  it. 

Several  specimens  of  old  dislocation  have  been  examined;  those  of 
Moreau  and  Stanski,  quoted  by  Malgaigne,  Cooper,^  and  Sedillot.* 
In  these  the  head  occupied  the 
foramen  ovale  more  or  less  com- 
pletely, and  a  new  socket  had 
been  formed  by  the  growth  of 
bone  around  it;  in  Cooper's  case 
the  head  was  so  completely  en- 
closed by  this  new  socket  that 
it  could  not  be  removed  from  it 
without  breaking  its  edge,  and 
yet  it  was  freely  movable  and 
was  covered  with  articular  carti- 
lage. In  Stanski's  the  Y-liga- 
ment  had  been  completely  trans- 
formed into  bone,  and  the  head 
of  the  femur  lay  near  the  tuber- 
osity of  the  ischium,  the  limb 
being  much  flexed  and  abducted. 
In  S^dillot's  the  head  of  the 
femur  was  atrophied  and  ir- 
regular, but  the  limb  was  so 
serviceable  that  the  patient  was 
a  professional  soldier,  and  shared 
in  all  the  campaigns  of  the  army. 

Experiments  upon  the  cadaver  corroborate  the  clinical  and  post- 
mortem data  concerning  both  the  pathology  and  the  mode  of  produc- 
tion. If  the  dislocation  is  produced  by  abduction  of  the  extended 
limb  the  rent  in  the  capsule  is  found  to  lie  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
joint,  while,  when  it  is  produced  by  abduction  and  outward  rotation 


Obturator  dislocation.    (Bigelow.) 


1  Treub  :  Centralblatt  fiir  Chirurgie.  1882,  p.  729. 

-  Verhaegbe,  Gazette  des  HOpitaux,  18.51,  p.  283  ;  Schinzinger,  Wiener  med.  Presse,  1880,  No.  3, 
quoted  by  Poinsot ;  Curling,  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1853,  vol.  ii.  p.  423 ;  Dubou6,  Bull,  de  la 
Soci6t(5  Anatomique,  1858,  p.  496  ;  Annandale,  British  Medical  Journal,  1870,  vol.  i.  p.  101. 

3  Cooper  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  50. 

*  S6dillot :  Gazette  des  HOpitaux,  186],  p.  94. 

46 


722  DISLOCATIONS. 

following  flexion,  or  by  transformation  of  a  primary  dorsal  dislocation, 
the  rent  is  mainly  on  the  under  side,  and  its  extension  in  front  and 
upward  is  effected  by  secondary  displacement  of  the  head.  The 
Y-ligatnent,  remaining  untorn,  keeps  the  limb  partly  flexed,  abducted, 
and  everted  (Fig.  308),  the  head  of  the  femur  rests  against  the  inner 
and  under  side  of  the  acetabulum,  and  is  prevented  from  rising  by  its 
pressure  against  this  part  of  the  bone  and  by  the  untorn  portion  of  the 
capsule  above. 

A  case  of  compound  dislocation  has  been  quoted  in  Chapter  LI. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Cooke^  the  shaft  of  the  femur  was  also  broken 
just  below  the  trochanters;  the  patient  was  a  boy  nine  years  old,  and 
the  injury  was  caused  by  a  fall.  Probably  the  dislocation  was  first 
produced,  and  then  the  bone  was  broken  by  a  continuation  of  the  force, 
or  by  a  second  blow.  Reduction  was  easily  effected  by  direct  pressure 
on  the  head,  and  the  patient  made  a  good  recovery. 

Symptoms.  The  limb  is  flexed,  abducted,  and  usually  rotated  out- 
ward, and  it  appears  to  be  elongated  because  the  foot  is  pr'ojected  and 
brought  to  the  ground  by  a  compensatory  tilting  of  the  pelvis  forward 
and  downward  on  the  same  side  (Figs.  309,  310).  The  trochanteric 
region  is  flattened,  and  the  trochanter  lowered  and  displaced  inward; 
the  adductors  are  usually  tense.  The  outward  rotation  of  the  limb  is 
not  marked  and  may  be  absent,  or  there  may  even  be  some  inward 
rotation. 

The  statements  concerning  the  comparative  length  of  the  limbs  on 
measurement  are  contradictory,  presumably  because  of  the  failure  of 
some  observers  to  place  the  two  limbs  in  symmetrical  positions,  or 
because  of  the  greater  or  less  abduction  and  flexion  of  the  limb  when 
measured.  Thus,  in  marked  flexion  and  abduction  measurement  from 
the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium  to  the  knee  or  ankle  will  show 
shortening  of  the  injured  limb;  while,  if  the  limb  is  extended  and  but 
slightly  abducted  the  measurement  may  show  an  actual  elongation. 

The  head  of  the  femur  may  be  more  or  less  distinctly  felt  on  deep 
pressure  toward  the  obturator  foramen  from  the  inner  side.  The  state- 
ment occasionally  made  that  the  head  can  be  felt  to  move  by  the  finger 
in  the  rectum  pressed  against  the  inside  of  the  foramen  when  the  limb 
is  rotated  is  an  error  of  observation.  The  same  sensation  can  be 
obtained  when  the  joint  is  not  dislocated,  and  is  due  to  the  alternate 
stretching  and  relaxation  of  the  obturator  internus  during  the  move- 
ment. 

Sometimes  the  patients  have  been  able  to  walk  quite  well  immedi- 
ately after  the  accident,  and  some  of  them  have  not  sought  advice  until 
after  the  lapse  of  several  days,  even  a  fortnight.  Sedillot  states  that 
this  was  so  in  three  of  the  five  cases  which  he  had  seen,  and  one  of  the 
patients  came  to  him  only  because  he  noticed  that  he  could  not  com- 
pletely adduct  the  limb. 

The  diagnosis  of  the  dislocation  and  of  the  variety  is  made  by 
attention  to  the  attitude  and  fixation  of  the  limb,  the  impossibility  of 
completely  extending  and  adducting  it,  the  elongation  in  the  extended 

1  Cooke:  Lancet,  1864,  vol.  i.  p.  37. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP. 


723 


position,  the  depression  of  the  trochanter,  and  the  presence  of  the  head 
of  the  femur  in  its  new  position. 


Fifi.  309. 


Fig.  310. 


Obturator  dislocation.    (Stimson.) 


Obturator  dislocation.    (Johnson.) 


Treatment.  Bigelow,  in  his  original  paper,  gives  ten  procedures  for 
reducing  thyroid  and  downward  dislocations,  which  may  be  grouped 
as  four  different  methods  :  1,  manipulation;  2,  traction  in  the  axis  of 
the  flexed  and  abducted  limb;  3,  traction  outward  against  the  upper 
part  of  the  thigh;  4,  transformation  into  a  dorsal  dislocation,  and 
reduction  as  such.  In  his  last  paper^  he  seems  to  prefer  the  last  method, 
adducting  the  thigh  in  order  to  carry  the  head  to  the  dorsum  and 


J  Bigclow  :  Lancet,  1878,  vol.  i.  p.  861. 


724 


DISLOCATIONS. 


Fig.  311. 


enlarge  the  opening  in  the  capsule,  and  then  reducing  by  flexion  and 
forcible  lifting  of  the  head  toward  the  socket. 

His  directions^  for  reducing  by  manipulation  are  :  '^  Flex  the  limb 
toward  a  perpendicular,  and  abduct  it  a  little  to  disengage  the  head 
of  the  bone;  then  rotate  the  shaft  strongly  inward,  adducting  it,  and 
carrying  the  knee  to  the  floor.  The  trochanter  is  then  fixed  by  the 
Y-ligament  and  the  obturator  muscle,  which  serve  as  a  fulcrum. 
While  these  are  wound  up  and  shortened  by  rotation  (Fig.  311),  the 

descending  knee  pries  the  head  upward 
and  outward  to  the  socket. 
In  this  manoeuvre  the  action  of  the  liga- 
ment may  be  aided,  if  necessary,  by  a 
towel  passed  round  the  head  of  the 
femur  to  draw  it  upward  and  outward. 
Rotation  outward  may  be  substituted 
for  inward  rotation." 

The  clinical  histories  show  that  in- 
ward and  outward  rotation  have  suc- 
ceeded, each  after  the  other  has  failed, 
and  that  the  former  is  quite  likely  to 
transform  the  dislocation  into  a  posterior 
one;  as  outward  rotation  most  surely 
j)revents  this  change,  surgeons  appear 
now  to  prefer  it.  The  directions  given 
by  Kocher,^  and  approvingly  quoted  by 
the  German  surgeons,  are  as  follows: 

1.  Flexion  of  the  thigh  to  a  right  angle  with  the  pelvis,  while 
preserving  the  abduction  and  outward  rotation  in  which  the  limb  is 
found.     This  leaves  all  parts  of  the  capsule  relaxed. 

2.  Traction,  to  make  the  posterior  part  of  the  capsule  tense,  and  to 
bring  the  head  nearer  the  socket. 

3.  Outward  rotation,  which,  acting  through  the  tense  posterior  por- 
tion of  the  capsule  and  outer  branch  of  the  Y-ligament,  brings  the 
head  upward  and  backward  into  place. 

Direct  pressure  or  traction  outward  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh 
has  often  proved  a  valuable  aid,  either  by  directly  moving  the  head  of 
the  femur  toward  the  socket  or  by  furnishing  a  fulcrum  by  means  of 
which  the  head  could  be  moved  in  this  direction  by  adducting  the 
knee.  One  of  Bigelow's  procedures,  for  example,  is  to  place  the 
patient  ''in  a  sitting  posture  with  a  log,  or  post,  or  bedpost  between 
his  thighs,  and  pry  the  head  outward  over  this  fulcrum  by  means  of 
the  long  shaft  of  the  femur." 

My  own  cases  have  been  easily  reduced,  under  ether,  by  increasing 
the  flexion  and  rotation,  making  traction  in  the  long  axis  of  the  limb, 
and  then  lowering:  and  rotating  inward. 

Kocher^  reduced  a  dislocation  of  four  weeks'  standing,  which  had 
resisted  all  other  methods,  by  making  continuous  traction  in  the  axis 


Reduction  of  obturator  dislocation  by 
rotation ;  showing  the  mechanism  of  the 
mancBuvre.    (Bigei.ow.) 


1  Bigelow  :  The  Hip,  p.  79. 
3  Kocher :  Loc.  cit. ,  p.  620. 


2  Kocher:  Volkmann's  klin.  Vortrage,  No.  83. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  725 

of  the  limb  and  combining  with  it  elastic  traction  laterally  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  thigh.  On  the  morning  of  the  fourth  day  reduction 
was  found  quietly  to  have  taken  place. 

In  a  case  in  which  the  dislocation  had  existed  for  twenty  montlis 
and  the  disability  was  great,  MacCormac  excised  the  head  and  tro- 
chanter with  a  good  result.  The  patient  was  a  sailor  nineteen  years 
old.     For  details  of  the  case  see  Chapter  LI II. 

Perineal  Dislocations. 

The  recorded  cases  of  this  form  are  not  numerous.^  It  is  character- 
ized by  the  presence  of  the  head  more  superficially  placed  than  in  the 
obturator  variety  and  displaced  to  a  greater  distance  from  the  socket, 
so  as  even  in  one  case  to  press  upon  the  urethra  and  interfere  with  the 

Fig.  312. 


Perineal  dislocation  of  hip. 

voiding  of  the  urine.  In  Taylor's  case,  quoted  above  in  compound 
dislocations  of  the  hip,  page  699,  the  dislocation  was  made  compound 
by  a  rent  in  the  integument  of  the  perineum  nearly  two  inches  long; 
and,  possibly.  Woodward's  case,  quoted  in  the  same  section,  may  be 
looked  upon  as  an  extreme  form  of  this  variety. 

The  cause  appears  to  be  extreme  abduction  of  the  limb,  caused  in 

1  See  also  a  paper  by  Riedenger  in  Munch,  med.  Wochenschrift,  August  16, 1892. 


726  DISLOCATIONS. 

my  three  cases  by  the  fall  of  a  heavy  body  upon  the  patient's  back  as 
he  stood  or  knelt  with  the  thigh  flexed  and  abducted.  Probably  the 
capsule  is  widely  torn,  and  thus  may  be  explained  the  varying  attitude 
of  the  limb  in  respect  of  inversion  or  eversion.  In  an  autopsy  reported 
by  Shaw^  not  only  was  the  capsule  extensively  detached  at  its  inner 
and  posterior  insertion  upon  the  acetabulum,  but  also  the  iliofemoral 
ligament  was  partly  separated  from  the  neck  of  the  femur,  and  a  small 
rent  extended  from  that  point  into  the  capsule. 

In  my  three  cases^  the  thigh  was  flexed  and  abducted  so  that  it  stood 
far  out  from  the  side  of  the  body,  making  an  angle  of  between  60  and 
70  degrees  with  the  sagittal  and  frontal  planes  (Fig.  312).  When  the 
other  limb  was  placed  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  corresponding  posi- 
tion (the  same  degree  of  abduction  could  not  be  obtained)  the  distance 
between  the  knees  was  thirty  inches,  and  measurement  from  the  ante- 
rior superior  spine  to  the  knee  showed  from  one  and  a  half  to  four 
centimetres  shortening.  A  rounded  mass,  the  head  of  the  femur, 
could  be  felt  beginning  one  inch  from  the  mid-line  of  the  perineum 
and  extending  forward  to  the  adductor  longus  and  backward  nearly  to 
the  level  of  the  anus.  Adduction  and  extension  painful  and  opposed; 
slight  additional  flexion  and  rotation  possible.  All  were  easily  reduced 
by  the  method  given  above,  flexion  and  traction. 

Theoretically  reduction  should  be  most  readily  effected  by  traction 
in  the  axis  of  the  abducted  limb  and  by  direct  pressure  upon  the  head 
of  the  bone  or  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft,  anaesthesia  being  used 
to  prevent  opposition  by  the  muscles.  The  extensive  laceration  of  the 
capsule  and  ligaments  would  probably  make  purely  manipulative 
methods  ineffective. 


DISLOCATIONS  UPWARD  AND  FORWARD,  AND  INWARD  AND 
FORWARD.     SUPRAPUBIC. 

Iliopectineal.     Pubic.     Intrapelvic. 

In  these  dislocations  the  head  of  the  femur  comes  to  rest  upon  the 
superior  ramus  of  the  pubis,  either  at  the  iliopectineal  eminence  above 
and  a  little  to  the  inner  side  of  its  normal  position  (iliopectineal),  or, 
more  rarely,  nearer  the  symphysis  pubis  (pubic).  On  the  one  side  the 
position  merges  into  that  of  the  supracotyloid,  and  on  the  other  into 
that  of  the  obturator.  Some  of  the  iliopectineal,  in  which  the  head  has 
remained  very  close  to  the  anterior  inferior  spine  of  the  ilium,  have  been 
described  by  their  reporters  and  others  under  the  name  supracotyloid, 
and  some  writers  describe  the  pubic  variety  as  a  variety  of  the  obtu- 
rator, or,  rather,  of  a  class  to  which  they  give  the  name  prceglenoid  or 
dislocations  forward  and  inward.  Exceptionally  the  head  may  pass 
under  or  through  Poupart's  ligament  and  rest  in  the  iliac  fossa,  the 
intrapelvic  or  suprapectineal  dislocations. 

The  head  of  the  bone  may  leave  the  socket  at  its  upper  and  inner 

1  Shaw  :  Transactions  of  the  Pathological  Society  of  London,  1859.  vol.  x.  p.  211. 
-  For  full  details  of  two  see  New  York  Medical  Journal,  August  3, 1889  ;  the  third  is  shown  in 
Fig.  312. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  727 

part,  and  in  this  case  it  appears  probable  that  the  head  rests  on  the 
iliopectineal  eminence,  or  it  may  leave  it  at  a  somewhat  lower  point 
and  pass  inward  and  forward  to  the  symphysis,  or  it  may  pass  at  first 
inward  and  downward  across  the  obturator  foramen  while  the  limb  is 
flexed,  and  then  move  upward  to  rest  upon  the  upper  and  front  surface 
of  the  superior  ramus  of  the  pubis  as  the  limb  is  subsequently  low- 
ered. It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  upper  border  of  the  symphysis 
pubis  is  a  little  below  the  level  of  the  centre  of  the  cotyloid  cavity  in 
the  upright  position. 

In  correspondence  with  these  differences  in  the  position  taken  by  the 
head  are  found  differences  in  the  mode  of  production,  according  as  the 
head  is  moved  more  directly  upward,  upon  the  iliopectineal  eminence, 
by  hyperextension  of  the  limb,  or  is  first  turned  more  directly  forward 
by  outward  rotation  and  abduction  and  then,  after  rupture  of  the  ante- 
rior and  inner  part  of  the  capsule,  is  pressed  upward  or  inward.  Of 
the  former  there  are  a  number  of  clinical  examples  in  which  the  limb 
itself  has  been  hyperextended,  or,  more  commonly,  the  trunk  has  been 
violently  pressed  backward  while  the  limb  was  fixed;  thus,  a  man  steps 
into  a  hole  and  falls  backward;  another,  wrestling,  is  forcibly  bent 
backward  by  his  antagonist.  Of  the  latter,  outward  rotation  and 
abduction,  the  clinical  instances  are  not  so  clear,  but  the  possibility  of 
the  production  in  this  manner  has  been  fully  proved  by  experiment 
upon  the  cadaver;  a  muscular  woman, ^  carrying  a  keg  of  potatoes  on 
her  back,  stumbled  and,  to  avoid  a  fall  forward,  threw  her  body  with 
a  twisting  movement  backward;  a  man^  while  swimming  made  a  vigor- 
ous thrust  with  his  legs  and  felt  a  sharp  pain  in  the  groin;  he  was  still 
able  to  walk,  though  with  much  difficulty,  and  on  examination  a  dislo- 
cation upon  the  pubis  was  found. 

Pathology.  The  pathology  has  been  shown  by  several  autopsies  in 
recent  and  old  cases.  Aubry^  found  the  capsule  torn  along  its  anterior 
half  near  its  insertion  upon  the  acetabulum;  the  psoas  and  the  crural 
nerve  crossed  the  front  of  the  neck;  the  head  of  the  femur  lay  between 
the  psoas  and  pectineus,  raising  the  latter  and  the  vessels;  there  was 
an  interval  of  two  centimetres  between  it  and  the  anterior  inferior 
spinous  process  of  the  ilium.  Roser^  found  the  rent  in  the  front  of  the 
capsule  extending  from  the  anterior  inferior  spinous  process  down  to 
the  notch;  the  psoas  and  iliacus  were  pushed  outward,  and  the  vessels 
crossed  the  head;  the  small  external  rotators  were  drawn  inward  and 
pressed  into  the  acetabulum  by  the  great  trochanter.  Albert^  found 
the  head  resting  against  the  outer  side  of  the  iliopectineal  eminence 
and  covered  on  its  inner  half  by  the  psoas  and  iliacus;  when  it  was 
pressed  further  upward  the  muscle  lay  across  its  neck.  The  iliopec- 
tineal fascia  (the  deeper  part  of  the  sheath  of  the  vessels)  was  untorn, 
but  nevertheless  the  artery  was  displaced  outward  by  the  head  so  that 
it  rested  across  its  centre  and  curved  outward  immediately  below  Pou- 
part's  ligament;  the  capsule  was  torn  above  and  in  front  for  about 

1  Albert :  Chirurgie,  vol.  iv.  p.  274.  2  ure  :  Lancet,  1857,  vol.  ii.  p.  470. 

8  Aubry :  Bull,  de  la  Soci6t6  de  Chirurgie,  1853,  vol.  iii.  p.  377. 
*  Roser:  Arch,  fiir  phys.  Heilkunde,  1857,  vol.  i.  p.  58. 
6  Albert:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  276. 


728  DISLOCATIONS. 

one-third  of  its  circumference,  the  greater  part  of  the  iliofemoral 
ligament  being  uninjured;  the  ligamentum  teres  was  torn  away  at  its 
insertion  upon  the  head,  and  the  cartilaginous  rim  of  the  acetabulum 
was  entirely  uninjured;  the  posterior  rotators  were  relaxed.  Kocher^ 
found  the  capsule  torn  along  its  anterior  half  close  to  its  insertion  upon 
the  femur,  the  portion  which  remained  attached  to  the  acetabulum 
hanging  as  a  flap  between  the  head  and  the  socket;  the  psoas  and 
iliacus  were  stretched  across  the  neck  of  the  bone,  and  the  vessels  lay 
to  the  inner  side  of  the  head;  the  ligamentum  teres  was  torn  away 
near  its  attachment  to  the  acetabulum,  and  the  cartilaginous  rim  of  the 
socket  was  uninjured. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Stokes"^  in  which  the  head  had  passed  over  the 
brim  into  the  pelvis,  the  superior  ramus  of  the  pubis  had  been  frac- 
tured and  much  comminuted.  The  patient  died  on  the  table  immedi- 
ately after  reduction,  by  pulmonary  embolus,  it  was  thought. 

Cases  in  which  the  dislocation  was  compound  have  been  quoted  in 
Chapter  LI.,  p.  699;  in  one  of  them  the  femoral  vein  was  ruptured. 
In  a  case  reported  by  Goldsmith  and  quoted  on  p.  406,  in  which 
the  dislocation  had  remained  unreduced  for  two  months  when  the 
patient  came  under  observation,  there  was  found  a  diffused  pulsating 
swelling  occupying  the  iliac  fossa  and  extending  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  thigh,  which  had  appeared  a  few  days  after  the  accident;  the 
external  iliac  artery  was  tied,  and  at  the  patient's  death,  five  days 
later,  the  femoral  and  external  iliac  arteries  were  found  to  be  perforated 
for  the  distance  of  an  inch  on  their  postero-external  aspect,  and  the 
head  of  the  femur  lying  in  the  cavity  of  the  aneurism. 

Fig.  313. 


Old  unreduced  suprapubic  dislocation  of  the  hip.    (Cooper.) 

In  one  or  two  cases  pressure  upon  the  anterior  crural  nerve  has  been 
manifested  by  numbness  in  its  area  of  distribution. 

1  Kocher;  Loo.  cit.,  p.  616.  2  stokes:  British  Medical  Journal,  1880,  vol.  ii.  p.  916. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP. 


729 


Fig.  314. 


A  case  treated  by  Bransby  Cooper^  and  examined  after  death  at  the 
end  of  three  weeks  is  reported  in  detail,  but  it  is  not  clear  how  much 
of  the  laceration  of  the  muscles  was  due  to  the  dislocation  and  how 
much  to  the  repeated  attempts  to  reduce  it.  ''  The  anterior  part  [of 
the  capsule],  where  crossed  by  the  tendons  of  the  psoas  and  iliacus 
muscles,"  was  the  only  part  untorn;  the  head  of  the  femur  lay  in  the 
groin  on  the  inner  side  of  the  great  vessels  and  above  the  internal 
circumflex  artery. 

In  an  old  case  examined  by  Sir  Astley  Cooper^  '•  the  head  of  the 
thigh  bone  had  torn  up  Poupart's  ligament,  so  as  to  penetrate  between 
it  and  the  pubes.  .  .  .  Upon  the  pubes  a  new  acetabulum  is 
formed  for  the  neck  of  the  thigh  bone,  the  head  of  the  bone  being 
above  the  level  of  the  pubes  (Fig.  313.)  .  .  .  The  femoral  artery 
and  vein  were  placed  on  its  inner  side,  so  that  the  head  of  the  bone 
rested  between  the  crural  sheath  and  the  anterior  inferior  spinous 
process  of  the  ilium." 

Verneuil,^  in  attempting  to  make  reduction 
thirty-six  hours  after  the  accident  in  a  patient 
eighty-one  years  old,  fractured  the  neck  of 
the  femur.  Four  years  later  the  patient  died; 
the  head  was  found  lying  in  the  notch  between 
the  anterior  inferior  spinous  process  and  the 
iliopectineal  eminence,  between  the  psoas  and 
the  rectus.  In  another  old  case  reported  by 
Douglas^  in  which  there  was  also  a  fracture  of 
the  neck  of  the  femur  the  head  was  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  vessels;  the  history  of  the  case 
did  not  show  when  the  fracture  had  been  pro- 
duced. 

Symptoms.  The  cases  in  which  the  head  of 
the  femur  lies  upon  the  iliopectineal  eminence 
appear  to  be  the  more  common,  and  this  may, 
therefore,  be  taken  as  the  typical  form;  in  it 
the  limb  is  but  slightly,  if  at  all,  abducted, 
markedly  everted,  and  somewhat  shortened 
(Fig.  314),  and  the  head  of  the  femur  can  be 
felt  more  or  less  distinctly  in  the  groin,  with 
the  artery  pulsating  directly  in  front  of  it  or 
to  its  inner  side.  When  the  head  is  displaced 
further  toward  the  median  line  the  limb  is  ab- 
ducted and  flexed  as  well  as  everted,  and  its  posi- 
tion is  more  like  that  of  an  obturator  dislocation; 
the  capital  difference  is  the  position  of  the  head 
on  the  pubis  where  it  can  be  distinctly  felt  and  perhaps  even  seen. 
The  vessels  lie  on  its  outer  side.  In  both  forms  the  outer  and  posterior 
portions  of  the  hip  are  flattened,  and  the  trochanter  can  be  felt  covering 
the  cavity  of  the  acetabulum. 

1  Cooper:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  78,  and  Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  1836,  vol.  i.  p.  82. 

-  Cooper:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  71. 

3  Verneuil :  Bull,  de  la  Soci6t6  de  Chirurgie,  1870,  vol.  xi.  p.  245. 

*  Douglas  :  London  and  Edinburgh  Monthly  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences,  1843,  vol.  iii.  p.  1064. 


Iliopectineal  dislocation. 
"The  limb  is  usually  a  little 
more  advanced  and  abduct- 
ed."    (BiGELOW.) 


730  DISLOCATIONS. 

Adduction  is  difficult  or  impossible;  abduction  and  flexion  usually 
are  easy.  Some  patients  have  been  able  to  walk  immediately  after 
the  accident,  but  none  appear  to  have  done  so  as  freely  as  some  with 
obturator  or  supposed  supracotyloid  dislocations. 

The  attitude  of  the  limb  is  like  that  found  after  fracture  of  the 
neck  of  the  femur,  and  the  differential  diagnosis  is  made  by  attention 
to  the  presence  of  the  head  in  the  groin,  the  flattening  of  the  outer 
aspect  of  the  hip,  and  the  depression  of  the  trochanter. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Rothe^  the  patient,  a  girl  fifteen  years  old, 
was  unable  to  extend  the  leg  upon  the  thigh  three  weeks  after  the  acci- 
dent, and  the  disability  was  attributed  to  overflexion  of  the  knee  at  the 
time  the  dislocation  was  received.  While  pushing  a  swing  forward 
she  tripped,  fell  on  her  knee,  and  was  then  pressed  backward  to  the 
ground  by  the  returning  swing.  Reduction  was  made  under  chloro- 
form by  flexion,  rotation  inward,  and  adduction. 

Of  the  intrapelvic  (Scriba)  or  sup7'apectlneal  (Bartels)  dislocation 
cases  have  been  reported  in  detail  by  Scriba,^  Bartels,^  and  Stokes 
(above  quoted).  Scriba' s  patient,  a  boy  thirteen  years  old,  while  stand- 
ing with  his  legs  wide  apart  and  the  left  one  thrown  back,  was  struck 
upon  the  breast  and  overthrown.  The  limb  was  flexed  at  the  knee  and 
hip,  adducted  and  rotated  inward.  The  head  of  the  femur  lay  above 
the  torn  Poupart's  ligament  deep  in  the  iliac  fossa,  and  the  neck  rested 
on  the  superior  ramus  of  the  pubis.  The  artery,  vein,  and  nerve 
crossed  the  head  and  were  fully  compressed.  Slight  inward  rotation 
and  adduction  were  the  only  movements  possible.  During  manipula- 
tion outward  rotation  suddenly  took  place  and  persisted.  Reduction 
M^as  made  by  lifting  the  head  with  the  fingers  until  it  rested  on  the 
ramus,  and  then  following  with  acute  flexion,  adduction,  inward  rota- 
tion, and  finally  extension. 

Bartel's  patient  was  a  man  forty-seven  years  old  who  had  been 
thrown  down  by  a  heavy  weight.  The  limb  was  shortened  about  three 
inches,  fully  extended,  parallel  to  the  median  line  of  the  body,  and 
widely  rotated  outward.  The  fold  of  the  groin  was  obliterated  by  a 
diffuse  swelling  extending  to  the  upper  limit  of  the  left  hypogastrium; 
the  head  could  be  distinctly  palpated  through  the  abdominal  wall, 
which  it  slightly  raised;  the  greater  trochanter  was  directed  backward 
and  could  not  be  felt.  Flexion  was  impossible;  inward  rotation  very 
limited. 

Treatment.  The  rule,  of  which  the  application  is  so  general,  that  in 
attempting  reduction  the  limb  should  first  be  placed  in  the  position 
which  it  occupied  when  the  dislocation  occurred,  is  not  suitable  to 
those  suprapubic  dislocations  in  which  the  dislocation  takes  place 
while  the  limb  is  extended.  Traction  upon  the  fully  extended, 
abducted,  and  everted  limb  has  indeed  been  sometimes  successful,  but 
it  has  oftener  failed  and  has  led  to  various  accidents.  The  method 
was  early  abandoned  because  of  the  risk  of  injury  to  the  vessels  by 
overstretching  across  the  projecting  head  of  the  femur,  and  flexion  was 

1  Rothe:  Deutsche  Klinik,  1868,  p.  343. 

•2  Scriba  :  Centralblatt  fur  Chirurgie,  1879,  p.  703. 

3  Bartels :  Arch,  flir  klin.  Chir.,  vol.  xvi.  p.  651. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  731 

resorted  to  to  diminish  this  risk  and  to  remove  what  was  thought  to  be 
the  pruicipal  obstacle,  tension  of  the  psoas  and  iliacus.  Of  the  six 
procedures  given  by  Bigelow  almost  all  include  traction  upon  the 
flexed  thigh  and  rotation  inward;  in  some,  direct  pressure  downward 
and  outward  upon  the  head  of  the  bone  or  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh 
is  recommended,  and  outward  rotation  is  mentioned  in  one  as  an  equally 
good  substitute  for  inward  rotation. 

Kocher's  method  is  the  same  as  one  of  those  given  by  Bigelow,  and 
I  reproduce  it  here  because  of  its  more  detailed  account  of  the  obstacles 
to  be  overcome  and  the  means  by  which  the  manipulation  accom- 
plishes it. 

Flexion  relaxes  the  Y-ligament,  but  nevertheless  by  tightening  the 
posterior  part  of  the  capsule  it  presses  the  head  more  firmly  against 
the  brim  of  the  pelvis  or  even  pushes  it  further  upward  under  Pou- 
part's  ligament;  it  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  movement  should 
not  be  allowed  to  take  place  upon  the  head  as  a  centre,  but  that  tbe 
head  should  be  enabled  or  forced  to  descend  along  the  anterior  surface 
of  the  pelvis  as  the  knee  is  raised  before  the  tightening  of  the  posterior 
portion  of  the  capsule  has  made  this  descent  impossible.  This  can  be 
effected  by  traction  in  the  axis  of  the  limb  or  by  direct  pressure  down- 
ward and  backward  upon  the  head.  The  steps  of  the  method,  then, 
are: 

1 .  Traction  in  the  axis  of  the  limb  as  it  lies,  in  order  to  bring  the 
head  over  the  brim  of  the  pelvis;  it  is  rarely  necessary  to  aid  this  by 
increasing  the  extension,  abduction,  and  outward  rotation  of  the  limb. 
By  this  means  the  posterior  portion  of  the  capsule  is  made  tense,  and 
its  point  of  attachment  to  the  back  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  is  thereby 
made  the  centre  for  the  following  movements  : 

2.  Pressure  with  the  hand  upon  the  head  of  the  femur  to  prevent  its 
return  upward  during  flexion.  Sometimes  tliis  is  sufficient  to  make 
reduction. 

3.  Flexion,  in  order  to  relax  the  Y-ligament;  it  should  not  be  car- 
ried to  a  right  angle,  otherwise  too  much  strain  will  be  made  upon  the 
posterior  portion  of  the  capsule. 

4.  Rotation  inward,  by  which  the  head  is  returned  to  the  socket. 
In  cases  in  which  the  head  lies  nearer  the  symphysis  abduction  of 

the  limb  during  traction  is  necessary  to  relax  the  Y-ligament  and  the 
untorn  portion  of  the  capsule  and  thus  allow  the  head  to  approach  the 
acetabulum;  and  in  those,  possibly  rare,  cases  in  which  this  position  is 
secondary  to  a  primary  displacement  downward  and  inward  (obturator) 
the  flexion  will  be  seen  to  bring  the  head  back  to  the  obturator  fora- 
men, and  then  the  final  steps  should  be  those  suitable  to  that  form  of 
dislocation. 

DISLOCATIONS  DIRECTLY  UPWARD. 

Subspinous  (Bigelow).     Supracotyloidea.      Sus-cotyloidienne  (Malgaigne). 

Concerning  no  other  class  of  reported  cases  of  dislocation  of  the  hip 
is  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  lesion,  the  point 
at  which  the  head  has  left  the  socket,  and  the  mode  of  production  so 


732  DISLOCATIONS. 

great  as  in  those  in  which  the  head  is  found  more  or  less  directly  above 
the  socket.  As  has  been  above  said,  Blasius  grouped  under  one  head 
— supj^acotyloidea — cases  in  which  the  head  of  the  femur  comes  to  rest 
above  the  socket  either  by  secondary  displacement  forward  and  upward 
from  a  primary  dorsal  (the  everted  dorsal  of  the  present  classification), 
or  by  secondary  displacement  backward  from  a  primary  suprapubic,  or 
by  direct  dislocation  upward,  and  this  groapiug,  which,  while  very 
proper  in  a  monograph,  seems  to  me  objectionable  in  a  systematic 
description  of  all  the  forms,  has  been  accepted  and  followed  by  several 
of  the  later  German  writers,  Albert,  K5nig,  Lossen,  Bigelow  groups 
Malgaigne's  variety  with  those  cases  in  which  the  head  lies  further  to 
the  inner  side  (suprapubic),  and  makes  them  all  a  sub  variety  under 
the  name  subspinous.  Hamilton  makes  no  formal  classification  of 
them,  but  contents  himself  with  citing  a  few  cases,  mainly  as  "  anom- 
alous dislocations,"  some  as  subspinous,  others  as  supraspinous. 

The  essential  feature  of  the  class,  as  I  view  it,  is  the  rupture  or 
avulsion  of  the  upper  part  of  the  Y-ligament;  this  differentiates  it 
radically  in  its  probable  mode  of  production  and  treatment  from  those 
in  which  the  head  of  the  bone  comes  to  rest  at  or  near  the  same  place 
after  having  left  the  socket  at  a  lower  point  in  front  or  behind  and 
passed  upward  on  either  side  of  the  untorn  ligament. 

The  incompleteness  of  many  of  the  descriptions  is  such  that  the 
material  for  a  positive  opinion  upon  the  character  of  the  displacement 
is  lacking,  and  such  cases  must,  therefore,  be  passed  by  without  defi- 
nite classification,  but  there  remain  a  few  which  sufficiently  establish 
the  existence  of  this  variety  in  which  the  head  is  displaced  directly 
upward  toward  or  a  little  behind  the  anterior  inferior  spinous  process 
of  the  ilium. 

The  cases  in  which  the  position  of  the  head  of  the  femur  has  been 
verified  by  autopsy  are  those  of  Wormald,'  Gerdy,^  Travers,*  and  St. 
George's  Hospital,^  and  the  doubtful  ones  of  Cruveilhier,''  G6ly,^  and 
Deville.^  Wormald's  patient  was  a  man  forty  years  old,  who  had 
received  his  injury  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  by  a  fall  from  a  ladder,  and 
had  since  had  good  use  of  the  limb.  The  head  of  the  femur  lay 
"  between  the  edge  of  the  acetabulum  and  the  anterior  inferior  spinous 
process,"  and  was  surrounded  by  the  capsule.  The  ligamentum  teres 
was  not  ruptured.  The  cotyloid  cavity  formed  part  of  the  new  socket. 
The  limb  was  somewhat  everted  and  abducted,  and  shortened  half  an 
inch.  Gerdy's  patient  was  caught  in  a  revolving  shaft  and  whirled 
around  by  it  many  times;  the  injury  was  supposed  to  be  a  fracture  of 
the  neck  of  the  femur,  and  its  true  character  was  only  recognized 
when  reduction  took  place  during  flexion  of  the  limb.  He  died  on  the 
following  day.  The  head  of  the  femur  lay  on  the  outer  third  of 
the  upper  border  of  the  acetabulum,  below  and  just  outside  of  the 
anterior   inferior   spinous   process;    the  capsule  was   torn   along  the 

1  Wormald  :  London  Medical  Gazette,  1837,  vol.  xix.  p.  658. 

2  Gerdy :  Reported  by  Baron,  Gaz.  MMieale  de  Paris,  1838,  p.  630. 

3  Travers :  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,  1837,  vol.  xx.  p.  112.    Autopsy  by  Cadge :  Ibid., 
1855,  vol.  xxxviii.  p.  88. 

*  St.  George's  Hospital :  Lancet,  1840-41,  vol.  ii.  p.  281. 

6  Cruveilhier :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1837,  p.  164. 

6  G61y  :  Ibid.,  1840,  p.  303.  ^  Deville  :  Ibid.,  1843,  p.  264. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP. 


733 


upper  edge  of  the  cavity,  and  the  centre  of  the  head  was  eight  lines 
above  that  of  the  latter.  Fig.  229  represents  an  apparently  similar 
specimen. 

In  Travers's  and  Cadge' s  case  fig.  315. 

the  head  lay  between  the  superior 
and  inferior  spinous  processes  of 
the  ilium  (Fig.  315)  and  was  cov- 
ered by  a  complete  bony  cap  lined 
with  a  dense  pearly-white  tissue 
resembling  fibro-cartilage.  The 
edge  of  the  new  cavity  was  con- 
nected with  the  neck  of  the  femur 
by  a  thick  capsular  ligament. 
The  rectus  muscle,  which  had 
been  torn  from  its  origin,  was  in- 
serted upon  the  edge  of  the  new 
cavity. 

The  St.  George's  Hospital  case 
was  a  recent  one;  the  head  of  the 
femur  lay  about  an  inch  below 
and  to  the  outer  side  of  the  an- 
terior spinous  process,  and  the 
trochanter  was  still  further  to  the 
outer  side  and  behind;  the  tro- 
chanter minor  rested  on  the  outer 
edge  of  the  acetabulum.  The  cap- 
sular ligament  was  extensively 
lacerated  at  its  upper  part.     The 

gluteus  medius  and  minimus  were  nearly  torn  through  about  two 
inches  from  their  attachment  to  the  trochanter;  the  gemelli  and  quad- 
ratus  femoris  were  slightly  lacerated. 

The  following  case,  which  I  reported  in  the  Annals  of  Surgery,  De- 
cember, 1892,  shows  the  symptoms  (Fig,  316).  A  man  forty  years  old 
was  thrown  down  by  a  heavy  case  which  slipped  while  he  was  unload- 
ing it  from  a  wagon  and  forced  him  backward  against  another  box  and 
then  sidewise  to  the  ground.  When  I  saw  him,  three  hours  later,  he 
was  lying  on  his  back  with  the  right  thigh  extended,  slightly  abducted, 
and  so  far  everted  that  the  foot  rested  along  the  entire  length  of  its 
outer  border  on  the  bed.  The  upper  anterior  portion  of  the  thigh  close 
below  the  groin  was  rounded  and  swollen,  and  showed  two  incomplete 
transverse  rents  in  the  skin  about  two  inches  long  and  about  two  inches 
below  the  anterior  superior  spine  of  the  ilium,  which  evidently  had 
been  caused  by  overstretching  of  the  skin  (hyperextension  of  the 
joint).  The  outward  rotation  gave  the  thigh  a  very  peculiar  appear- 
ance; the  bulk  of  the  quadriceps  extensor  formed  a  longitudinal  mass 
on  the  outer  side  between  the  anterior  (inner)  aspect  and  a  deep  longi- 
tudinal depression  extending  from  the  trochanter  to  the  side  of  the 
knee.  Every  attempt  to  move  the  limb  caused  pain  and  sharp  con- 
traction of  the  muscles. 

Ether  was  administered.     The  limb  could  then  be  easily  placed 


Old  supracotj'loid  dislocation.    Travers's  and 
Cadge's  case. 


734 


DISLOCATIONS. 


alongside  of  and  parallel  with  the  other;  the  shortening  was  two  cen- 
timetres. The  head  of  the  femur  lay  directly  beneath  the  skin  and 
could  be  distinctly  outlined.  It  lay  just  external  to  a  line  drawn 
downward  from  the  anterior  superior  spinous  process,  and  its  upper 
border  was  about  one  inch  below  that  prominence.  Internal  rotation 
was  impossible;  moderate  flexion  was  easy. 

Reduction  was  easily  effected  by  flexing  the  hip  about  twenty  de- 
grees, and  then  making  moderate  traction  along  its  axis  with  one  hand 
at  the  knee,  and  direct  pressure  downward  and  backward  upon  the  head 
of  the  femur  with  the  other.  By  fully  extending  the  thigh  and  making 
slight  pressure  forward  at  the  upper  part  of  its  posterior  aspect  the 
dislocation  was  easily  reproduced,  and  was  then  again  reduced  as  before. 


Upward  dislocation  of  the  hip.    (From  a  photograph.) 


Through  what  was  apparently  an  extensive  gap  in  the  soft  parts 
beneath  the  skin  at  the  point  occupied  by  the  head  of  the  femur  before 
reduction  I  could  distinctly  feel  the  surface  of  the  ilium  and,  a  little 
in  front,  the  anterior  inferior  spinous  process. 

A  long  side  splint  was  applied,  and  the  patient  placed  in  bed. 

Convalescence  was  uneventful,  and  the  patient  was  discharged,  April 
15th,  thirty-six  days  after  the  accident.  May  24th  he  called  on  me; 
he  walked  without  a  cane,  and  complained  only  of  a  slight  feeling  of 
weakness  in  the  limb.  Hyperextension  of  the  hip  caused  no  pain; 
active  flexion  of  the  hip  was  restricted  about  one-half. 

I  know  of  no  case  exactly  like  it.     One  reported  by  Morgan^  resem- 

1  Morgan  :  Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  1836,  p.  79. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  735 

bles  it  in  the  apparent  mode  of  production  and  the  attitude  of  the 
limb,  but  the  head  of  the  bone  lay  below  and  to  the  inner  side  of  the 
anterior  superior  spine.  Possibly  Cheever's  case,  quoted  in  Chapter 
LI.  among  compound  dislocations,  may  have  been  of  the  same  kind; 
the  description  is  not  sufficiently  detailed  to  make  it  certain.  It  was 
evident  that  my  case  just  escaped  being  made  compound  by  rupture  of 
the  tense  skin.  In  Mason's  and  Alliu's'  and  in  Tiffany's,"  the  attitude 
was  similar  and  the  head  of  the  bone  could  be  felt  below  or  below  and 
to  the  inner  side  of  the  anterior  superior  spine.  Allin  reported  his 
case  as  a  suprapubic  dislocation;  his  patient  received  the  injury  by 
stumbling  and  falling  forward  while  ascending  a  flight  of  steps.  In 
each  case  reduction  was  effected  with  some  difficulty  by  traction  and, 
in  Allin' s  and  Tiffany's,  rotation  inward.  Possibly  some  of  the 
'  Mntrapel vie  "  dislocations  have  been  produced  in  the  same  manner, 
and  differ  only  in  the  higher  position  of  the  head  given  by  secondary 
displacement. 

There  is  another  small  group  of  cases  in  which  the  displacement  is 
thought  to  be  of  the  same  kind  but  of  less  extent,  and  the  opinion 
finds  some  support  in  the  autopsy  of  Wormald's  case,  above  quoted. 
There  are  eversion,  slight  shortening,  and  some  flexion  of  the  limb,  and 
the  patients  have  usually  been  able  to  walk.  The  head  of  the  femur 
cannot  be  felt;  the  trochanter  is  prominent,  slightly  elevated,  and  more 
distant  from  the  symphysis  pubis  than  its  fellow  is.  Milner's^  case  is 
the  least  doubtful  example.  It  may  be  remembered  that  cases  with 
quite  similar  symptoms  have  been  reported  as  thyroid  dislocations. 

In  others,  with  the  same  attitude  of  the  limb,  the  head  of  the  femur 
could  be  felt  directly  above  the  socket  or  a  little  to  the  inner  side. 

In  the  first  group  it  is  evident  that  in  some  the  Y-ligament  and 
attachment  of  the  rectus  are  freely  ruptured,  and  that  in  others  the 
head  is  displaced  slightly  upward  and  the  upper  part  of  the  capsule 
only  partly  torn,  and  the  neck  of  the  femur  probably  crossed  by  the 
untorn  rectus,  a  condition  differing  only  slightly  from  the  suprapubic. 

In  the  second  group  it  is  possible  that  the  head  is  displaced  upward 
to  the  outer  side  of  the  inferior  spinous  process  where  it  would  be 
hidden  by  the  overlying  muscles,  but  in  that  case  the  marked  eversion 
noted  in  all  is  inexplicable  without  rupture  of  the  Y-ligament.  I  am 
disposed  to  think  the  cases  were  all  thyroid  dislocations,  an  opinion 
supported  by  the  slight  fulness  of  the  groin  and  elevation  of  the 
femoral  artery  noted  in  Milner's. 


DISLOCATION  DOWNWARD  UPON  THE  TUBEROSITY  OF  THE 
ISCHIUM.     INFRACOTYLOID. 

In  this  form  of  dislocation  the  head  escapes  over  the  lower  edge  of 
the  socket  and  rests  just  below  it  upon  the  outer  surface  of  the  body 
of  the  ischium.     The  reported  cases  are  very  few,  but  it  seems  prob- 

1  Allin  :  Reported  by  Hamilton,  loc.  cit.,  p.  785. 

2  Tiffany  :  Maryland  Medical  Journal,  1883,  vol.  x.  p.  525. 

3  Milner  :  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Reports,  1874,  vol.  x.  p.  316. 


736  DISLOCATIONS. 

able  that  the  dislocation  is  much  more  frequent  as  a  primary,  transi- 
tory one,  leading  to  either  a  dorsal  or  an  obturator  dislocation,  being 
converted  into  the  former  by  inward  rotation  and  adduction,  or  into 
the  latter  by  outward  rotation  and  abduction;  and,  furthermore,  some 
of  the  cases  have  probably  been  reported  as  obturator  dislocations,  for 
the  dividing  line  between  them  is  somewhat  arbitrary;  thus,  Keate's 
case,  referred  to  above  in  the  paragraph  on  the  causes  of  obturator 
dislocations,  is  quoted  by  Malgaigae  as  a  subcotyloid  dislocation.  The 
form  was  first  described  by  Bonn^  in  1800,  and  again  by  Ollivier.^ 

The  cause  is  the  same  as  that  of  many  dorsal  and  obturator  disloca- 
tions, namely,  forcible  flexion  of  the  thigh,  but  exaggerated  abduction 
followed  by  slighter  flexion  appears  also  to  be  capable  of  producing  it. 
Thus,  in  a  case  reported  by  Roux^  the  patient  fell  with  his  right  leg  in 
a  hole;  the  left  one  remained  stretched  out  on  the  ground  in  abduction 
and  was  dislocated;  and  Ollivier's  patient,  a  man,  seventy-two  years 
old,  was  knocked  down  by  a  branch  of  a  falling  tree  which  struck 
against  the  lower  inner  part  of  his  right  thigh  and  forcibly  abducted  it. 
Pitha*  speaks  of  a  case  in  which  tlie  dislocation  was  caused  by  the 
forcible  bending  of  the  body  backward,  but,  as  Albert  points  out,  not 
only  is  his  description  of  the  symptoms  unintelligible,  but  it  also  does 
not  appear  how  a  rent  in  the  lower  part  of  the  capsule  could  be  pro- 
duced in  this  way.  He  describes  the  supracotyloid  and  infracotyloid 
together  as  "  vertical  dislocations,"  and  possibly  has  placed  this  case 
in  the  wrong  paragraph. 

The  only  autopsy  is  one  reported  by  Luke;''  the  patient,  a  man,  fifty 
years  old,  died  in  consequence  of  associated  injuries;  the  dislocation, 
which  had  been  easily  reduced,  was  reproduced  at  the  autopsy,  and  as 
the  bone  could  be  made  to  take  no  other  position  it  was  thought  that 
the  reproduction  was  exact.  The  head  of  the  femur  was  situated 
^'  midway  between  the  ischial  notch  and  the  thyroid  hole,  immediately 
beneath  the  lower  border  of  the  acetabulum;"  the  gemellus  inferior 
and  quadratus  femoris  had  been  torn,  and  the  ligameutum  teres  com- 
pletely detached;  the  capsule  was  torn  in  its  lower  part. 

Experiment  upon  the  cadaver  shows  that  the  Y-ligament  remains 
untorn  and  compels  flexion  of  the  thigh  upon  the  pelvis,  which,  how- 
ever, may  be  masked,  as  in  other  forms,  by  inclination  of  the  pelvis. 
The  retention  of  the  head  upon  the  tuberosity  is  due  to  the  narrowness 
of  the  rent  in  the  capsule  and  to  the  support  given  by  the  untorn  por- 
tions, and  as  the  laceration  can  be  easily  extended  on  either  side  the 
easy  transformation  into  a  dorsal  or  obturator  dislocation  is  intelligible. 

The  flexion  may  be  even  to  a  right  angle;  Ollivier's  patient  was 
brought  to  the  hospital  seated  in  a  chair;  the  limb  is  more  or  less 
abducted,  and  may  be  slightly  inverted  or  everted.  Measurement  in 
Ollivier's  case,  when  the  other  thigh  was  brought  into  a  similar  posi- 
tion, showed  no  difference  in  length,  and  by  the  lengthening  which  has 
been  noted  in  other  cases  was  probably  meant  only  an  apparent  elon- 

1  Bonn  :  Quoted  by  Lessen. 

2  OUivier:  Arch.  gen.  de  Mi5d.,  1823,  vol.  iii.  p.  505. 

3  Roux :  Revue  Medico-chirurgicale,  1849,  vol.  v.  p.  364. 

4  Pitha  :  Pitha  and  Billroth,  p.  163. 

s  Luke  :  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1858,  vol.  i.  p.  12. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  737 

gation  due  to  the  abduction  and  the  consequent  inclination  of  the  pelvis. 
The  buttock  appears  rounded  and  more  prominent,  especially  ^vhen 
looked  at  from  below  when  the  patient  is  lying  on  his  back  with  both 
thighs  flexed,  and  the  adductors  of  the  thigh  and  the  flexors  of  the 
leg  are  very  prominent  at  the  upper  part.  The  great  trochanter  is 
further  from  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  and  the  head  of  the  femur  can 
sometimes,  but  rarely,  be  felt  in  its  new  position. 

Movements  of  the  limb  are  restricted  and  more  or  less  painful; 
flexion  to  a  right  angle  is  usually  possible,  abduction  comparatively 
free,  adduction  limited;  but  in  Roux's  case  the  thigh  could  be  carried 
across  the  other  one.  Both  of  Gurney's^  patients  could  walk  fairly 
well  immediately  after  the  accident,  and  Roux's  could  walk  a  little  at 
first,  but  was  soon  completely  disabled  by  the  pain. 

Reduction  has  been  easy  (Roux  was  unsuccessful  on  the  thirty-fifth 
day  with  the  aid  of  chloroform)  and  has  usually  been  effected  by  trac- 
tion in  the  axis  of  the  limb,  with  or  without  direct  pressure  upon  the 
head  of  the  bone;  sometimes  the  dislocation  has  been  first  transformed 
into  a  dorsal  or  obturator  and  then  reduced. 

A  suitable  method  would  be:  Flexion,  if  not  already  present;  trac- 
tion; correction  of  the  existing  rotation,  if  any;  to  be  aided  by  direct 
pressure  upon  the  head  of  the  femur  from  behind.^ 

Dislocation  into  the  pelvis  through  the  fractured  floor  of  the  acetabulum 
has  been  described  in  Chapter  XXII.  A  brief  reference  is  made  by 
Kronlein''  to  a  unique  case  observed  by  him  in  which,  by  a  fall  upon 
the  feet,  the  head  of  each  femur  was  driven  through  the  floor  of  the 
acetabulum. 

1  Gurney  :  Lancet,  1845,  vol.  iii.  p.  412. 

2  A  paper  by  Chapplain  In  the  Bulletins  de  la  Societe  de  Chirurgie,  1874,  p.  461,  containing  a 
detailed  report  of  a  case  observed  by  himself  and  an  analysis  of  several  others,  may  be  advan- 
tageously consulted  by  those  especially  interested  in  the  subject. 

'i  Kronlein  :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  26,  p.  25. 


47 


CHAPTER    LIII. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.— (CoNxmuED.) 

COMPLICATIONS.  DOUBLE  DISLOCATIONS.  PROGNOSIS.  TREAT- 
MENT OF  OLD  DISLOCATIONS.  CONGENITAL  AND  PATHO- 
LOGICAL DISLOCATIONS. 

Complications  of  Dislocations  of  the  Hip. 

Among  the  complications  of  dislocations  of  the  hip  are  unusually 
extensive  injuries  to  the  soft  parts,  rupture  of  or  dangerous  pressure 
upon  large  nerves  and  bloodvessels,  and  fracture  of  bones.  Mention 
has  been  made  of  all  in  connection  with  the  different  varieties  of 
dislocation,  and  it  is  necessary  only  to  group  and  briefly  summarize 
them. 

Rupture  or  laceration  of  the  muscles  about  the  joint  is  doubtless 
present  in  some  degree  in  all  cases,  and  is  rarely  so  extensive  as  to 
deserve  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  complication.  In  the  dorsal  disloca- 
tions the  head  of  the  femur  may  be  so  far  displaced  that  the  gluteus 
medius,  and  even  the  gluteus  maximus  may  be  in  part  ruptured,  and 
in  the  thyroid  dislocations  the  adductors  may  be  extensively  torn  from 
the  inferior  ramus  of  the  pubis  and  the  adjoining  part  of  the  ischium, 
as  observed  in  Taylor's  compound  case  above  quoted.  In  the  supra- 
pubic form  the  pectineus  may  be  torn,  and  in  the  extreme  variety 
known  as  ''  intrapelvic,"  in  which  Poupart's  ligament  is  ruptured,  the 
attached  muscles  forming  the  anterior  wall  of  the  abdomen  must  also 
suffer  some  injury.  The  extension  of  the  bruising  and  laceration  of 
course  increases  the  shock  and  inflammatory  reaction,  but  calls  for  no 
special  treatment  beyond  a  more  rigid  and  prolonged  confinement  to 
bed  and  avoidance  of  movement. 

For  compound  dislocations  see  Chapter  LI. 

Rupture  or  injury  of  the  femoral  vessels  has  been  observed  only  in 
suprapubic  and  obturator  dislocations.  The  suprapubic  ones  are  those 
of  a  German  military  surgeon^  and  Goldsmith,^  quoted  in  Chapters 
XXIX.  and  LI.;  the  obturator  case  is  that  of  Dubou^."'  In  the  first 
mentioned  the  femoral  vein  was  torn  and  the  patient  died  promptly; 
in  Goldsmith's  an  aneurism  involving  the  external  iliac  and  femoral 
arteries  formed,  and  was  treated  two  months  after  the  accident  by  liga- 
ture of  the  external  iliac;  the  patient  died.  In  Dubou6's  case  there 
was  also  fracture  of  the  pelvis  at  the  junction  of  the  ilium  and  pubis, 
but  without  displacement;  the  head  of  the  femur  rested  upon  the 
ischio-pubic  branch  of  the  pelvis  rather  below  than  upon  the  obturator 
extern  us;  the  femoral  vein  was  torn.     The  patient  died. 

1  Centralblatt  fur  Ghirurgie,  1880,  p.  504 

2  Goldsmith  :  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  July,  1860,  p.  30. 

3  Dubou^  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1858,  p.  496. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  739 

The  sciatic  nerve  in  the  autopsy  of  one  dorsal  dislocation^  has  been 
found  stretched  across  the  front  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  and  in  sev- 
eral dislocations  produced  experimentally  upon  the  cadaver  it  has  been 
found  in  the  same  position,  but  the  only  recorded  instances  within  my 
knowledge  in  which  symptoms  of  injury  to  it  have  been  present  are  a 
case  reported  by  Jonathan  Hutchinson^  in  which  the  muscles  supplied 
by  it  were  paralyzed  and  remained  so  at  the  time  of  the  report  several 
months  after  the  accident,  and  one  by  Allis  {The  Hip)  in  which  the 
attempts  to  reduce  were  thought  to  have  wound  the  nerve  about  the 
neck  of  the  femur. 

Associated  fractures  of  the  head,  neck,  and  shaft  of  the  femur,  of 
the  rim  and  floor  of  the  acetabulum,  and  of  different  parts  of  the 
pelvis  have  been  reported. 

Fracture  of  the  head  of  the  femur  has  been  reported  in  four  cases  of 
dorsal  dislocation.^ 

Fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur  occurring  coincidently  with  the 
dislocation  or  subsequently  during  an  attempt  to  reduce  has  been 
observed  a  number  of  times.  Wippermann^  reported  one  case  and 
collected  thirteen  others  of  which  he  gives  abstracts,  but  his  list 
includes  one  case  (Hervez  de  Chegoire)  which  was  probably  a  simple 
fracture  without  dislocation,  and  Birkett's,  in  which  the  fracture  was 
of  the  head,  and  does  not  include  a  number  of  other  reported  cases; 
thus,  Hamilton  quotes  no  less  than  twelve  cases  in  which  fracture  was 
caused  during  an  attempt  to  reduce,  and  of  these  Wippermann's  paper 
contains  only  one.  The  only  cases  of  which  I  have  knowledge^  in 
which  the  neck  appears  certainly  to  have  been  broken  at  the  moment 
of  dislocation  are  one  reported  by  Tunnecliff,"  one  by  Post^  in  which 
both  hips  were  dislocated,  and  one  by  Lossen,^  and  even  in  the  latter 
the  patient  was  not  seen  by  the  reporter  until  six  weeks  after  the  acci- 
dent; the  patient,  an  old  man,  was  standing  on  a  ladder  when  it  fell, 
he  struck  upon  his  feet  and  then,  with  the  injured  side,  against  the 
underlying  ladder,  and  Lossen  supposed  the  dislocation  to  have  been 
produced  by  the  second  blow.  '^  The  head  lay  on  the  ilium;  the  limb, 
almost  consolidated,  still  showed  signs  of  extracapsular  fracture." 

When  Dr.  Tunnecliff  saw  his  patient  a  month  after  the  accident  he 
was  inclined  to  doubt  the  existence  of  a  fracture,  but  felt  forced  to 
accept  the  evidence  as  conclusive.  He  found  ^'the  same  shortening 
and  oblique  position  of  the  limb  as  described  above,"  On  the  thirty- 
eighth  day  after  the  accident  reduction  was  effected  by  free  manipula- 
tion to  break  up  the  adhesions,  followed  by  flexion  and  abduction  with 
direct  pressure  on  the  head;  the  bone  returned  to  the  socket  with  an 
audible  snap,  but  as  crepitus  was  felt  it  was  thought  that  the  union  of 
the  fracture  had  been  destroyed.    Five  weeks  later  the  patient  "  could 

1  Quain  :  Medico-Chirurg:ical  Transactions,  1848,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  337. 
"  Hutchinson  :  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1866,  vol.  i.  p  194. 

3  Birliett,  Medico-Chirurgical  Transactions,  1869,  p.  133  ;  Moxon,  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1872, 
vol.  i.  p.  96  ;  Riedel,  Beilage  zum  Centbl.  fur  Cbir.,  188.5,  p.  92  ;  Crile,  Annals  of  Surgery,  May,  1891. 

*  Wippermann  :  Arch,  fiir  klin.  Chirurgie,  vol.  xxxii.  p.  440. 

■>  In  Harcourt's  and  Chitwood's  cases,  quoted  by  Kammerer  (vide  ivfra),  the  diagnosis  is  wholly 
untrustworthy  ;  De  Morgan  gives  no  detaiis. 
0  Tunnecliff':  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  1868,  vol.  Ivi.  p.  123. 
7  Post:  New  York  Medical  Record,  1878,  vol  xiii.  p.  366. 

*  Lossen  :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  65,  p.  55. 


740  DISLOCA  TIONS. 

walk  with  one  crutch,  and  measurement  showed  but  half  an  inch  short- 
ening of  the  limb.     He  has  progressed  favorably  since  that  time." 

Post's  patient  was  a  girl  thirteen  years  old  who,  six  months  before 
admission,  had  received  a  blow  upon  the  back  with  ' '  a  twisting  of  the 
body  to  the  right  and  the  lower  extremities  to  the  left."  Both  hips 
were  dislocated,  and  there  was  also  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  left 
femur,  the  head  of  which  had  become  necrosed;  a  sinus  communicated 
with  it  as  it  lay  on  the  dorsum  ilii.  The  head  was  removed  through 
an  incision,  and  the  limb  straightened.  The  right  dislocation  was 
reduced  by  manipulation,  and  the  patient  became  able  to  walk  with 
crutches,  the  function  of  the  right  limb  being  fully  restored,  the  left 
being  shortened  four  and  one-half  inches 

Possibly  reduction  might  be  effected  by  direct  pressure  upon  the 
head  under  anaesthesia,  but  it  seems  unlikely.  Possibly,  also,  reduc- 
tion could  be  made  by  pressure  through  a  posterior  incision  exposing 
the  head,  but  as  the  usefulness  of  the  limb,  after  reduction,  would 
depend  largely  upon  the  preservation  of  the  vitality  of  the  head  and 
its  union  with  the  shaft,  and  as  this  depends  upon  the  preservation  of 
the  continuity  of  a  sufficient  amount  of  the  periosteum,  it  is  by  no 
means  certain  that  all  cases  are  fit  for  reduction  or  that  they  would 
remain  so  after  the  cutting  necessary  to  effect  it.  The  fact  that  in 
three  cases  the  head  became  necrotic  shows  that  the  laceration  of  the 
periosteum  when  the  fracture  is  through  the  narrow  part  of  the  neck 
is  probably  greater  than  in  similar  fracture  without  dislocation.  The 
alternatives  would  be  to  await  consolidation  and  then  seek  to  reduce, 
as  in  Tunnecliff's  case,  or  to  seek  a  pseudarthrosis  at  the  seat  of  frac- 
ture, or  to  correct  the  attitude  of  the  limb  and  seek  union  with  a  view 
to  the  formation  of  a  new  socket  for  the  head  on  the  ilium,  or  to  excise 
the  head  if  the  fracture  is  near  it.  Possibly  McBurney's  hook  could 
be  advantageously  used  in  fracture  at  the  base  of  the  neck,  or  even 
in  fracture  through  the  neck,  making  the  incision  in  front. 

Fracture  of  the  shaft  of  the  femur,  occurring  coincidently  with  its 
dislocation,  has  been  observed  a  few  times.  Hamilton  collected  four 
cases,  those  of  Bloxham,  1833,  Thornhill,  1836,  Eteve,  1838,  and 
Markoe,  1853,  in  all  of  which  it  is  claimed  that  reduction  was  effected. 
He  rejects  Thornhill's  claim  as  "  altogether  incredible,"  and  doubts 
if  a  dislocation  existed  in  Markoe' s.  In  Bloxham's  and  Eteve' s  the 
fracture  was  near  the  middle  of  the  shaft,  in  Thornhill's  in  its  upper 
third,  and  in  Markoe' s  the  site  is  not  mentioned.  In  Bloxham's  the 
dislocation  was  on  the  pubis,  and  was  reduced  on  the  seventh  or  eighth 
day  by  traction  with  pulleys,  the  limb  having  been  secured  with  splints, 
and  by  direct  pressure  on  the  head  of  the  bone.  In  Et^ve's  the  dis- 
location was  backward,  and  reduction  was  effected  by  making  slight 
traction  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  flexed  thigh,  and  by  direct  pressure 
on  the  head  of  the  bone. 

To  these  may  be  added  Cooke's  case  of  obturator  dislocation  with 
fracture  just  below  the  trochanter,  q^uoted  in  Chapter  LII.,  Cooper's 
of  dorsal  dislocation  with  fracture  at  the  middle  of  the  shaft,  and 
Delagarde's  of  backward  dislocation  with  double  fracture  of  the  shaft. 
Cooke's  patient  was  nine  years  old,  and  reduction  was  easily  effected 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  741 

by  direct  pressure  on  the  head.  Cooper's^  patient  was  a  lad  sixteen  or 
eighteen  years  old;  *'as  the  reduction  of  the  hip  was,  of  course,  im- 
practicable," union  of  the  fracture  was  alone  sought  at  first,  and  after 
five  weeks,  the  bone  appearing  tolerably  firm,  careful  extension  by 
pulleys  was  made  for  half  an  hour,  and  was  successful.  He  also 
quotes^  anotiier  case  in  which  reduction  was  not  made. 

In  Delgarde's'^  case  the  dislocation  was  backward,  and  the  shaft  was 
broken  in  two  places.  The  dislocation  remained  unreduced,  and  the 
head  was  subsequently  excised. 

Kammerer*  reported  a  suprapubic  case  with  fracture  between  the 
upper  and  middle  thirds  in  which  reduction  was  not  made,  and  col- 
lected twelve  other  cases  of  fracture  of  the  shaft  with  various  disloca- 
tions. 

Possibly  reduction  might  be  effected  in  dorsal  cases  by  using  the 
weight  of  the  limb  to  make  traction  in  the  prone  position,  as  described 
in  Chapter  LI.,  and  in  other  forms  traction,  with  pressure  on  the  head, 
should  be  tried;  this  failing,  McBurney's  hook  (Fig.  272)  should  cer- 
tainly be  tried,  as  it  involves  less  laceration  and  gives  better  control 
than  forceps  applied  through  an  incision. 

Associated  fracture  of  the  pelvis,  usually  of  the  rami  of  the  pubis 
and  ischium,  and  sometimes  extending  into  the  acetabulum,  has  been 
reported.  It  has  always  been  caused  by  great  violence  acting  directly 
upon  the  patient,  and  has  usually  been  combined  with  other  injuries 
which  have  proved  fatal. 

Detachment  of  the  Labium  Cartilagineum.  Zinner^  reports  a  case  of 
dorsal  dislocation  complicated  by  a  double  vertical  fracture  of  the 
pelvis  extending  from  the  pectineal  eminence  through  the  margin  of 
the  acetabulum  to  the  tuber  ischii  and  through  the  inner  border  of  the 
inferior  ramus  of  the  pubis,  and  by  detachment  of  the  labrum  carti- 
lagineum; the  latter  was  entirely  torn  away,  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  piece  at  its  upper  outer  part,  and,  with  its  ends  twisted  about 
each  other,  was  wedged  between  the  outer  margin  of  the  acetabulum 
and  the  neck  of  the  femur  and  prevented  reduction.  The  ligamentum 
teres  was  torn  from  the  acetabulum  and  remained  attached  to  the  head 
of  the  femur  and  to  the  labrum.  Detachment  of  a  portion  is  prob- 
ably not  rare. 

Simultaneous  Dislocation  of  Both  Hips. 

Simultaneous  dislocation  of  both  hips  has  been  reported  in  about 
thirty  cases.''  Usually  the  dislocation  is  not  the  same  on  both  sides, 
but  if  backward  upon  the  ilium  in  one  it  is  forward  upon  the  obtura- 
tor foramen  or  upon  the  pubis  in  the  other.  The  common  cause  is  a 
heavy  blow  received  upon  the  back  or  side  while  the  patient  is  bending 
forward,  by  which  he  is  twisted  to  one  side,  so  that  one  thigh  is  abducted 

1  Cooper :  Dislocations  and  Fractures,  American  edition,  1844,  p.  40. 

2  Cooper  :  Loc.  cit..  p.  41. 

3  Delagarde :  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Reports,  1866,  vol.  ii.  p.  183 

4  Kammerer  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  February  16, 1889. 

6  Zinner:  Zeitschrift  fur  Heilkunde,  vol.  viii.  p.  121 ;  abstract  in  Centralblatt  fUr  Cbir.,  1888, 
p.  55. 

6  For  bibliography  of  26  cases  see  Niehans,  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fiir  Chirurgie,  1888,  vol.  xxvii. 
p.  467  ;  also  a  double  dorsal  uislocation,  Pfeiifer,  in  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  August 
4,  1887. 


742  DISLOCATIONS. 

and  the  other  adducted.  Of  this  mode  of  production  Boisnot's'  case 
is  a  good  example  :  a  bale  of  goods  fell  upon  a  powerful  man,  forty 
years  old,  striking  him  upon  the  left  side  of  the  head  and  neck,  and 
bending  him  to  the  right,  and  caused  a  dorsal  dislocation  on  the  left 
side,  and  a  suprapubic  one  on  the  right.  In  Barker's  case,  quoted  in 
Chapter  LII.,  both  dislocations  were  obturator,  and  were  caused  by  a 
fall  from  a  height  of  about  thirty  feet  upon  a  sand  bank,  the  patient 
striking  upon  his  feet  and  having  them  widely  separated.  In  Schin- 
zinger's^  case,  dorsal  on  one  side  and  suprapubic  on  the  other,  it  was 
thought  the  latter  might  have  been  caused  by  the  efforts  of  the  by- 
standers to  drag  the  patient  from  under  the  bank  of  earth  that  had 
fallen  upon  him. 

Simultaneous  dislocations  of  the  left  hip  backward  and  of  the  right 
knee  forward  and  upward  were  reported  by  Brittain,^  and  of  the  knee 
and  hip  of  the  same  side  by  Hulke.* 

Accidents  Caused  by  Attempts  to  Reduce. 

Before  the  use  of  ether  and  chloroform  to  obtain  ansesthesia,  and  the 
general  substitution  of  milder  methods  in  the  place  of  forcible  traction 
by  pulleys,  it  was  not  rare  for  severe  inflammatory  reaction,  and  even 
suppuration,  to  follow  reduction  or  the  attempt  to  reduce,  or  for  the 
patient  to  die  in  consequence  of  the  shock  and  exhaustion  produced  by 
the  efforts  of  the  surgeon.  Cooper^  says  ''  there  are  plenty  of  cases  on 
record  of  fatal  abscesses  from  violent  attempts  at  the  reduction  of  dis- 
located hips."  Such  consequences  are  now  extremely  rare,  but,  even 
when  forcible  traction  or  other  violent  manipulations  have  not  been 
employed,  they  must  still  be  expected  occasionally  to  occur  as  the 
result  in  part  at  least  of  the  original  traumatism. 

Fracture  of  the  neck  or  even  of  the  shaft  of  the  femur  has  been 
caused  in  a  number  of  cases  by  the  surgeon  in  his  efforts  to  reduce, 
either  by  forcible  traction  or  by  manipulation.  Although  in  modern 
methods  but  little  force,  comparatively,  is  applied  by  the  surgeon,  yet 
it  must  be  remembered  that  that  force  is  habitually  applied  on  the  long 
arm  of  a  lever  of  which  the  neck  of  the  femur  is  the  short  arm,  and 
the  fracturing  strain  upon  the  latter  is  thereby  greatly  augmented. 
The  fracture,  apparently,  takes  place  more  frequently  during  rotation 
or  abduction  than  during  the  flexion  of  the  limb.  In  most  of  the 
reported  cases  the  account  is  limited  to  the  circumstances  attending 
the  fracture,  and  no  mention  is  made  of  the  subsequent  course  of  the 
case.  Of  the  14  cases  collected  by  Wippermann  (vic/e  supra),  includ- 
ing also  the  one  in  which  the  fracture  occurred  simultaneously  with 
the  dislocation  and  another  in  which  it  probably  did,  the  final  result  is 
indicated  in  9;  of  these  consolidation  of  the  fracture  took  place  in  3 
and  failed  in  6,  and  in  two  of  the  latter  (Czerny,  Bryck),  in  both  of 
which  the  fracture  was  secondary  and  through  the  narrow  part  of  the 

1  Boisnot :  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  October,  1867,  p  396. 
-  Schinzinger  :  Wiener  med.  Presse,  1880,  quoted  by  Kriinlein. 
3  Brittaln :  London  Medical  Gazette,  1836,  vol.  xviii.  p.  257. 
*  Hulke :  British  Medical  Journal,  1883,  vol.  ii.  p.  1. 
5  Cooper :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  33. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  743 

neck,  an  abscess  formed,  from  which  the  necrotic  head  of  the  femur 
was  subsequently  removed.      Bee  also  Kammerer,  supra. 

Fractures  produced  during  moderate  manipulation  in  recent  cases 
should  be  treated  in  accordance  with  the  considerations  affecting  the 
treatment  of  simultaneous  fracture  and  dislocation. 

In  Stokes's  fatal  case  of  suprapubic  dislocation,  in  which  death  was 
attributed  to  pulmonary  embolus,  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  the 
fatal  result  was  due  to  the  traumatism  or  to  the  reduction.  If  it  was 
due  to  pulmonary  embolus  the  clot  must  have  formed  before  reduction 
was  attempted,  and  the  latter  could  only  have  caused  its  detachment. 

In  a  case  of  fresh  dorsal  dislocation  that  came  under  my  care  in 
Bellevue  Hospital  in  1886,  death  occurred  an  hour  and  a  half  after 
the  accident  and  half  an  hour  after  easy  reduction  by  the  weight  of 
the  limb  in  the  prone  position,  without  anaesthesia.  The  patient  was 
a  muscular  young  man,  a  worker  in  a  brewery,  and  the  dislocation 
was  caused  by  a  fall  from  a  wagon.  He  was  brought  to  the  hospital 
within  an  hour  after  the  accident,  and  presented  marked  symptoms  of 
shock — restlessness,  sighing,  cool  surface,  small  pulse.     No  autopsy. 

Prognosis  and  After-treatment. 

The  prognosis  after  reduction  in  uncomplicated  cases  is  favorable, 
the  patients  usually  regaining  good  use  of  the  limb.  The  inflamma- 
tory reaction  is  usually  slight,  and  other  treatment  than  rest  in  bed  for 
two  or  three  weeks  is  rarely  required.  Occasionally  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  recurrence  which  needs  to  be  combated  either  by  slight  per- 
manent traction  upon  the  limb  or  by  keeping  it  in  an  attitude  that  is 
unfavorable  to  recurrence,  extension,  abduction,  and  outward  rotation 
after  a  dorsal  dislocation. 

If  reduction  is  not  made  the  patient  will  be  permanently  crippled  to 
a  greater  or  less  degree.  Usually  a  new  articular  socket  is  formed  by 
bony  outgrowths  about  the  head  which  permits  some  motion,  and  the 
principal  disability  is  due  to  the  attitude  of  the  limb,  to  its  lack  of 
parallelism  with  the  other,  and  to  the  necessity  of  tilting  and  curving 
the  spine  in  order  to  bring  the  foot  to  the  ground;  but  in  a  few  cases 
patients  have  also  suffered  from  persistent  pain  aggravated  by  use,  and 
even  from  numbness  or  paralysis  due  to  pressure  on  a  nerve. 

In  the  dorsal  dislocations  the  attitude  of  the  limb,  flexion  and  abduc- 
tion, adds  considerably  to  the  actual  shortening,  and  the  patient  may 
be  unable  to  walk  without  crutches  or  a  support  attached  to  the  sole  of 
the  shoe.  In  unreduced  suprapubic,  supracotyloid,  and  obturator  dislo- 
cations the  attitude  is  often  less  faulty  and  in  a  number  of  cases  the 
limb  has  been  very  serviceable. 

Habitual  Dislocations. 

A  considerable  number  of  cases  have  been  reported  in  which  the 
hip  could  be  voluntarily  dislocated  by  muscular  contraction  or  by  slight 
pressure  upon  the  foot  when  the  limb  was  placed  in  a  certain  attitude, 
or  in  which  the  dislocation  recurred  involuntarily  during  use  of  the 


744  DISLOCATIONS. 

limb.  Perier^  collected  fifteen  cases,  more  or  less  authentic,  including 
one  observed  by  himself  and  exhibited  to  the  Societe  de  Chirurgie,  and 
Hamilton  nine  additional  ones.  In  some  the  peculiarity  clearly  fol- 
lowed a  traumatic  dislocation,  in  others  it  was  the  consequence  of  con- 
genital or  acquired  alterations  in  the  constituent  parts  of  the  joint. 
Only  the  former  will  be  here  considered,  the  latter  belonging  more 
strictly  in  the  classes  of  spontaneous  or  pathological  dislocations. 

The  two  most  satisfactory  examples  are  one  observed  by  Bigelow^ 
and  another  quoted  by  him  from  a  report  furnished  by  Dr.  E.  M. 
Moore;  both  were  dorsal.  In  Bigelow's  case  ''  the  hip  was  dislocated 
while  the  legs  were  crossed,  a  wagon  in  which  the  man  was  riding 
having  pitched  into  a  hole.  In  a  few  hours  the  hip  was  reduced  by 
flexion.  Eight  days  after  the  accident,  in  attempting  to  walk  upon 
the  limb,  it  was  again  partially  luxated,  when  the  patient  himself 
replaced  it  by  pushing  against  it  with  one  hand  and  pressing  with  the 
other  against  his  knee.  Since  that  time  both  luxation  and  reduction 
have  been  comparatively  easy,  and  the  patient  now  displaces  the  head 
of  the  bone  backward  upon  the  edge  of  the  socket  by  muscular  action, 
and  reduces  it  by  throwing  the  leg  out  sidewise.  The  luxation  is 
sometimes  attended  with  pain,  and  the  prominence  caused  by  the  head 
of  the  luxated  bone  is  sensitive  to  the  touch.  The  displacement  is 
rather  a  subluxation,  and  the  limb  exhibits  slight  flexion,  shortening, 
and  inversion." 

Dr.  Moore's  patient  was  a  soldier,  who,  while  "  skirmishing  up  a 
hill,  sprang  back  suddenly  to  avoid  the  gun  of  a  comrade  in  advance. 
His  left  foot  became  entangled,  and  his  weight  dislocated  his  hip.  He 
felt  the  injury,  and  supposed  it  out  of  joint.  Some  comrades  pulled 
it  in.  He  immediately  resumed  skirmishing,  and  marched  seven  miles, 
from  10  A.M.  until  6  p.m.  He  lay  down  at  night,  and  went  on  duty 
the  next  day,  sharp-shooting,  crawling  all  day.  He  continued  this 
kind  of  duty  five  days,  and  returned  to  camp,  when  he  was  imme- 
diately put  in  intrenchments,  and  worked  two  days  and  two  nights. 
Afterward  he  went  on  picket,  and  entered  the  hospital  on  the  sixteenth 
day  after  the  accident.  At  present  he  can  luxate  the  hip-joint  at  any 
time,  and  does  it  by  pressing  the  foot  on  the  floor  to  fix  it  firmly,  con- 
tracting the  adductors,  and  throwing  out  the  pelvis.  The  head  sud- 
denly leaves  the  acetabulum  and  goes  on  the  dorsum  ilii." 

As  no  autopsy  has  been  reported  in  any  such  case,  the  explanation 
of  the  peculiarity  can  only  be  inferred.  It  is  probable  that  the  rent  in 
the  capsule  is  insufiiciently  repaired,  and  the  edge  of  the  acetabulum 
lowered  at  the  point  where  the  head  of  the  femur  escapes. 

Treatment  of  Old,  Unreduced  Dislocations. 

There  is  the  same  uncertainty  in  old  dislocations  of  the  hip  as  in 
those  of  other  joints,  as  to  the  length  of  time  after  which  reduction 
should  not  be  attempted.  Cases  have  been  reported  in  which  reduc- 
tion has  been  effected  after  the  lapse  of  many  weeks,  or  even  months; 

1  Perier :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1859,  vol.  x.  p.  12.  -  Bigelow  :  The  Hip,  p.  112. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  745 

Sir  Astley  Cooper^  reports  a  case  in  which  reduction  was  said  to  have 
been  produced  by  a  fall  after  the  lapse  of  five  years;  the  only  evidence 
of  reduction  is  that  a  loud  crack  was  heard  at  the  time  of  the  fall,  and 
that  the  patient  when  met  in  the  street  a  few  weeks  later,  Avalked  with- 
out limping. 

Hamilton  collected  fifteen  cases  in  which  it  was  claimed  that  reduc- 
tion had  been  successfully  accomplished  after  the  lapse  of  long  periods, 
and  shows  that  but  few,  if  any,  of  them  can  be  deemed  trustworthy; 
in  a  number  of  them  the  dislocation  was  clearly  not  traumatic,  and  in 
the  others  the  rejjorts  are  brief  and  unsatisfactory.  Sir  Astley  Cooper's 
statement  that  eight  weeks  was  the  period  after  which  it  would  be 
imprudent  to  attempt  reduction  has  been  taken  rather  too  literally, 
and  the  sounder  judgment  is  that  the  question  is  to  be  determined  by 
other  facts  than  the  simple  length  of  time  that  has  elapsed,  such  as 
the  distance  of  the  head  from  the  acetabulum,  its  mobility,  the  degree  of 
the  inflammatory  reaction,  the  usefulness  of  the  limb,  and  the  health  or 
constitution  of  the  patient.  The  reasons  which  have  been  elsewhere 
given  when  considering  the  same  question  with  reference  to  other  joints 
are  equally  applicable  to  the  hip,  and  forbid,  in  my  judgment,  forcible 
attempts  by  traction  and  manipulation. 

The  special  measures  that  hav^e  been  employed  either  to  effect  reduc- 
tion or  to  improve  the  functional  condition  of  the  limb  are  open 
arthrotomy,  osteotomy  or  fracture  of  the  neck  or  shaft,  and  excision 
of  the  head  or  of  the  head,  neck,  and  trochanter. 

The  first  is  applicable  to  relatively  recent  cases  which  are  thought  to 
be  not  absolutely  irreducible,  to  be  supplemented  in  case  of  failure  by 
excision.  The  others  are  applicable  to  older  cases,  as  palliative  measures 
designed  to  improve  the  position  of  the  limb  and  make  it  movable. 

Open  arthrotomy  has  been  tried  in  30  cases  ;^  in  11  reduction  was 
effected,  in  19  it  failed  and  resort  was  had  to  excision  in  18  and  to 
osteotomy  in  1.  Of  the  11  cases  in  which  reduction  was  made,  a  good 
or  fair  functional  result  followed  in  8,  1  died  of  sepsis,  in  1  the  head 
of  the  bone  became  necrotic  and  v^as,  removed,  and  in  1  recurrence 
took  place.  Almost  all  the  cases  belong  to  the  antiseptic  period;  they 
show,  unless  the  operative  methods  have  been  faulty,  that  reduction  is 
impracticable  in  about  two-thirds  of  all  cases  and  must  then  end  in 
excision,  osteotomy,  or  abandonment.  The  danger  to  life  in  the 
attempt  is  probably  not  fully  shown  by  the  statistics,  for  the  fatal  cases 
are  more  likely  than  others  to  go  unpublished.  I  know  of  one  fatal 
case,  about  1896,  that  is  not  included  in  the  list;  the  operation  was 
long  and  difficult,  and  the  patient  died  in  a  few  hours.  Almost  all 
the  operations  in  the  dorsal  cases,  which  are  the  great  majority,  were 
done  by  a  posterior  or  external  incision  which  does  not  give  easy 
access  to  the  joint  and  to  the  parts  which  presumably  most  oppose 
reduction;  I  am,  therefore,  disposed  to  believe  that  the  anterior 
approach  recommended  by  Fiorani  and  employed  by  Vecelli  (Kirn) 

1  Cooper  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  81. 

2  For  bibliography  see  Ist  edition;  Kirn,  Beitriiffe  zur  klin.  Chir.,  1889,  vol.  iv.  p.  537  ;  Harris, 
Annals  of  Surgery,  September,  1894  ;  Engel,  Arch,  fiir  klin.  Chir.,  1897,  p.  629  ;  and  Sajous'  Annual, 
passim. 


746  DISLOCATIONS. 

with  division  of  the  Y-ligament  close  to  the  femur  would  make  reduc- 
tion easier,  but  it  might  favor  recurrence. 

Excision  of  the  head,  or  of  the  head,  neck,  and  trochanter,  has  been 
reported  in  the  18  cases  above  mentioned,  after  an  attempt  to  reduce, 
and  in  9  others.^  In  Paci's  the  division  was  made  below  the  trochan- 
ter. Two  died;  in  the  others  the  functional  result  is  generally  reported 
as  ^'  good"  or  '^  fair." 

Osteotomy,  through  or  below  the  neck,  has  been  done  by  Van  Wahl 
and  Kock^  and  by  Villeneuve^  after  failure  to  reduce  by  arthrotomy; 
in  two  the  reported  result  was  good,  in  the  third  (Kock)  the  bone 
healed  in  a  faulty  position. 

In  deciding  whether  or  not  to  interfere  in  an  old  case,  and  in  choos- 
ing a  method  if  interference  is  determined  upon,  several  things  beside 
the  mere  fact  of  the  existence  of  the  dislocation  must  be  considered.  If 
the  limb  is  useful,  if  the  patient  is  not  suffering  from  pressure  effects, 
and  if  he  is  no  longer  young,  prudence  will  often  dictate  abstention. 
Qaieta  non  movere  !  Or,  at  the  most,  an  osteotomy  may  be  done  to 
bring  the  limb  into  a  more  convenient  and  serviceable  position.  If  the 
patient  is  younger,  if  the  disability  is  greater,  if  the  position  of  the 
head  causes  serious  pressure  effects,  reduction  by  arthrotomy  may  be 
attempted,  preferably,  I  think,  by  an  anterior  incision,  with  the  deter- 
mination to  abandon  the  attempt  if  it  proves  difficult  and  to  substitute 
excision.  Bat  the  surgeon  must  carefully  consider  the  present  useful- 
ness of  the  limb,  the  probability  of  the  usefulness  that  will  follow  the 
interference,  and  the  risk  to  life  incurred  in  the  attempt  to  improve. 

Subcutaneous  fracture  of  the  neck  has  never,  so  far  as  I  know,  been 
intentionally  done  to  correct  a  vicious  position  of  the  limb,  but  in  a 
number  of  cases  in  which  it  has  occurred  during  an  attempt  to  reduce 
it  has  been  utilized  for  this  purpose  and  with  good  results,  although, 
as  above  mentioned,  necrosis  of  the  head  of  the  femur  has  twice  ensued. 


CONGENITAL  DISLOCATIONS. 

(See  Chapter  XXXY.) 

SPONTANEOUS  OR  PATHOLOGICAL  DISLOCATIONS. 

Almost  all  the  different  kinds  of  spontaneous  dislocation  have  been 
observed  at  the  hip,  and  many  of  them  with  a  frequency  that  has  not 
been  observed  at  other  joints.  The  weight  of  the  body  in  walking  is 
a  factor  of  much  importance  and  constantly  at  work,  the  effect  of 
which  is  well  shown  in  three  cases  reported  by  Llicke,*  in  which  the 
dislocation  followed  rhachitic  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  femurs  and 
the  spinal   column.      The   patients  were  children  who,  at   birth  and 

1  Delaprarde,  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Reports,  18fi6,  vol.  ii.  p.  183  ;  Sydney  Jones,  Lancet,  1884. 
vol.  ii.  870  ;  Ratimow,  St.  Petersburg  Med.  Wochen.,  July  30, 1888;  Grazianl,  Centralblatt  fur  Chir.. 
1890,  p.  244 ;  Kammerer,  Medical  Record,  March  4, 1893  ;"  Flower,  British  Medical  Journal,  Nov.  2i 
1895;  Browne,  Ibid.,  February  15,  1896;  Ostermayer,  Centralblatt  fur  Chir.,  May  11,  1895  ;  Paci. 
Arch.  Italian  de  Pediat.,  vol.  vii. 

2  Van  Wahl  and  Kock  :  Berlin,  klin.  Woch.,  1882,  p.  492. 

3  Villeneuve  :  Rev.  d'Orthopedie,  1892,  p.  161. 

*  Lucke :  Quoted  by  Forgue  and  Maubrac,  Luxations  pathologiques,  Paris,  1886,  p.  15. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  HIP.  747 

during  infancy,  showed  no  sign  of  dislocation;  after  a  time  rhachitic 
changes  occurred,  the  displacement  appeared,  and  walking  became 
difficult.  Liicke  found  a  marked  lumbar  lordosis  and  anterior  curva- 
ture of  the  femurs;  the  trochanters  were  displaced  far  backward,  and 
the  dislocation  was  evident.  He  thought  the  curvature  of  the  femurs 
was  the  primary  change,  and  the  lordosis  compensatory  of  it,  and  that 
the  dislocation  was  due  to  changes  in  the  acetabulum  following  the  con- 
sequent pressure  at  an  unusual  point. 

Of  similar  character  are  those  cases  in  which  the  dislocation  has 
taken  place  in  a  healthy  joint  in  consequence  of  the  prolonged  main- 
tenance of  some  exceptional  attitude,  as  in  a  case  reported  by  Franks^ 
of  a  child  five  years  old,  who  had  been  confined  to  the  bed  for  many 
months  by  an  arthritis  of  the  left  hip,  and  had  lain  upon  its  left  side 
with  the  knees  and  hips  flexed,  and  the  right  hip  adducted;  a  dorsal 
dislocation  took  place  without  pain  on  the  right  side.  Here  the  con- 
traction of  the  muscles  takes  the  place  of  the  weight  of  the  body  in 
producing  the  dislocation  when  the  limb  is  long  held  in  a  favorable 
attitude,  and  many  examples  of  this  effect  have  been  reported  in  cases 
in  which  the  joint  was  the  seat  of  an  arthritis,  as  in  acute  articular 
rheumatism,  or  in  continued  fevers,  typhoid,  scarlatina,  in  which  usu- 
ally there  are  mdications  of  inflammation  of  the  joint,  although  in 
some  cases  attention  was  first  called  to  the  joint  by  the  appearance  of 
the  deformity.  As  the  individual  usually  lies  with  the  thigh  flexed 
and  adducted,  the  dislocation  almost  always  takes  place  backward  and 
upward;  but  in  a  case  observed  by  Stromeyer,^  a  man  eighteen  years 
old,  affected  with  acute  articular  rheumatism,  especially  of  the  hip, 
during  the  entire  course  of  which  he  had  lain  on  his  side,  the  disloca- 
tion was  into  the  obturator  foramen. 

'^Paralytic"  or  '^  myopathic"  dislocations  of  the  hip,  those  in 
which  the  displacement  is  effected  by  the  unopposed  contraction  of  cer- 
tain muscles  or  groups  of  muscles,  whose  antagonists  are  paralyzed, 
have  been  most  frequently  seen  as  a  ccmsequence  of  infantile  paralysis. 
As  has  been  shown  in  Chapter  XXXVI.  they  were  formerly  con- 
founded with  congenital  dislocations,  and  were  first  clearly  separated 
from  them  by  Verneuil,^  and  afterward  studied  in  detail  by  some  of 
his  pupils,  especially  Reclus.*  When  the  paralysis  involves  all  the 
muscles  of  the  hip  the  joint  becomes  loose,  and  the  femur  may  be  dis- 
placed and  replaced  at  will,  but  when  only  a  part  of  the  muscles  are 
paralyzed  the  contraction  of  the  others  leads  to  a  permanent  displace- 
ment. If  the  posterior  muscles  are  paralyzed,  and  the  adductors 
remain  in  good  condition,  the  dislocation  is  dorsal;  if  the  adductors 
are  paralyzed  and  the  glutei  remain  sound,  the  dislocation  is  forward 
upon  the  pubis.  One  of  the  cases  observed  by  Reclus  may  be  taken 
as  a  good  example  of  one  form;  a  child,  which  had  previously  been 
healthy  and  well  formed,  was  attacked  at  the  age  of  seven  years  with 
high  fever  and  a  paralysis  which,  at  first  general,  became  localized  in 

1  Franks :  Lancet,  1883,  vol.  ii.  p.  15. 

2  Stromeyer  :  Handbuch  der  Chir.,  1844.  vol.  i.,  quoted  by  Porgue  and  Maubrac. 

3  Verneuil :  Bull,  de  la  Soci(5t6  de  Chirurgie,  1866. 
*  Reclus :  Revue  de  Med.  et  Chir.,  1878,  p.  176. 


748  DISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

the  glutei  and  the  other  pelvi-trochanteric  muscles;  the  other  groups, 
especially  the  adductors  of  the  thigh,  recovered  their  activity;  a  well- 
marked  dorsal  dislocation  followed/ 

In  a  case  reported  by  Bradford,^  a  girl,  eighteen  months  old,  the 
right  thigh  was  flexed  and  abducted  at  a  right  angle,  the  adductors 
were  paralyzed,  the  glutei  and  tensor  vaginse  femoris  sound.  The  head 
of  the  femur  could  be  felt  in  the  groin  upon  the  superior  ramus  of  the 
pubis  midway  between  the  symphysis  and  the  anterior  superior  spine 
of  the  ilium.  Reduction  was  effected,  but  the  limb  remained  almost 
powerless. 

The  cases  should  be  treated  by  prompt  reduction,  if  possible,  and 
the  maintenance  of  the  limb  in  an  attitude  that  opposes  recurrence. 

In  three  cases  reported  by  Roser^  in  1885,  at  the  Congress  held  at 
Strasburg,  the  paralysis  was  due  to  spinal  disease;  in  one  of  them  the 
patient  produced  the  dislocation  by  swinging  his  legs  forward  while 
walking  with  crutches;  in  the  other  two  the  dislocation  took  place  in 
bed  without  appreciable  cause. 

The  limitation  of  the  paralysis  to  one  group  of  muscles  is  to  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that  the  adductors  are  supplied  by  the  obturator 
nerve,  a  branch  of  the  lumbar  plexus,  and  the  posterior  muscles  by 
branches  of  the  sacral  plexus,  and  that  the  medullary  centres  of  these 
nerves  are  at  different  points  in  the  cord,  that  of  the  femur  being  at 
a  higher  point  than  the  other,  probably  at  the  upper  part  of  the  lumbar 
enlargement. 

Dislocations  due  to  destruction  of  the  bony  parts  of  the  joint  by 
tubercular  disease  are  comparatively  common;  their  consideration 
belongs  rather  to  the  subject  of  disease  of  the  hip-joint. 

In  like  manner  the  consideration  of  those  dislocations  which  follow 
changes  in  the  bones  produced  by  chronic  rheumatism  or  dry  arthritis 
or  in  ataxia  belongs  to  works  upon  those  subjects.  The  alterations  in 
the  shape  of  the  bones,  either  by  atrophy  or  by  hypertrophy,  are 
so  marked  that  reduction  or  maintenance  of  reduction  is  impossible. 
In  dry,  or  deforming,  arthritis  not  only  are  all  the  constituent  parts  of 
the  joint  involved  in  the  changes,  but  the  muscles  also  become  degen- 
erated; the  bones  are  usually  hypertrophied  by  outgrowths  at  the  bor- 
ders of  the  articular  surfaces,  they  lose  their  articular  cartilage,  and 
become  eroded  at  points  of  contact.  The  changes  in  locomotor  ataxia 
are  characterized  by  early  and  rapid  atrophy  of  the  head  and  neck  of 
the  femur  with  destruction  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  of  the  rim  of  the 
acetabulum.  Sometimes  dislocation  takes  place  abruptly  with  well- 
marked  and  characteristic  symptoms;  in  other  cases  the  symptoms  are 
more  like  those  of  fracture  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  the  foot  is  everted 
and  the  trochanter  raised,  but  the  movements  are  exceptionally  free 
and  may  be  painless. 

1  See  paper  by  Karewski,  Arch,  fur  klin.  Chir.,  188S,  vol.  xxxvii.  p.  346. 

2  Bradford  :  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  1883,  vol.  cviii.  p.  73. 

3  Roser :  Quoted  by  Forgue  and  Maubrac,  loc.  cit.,  p.  43. 


CHAPTEE    LIV. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   KNEE. 

Anatomy.  The  knee-joint  may  be  regarded  as  composed  of  two 
joints,  of  which  one  is  formed  by  the  patella  and  femur,  the  other  by 
the  femur  and  tibia;  and  the  latter  is  composed  of  two  parts,  differing 
somewhat  from  each  other,  each  of  which  is  formed  by  one  of  the  con- 
dyles of  the  femur  and  the  corresponding  portion  of  the  upper  surface 
of  the  tibia.  The  condyles  of  the  femur  are  separated  from  each  other 
by  the  intercondylar  notch,  and  between  the  condylar  surfaces  of  the 
tibia  is  a  depression  which  is  interrupted  in  the  centre  by  the  spine. 

The  ligaments  which  bind  the  femur  to  the  tibia  and  fibula  are  the 
external  and  internal  lateral,  the  posterior,  and  the  crucial.  The 
internal  lateral  ligament,  long  and  flat,  extends  from  the  internal 
tuberosity  of  the  femur  to  the  inner  side  of  the  shaft  of  the  tibia;  the 
external  lateral,  more  rounded  and  cord-like,  extends  from  the  exter- 
nal tuberosity  of  the  femur  to  the  head  of  the  fibula,  overlying  the 
tendon  of  the  popliteus  above  and  being  embraced  by  the  tendon  of  the 
biceps  below.  The  short  external  lateral  ligament,  lying  somewhat 
more  deeply  and  posterior  to  the  other,  is  attached  above  to  the 
side  of  the  condyle  and  below  to  the  styloid  process  of  the  fibula.  The 
posterior  ligament  is  attached  above  to  the  upper  part  of  the  intercon- 
dylar fossa  of  the  femur  and  below  to  the  posterior  margin  of  the 
head  of  the  tibia.  The  crucial  ligaments  extend  from  either  side  of 
the  intercondylar  notch  to  the  depression  in  front  of  and  behind  the 
spine  of  the  tibia.  In  full  extension  of  the  knee  these  ligaments  are 
made  tense,  but  in  flexion  at  a  right  angle  the  lateral  ones,  especially 
the  exteral  lateral,  are  relaxed. 

The  semilunar  fibro-cartilages  are  intra-articular  structures  attached 
to  the  head  of  the  tibia  at  their  outer  margins  and  ends  and  having 
free  smooth  surfaces  above  and  below;  they  are  triangular  on  vertical 
section,  the  peripheral  border  being  thick,  the  central  thin;  as  they  are 
rings,  not  disks,  each  leaves  the  corresponding  condylar  surface  of  the 
tibia  uncovered  at  the  centre.  The  internal  one  is  semicircular,  and 
its  ends  are  attached  in  front  of  and  behind  the  spine  of  the  tibia 
respectively;  the  external  one  is  nearly  a  complete  circle,  and  its  ends 
are  attached  to  the  spine  of  the  tibia  between  those  of  the  internal  one, 
its  posterior  end  is  also  attached  to  the  inner  condyle  of  the  femur  in 
connection  with  the  posterior  crucial  ligament.  The  external  cartilage 
is  movable  upon  the  tibia,  this  freedom  of  motion  being  utilized  in  the 
outward  rotation  of  the  leg  which  occurs  at  the  end  of  extension,  while 
the  internal  one  is  more  fixed  and  serves  mainly  to  make  a  more  con- 
cave surface  for  articulation  with  the  internal  condyle  of  the  femur. 
The  anterior  borders  of  the  two  cartilages  are  connected  together  by 


760  DISLOCATIONS. 

a   slight  transverse  band,  the   transverse   ligament  ;  it   is   sometimes 
lacking. 

The  capsular  membrane  fills  the  gaps  between  the  ligaments;  and 
those  portions  which  extend  from  either  side  of  the  patella  to  the 
femur  and  tibia  in  connection  with  the  vasti  muscles  and  the  fascia  lata 
are  called  the  lateral  ligaments. 

The  synovial  membrane  extends  well  up  on  the  front  of  the  thigh, 
frequently  communicating  with  a  bursa  under  the  quadriceps,  and 
invests  the  crucial  ligaments  by  a  reflection  from  the  posterior  wall. 
Between  the  tibia  and  patella  it  rests  upon  a  mass  of  fat,  forming  two 
lateral  folds,  the  alar  ligaments,  and  sending  backward  from  its  middle 
another  fold,  the  ligamentum  mucosum,  which  is  attached  to  the  front 
of  the  intercondylar  notch.  By  these  folds  and  the  crucial  ligaments 
the  joint  is  divided  into  three  more  or  less  freely  communicating  com- 
partments. 

Functionally,  the  femoro-tibial  joint  is  a  ginglymo-arthrodial,  its 
movements  being  effected  by  a  combination  of  gliding,  rolling,  and 
rotation  of  the  bones  upon  each  other.  In  complete  extension  no  rota- 
tion is  possible,  but  as  the  knee  is  flexed  outward  rotation  appears  and 
increases,  reaching  21  degrees  at  rectangular  flexion  and  31  degrees  at 
flexion  30  degrees  within  a  right  angle.     (Mayer.) 

In  complete  extension  the  patella  rests  upon  the  upper  part  of  the 
trochlear  surface  of  the  femur,  and  as  flexion  is  made  it  movies  down- 
ward and  is  gradually  turned  outward  by  the  increasing  prominence  of 
the  internal  condyle,  so  that  at  the  last  it  rests  by  its  upper  and  outer 
facet  on  the  front  of  the  external  condyle  and  by  its  inner  facet  against 
the  narrow  surface  of  the  outer  margin  of  the  internal  condyle.  As 
the  movement  of  extension  approaches  its  limit  the  tibia  undergoes 
slight  outward  rotation  in  which  the  external  semilunar  cartilage  does 
not  participate,  that  is,  the  outer  condylar  surface  of  the  tibia  moves 
backward  under  the  fibro-cartilage;  correspondingly,  when  flexion  is 
begun  from  the  position  of  complete  extension  it  is  accompanied  by 
inward  rotation  of  the  tibia.  The  limitation  of  extension  is  effected 
by  the  posterior  and  lateral  ligaments,  that  of  flexion  by  the  contact  of 
the  soft  parts  of  the  calf  and  thigh  and  of  the  posterior  margin  of 
the  semilunar  cartilages  with  the  back  of  the  condyles  of  the  femur. 
Displacement  of  the  tibia  forward,  backward,  or  to  either  side  is  op- 
posed by  the  lateral  and  crucial  ligaments. 

Statistics.  Dislocations  of  the  knee,  of  the  femoro-tibial  joint,  are 
rare,  constituting  about  1  per  cent,  of  all  cases.  They  are  divided 
according  to  the  direction  in  which  the  tibia  is  displaced  \\\io  forward, 
backward,  outward,  and  inward  dislocatious,  and  dislocations  by  isola- 
tion. Malgaigne  made  additional  groups  of  intermediate  forms.  The 
dislocation  may  be  complete  or  incomplete,  simple  or  compound.  A 
tabulation  which  I  made  by  the  aid  of  the  references  to  periodical 
literature  in  the  Index- Catalogue  of  the  Surgeon- General's  Library 
showed  that  of  114  traumatic  cases  the  dislocation  was  forward  in  52, 
backward  in  34,  outward  in  21,  inward  in  4,  "  lateral"  in  1,  and  by 
rotation  in  3.  In  21  of  them  the  dislocation  was  compound;  11  for- 
ward, 4  backward,  6  outward. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  KNEE.  751 

The  injury  is  very  rare  in  childhood,  the  two  youngest  patients  in 
my  list  being  aged  ten  and  eleven  respectively;  it  is  of  exceptional 
gravity  because  of  the  size  of  the  joint,  the  fact  that  it  is  usually 
caused  by  great  violence,  and  because  of  the  frequency  with  which  it 
is  compound  and  with  which  the  popliteal  vessels  are  injured.  Am- 
putation has  been  resorted  to  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases.  Simul- 
taneous dislocation  of  both  knees  has  been  observed  in  a  few  cases. 

Dislocations  Forward. 

These  may  be  complete  or  incomplete,  simple  or  compound.  The 
complete  seem  to  be  very  much  rarer  than  the  incomplete;  the  com- 
pound occur  in  an  exceptionally  large  proportion,  over  21  per  cent, 
in  the  tabulation  just  given,  and  the  wound  is  habitually  made  by 
rupture  of  the  soft  parts  posteriorly  where  they  are  stretched 
across  the  projecting  condyles  of  the  femur  in  hyperextension  of 
the  leg. 

The  cause  may  be  either  hyperextension  of  the  leg,  or  violence 
received  upon  the  front  of  the  thigh  or  the  back  of  the  leg  near  the 
knee.  The  former  appears  to  be  much  the  more  common;  in  it  the 
tibia  turns  upon  its  anterior  margin  as  a  centre,  putting  the  posterior, 
lateral,  and  crucial  ligaments  upon  the  stretch,  and  after  their  rupture 
it  glides  forward  along  the  condyles,  or  the  condyles  slide  backward 
along  it.  The  hyperextension  may  be  produced  by  a  force  applied  to 
the  back  of  the  leg  or  foot,  or,  more  commonly,  by  the  propulsion  of 
the  trunk  and  thigh  while  the  leg  is  held  stationary  and  upright; 
thus,  a  man  running  down  a  hill  steps  into  a  hole,  the  leg  entering  as 
far  as  to  its  upper  third,  and  falls  forward.  In  a  case  of  my  own  the 
patient,  a  large  heavy  man,  was  standing  in  an  elevator  Avhicli  was 
suddenly  stopped  Avhile  descending  rapidly;  he  received  the  dislocation 
without  falling  or  being  struck,  apparently  by  hyperextension  of  the 
knee.  The  tibia  overrode  the  femur  one  and  a  half  inches.  The 
other  cause,  direct  violence,  may  act  upon  the  front  of  the  knee  while 
the  leg  is  either  extended  or  partly  flexed.  In  another  set  of  cases, 
of  which  I  have  met  with  the  records  of  four  examples,  the  mode  of 
production  is  not  clear;  the  patients  were  caught  in  rapidly  revolving 
wheels  or  shafts  and  whirled  around  many  times,  the  body  passing  at 
some  part  of  its  course  through  a  narrow  space;  in  three  of  these  cases 
both  knees  were  dislocated,  in  two  of  them  one  dislocation  being  for- 
ward, the  other  backward,  and  in  the  third  one  dislocation  was  forward 
and  the  other  inward. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Cotton'  the  ligaments  of  the  joint  had  gradu- 
ally grown  so  weak  that  the  knees  bent  backward;  as  the  patient  got 
out  of  bed  one  morning  a  compound  dislocation,  with  rupture  of  the 
popliteal  artery,  was  produced. 

Pathology.  In  the  incomplete  form,  that  in  which  the  upper  articu- 
lar surface  of  tlie  tibia  is  still  in  contact  by  its  posterior  portion  with 
the  inferior  surface  of  the  condyles,  the  injury  to  the  ligaments  and 
other  soft  parts  appears  to  be  slight;  in  the  only  autopsy,  one  reported 

1  Cotton  :  Proceedings  of  the  Connecticut  Medical  Society,  1880,  vol.  ii.  p.  54. 


752  DISLOCATIONS. 

by  Desormeaux/  the  anterior  crucial  ligament  alone  was  torn,  and  that 
only  in  part.  In  the  complete  form,  on  the  other  hand,  the  injuries 
are  very  extensive;  one  or  both  lateral  ligaments,  one  or  both  crucial, 
the  posterior,  and  the  lateral  ligaments  of  the  patella  are  completely 
ruptured  or  widely  torn.  The  posterior  muscles,  the  biceps,  gastrocne- 
mius, popliteus,  even  the  soleus  and  vastus  internus  are  lacerated  or 
divided;  the  internal  and  external  politeal  nerves  may  be  torn  or 
bruised,  the  popliteal  artery  and  vein  ruptured,  the  skin  of  the  poplit- 
eal space  torn  through.  Sometimes  the  ligaments  are  ruptured,  some- 
times they  are  torn  from  the  femur,  perhaps  bringing  with  them 
portions  of  the  bone;  the  protruding  condyles  appear  sometimes  as  if 
they  had  been  cleaned  with  a  knife.  The  overriding  of  the  tibia  and 
femur  may  amount  to  two  or  even  three  inches;  in  Mayo's^  it  was  said 
to  be  fully  four  inches. 

The  injuries  to  the  popliteal  artery  are  of  exceptional  interest  and 
importance.  Its  inner  and  middle  coats  may  be  torn  completely  across 
(Aunandale,  Cotton,  Knichynicki,^  Lowe,*  two  cases,  Vevers,^  and 
Stewart  and  Turner,  quoted  by  Spillmann;  in  most  of  them  the  dislo- 
cation was  compound);  or,  as  in  a  case  examined  by  Malgaigne,  there 
may  be  several  small  rents  at  atheromatous,  calcareous  points.  The 
artery  may  be  simply  compressed  and  remain  competent  to  perform  its 
functions  when  the  pressure  is  removed  (Davis, ^  Hixon''),  or  it  may 
be  so  bruised  that  a  thrombus  will  subsequently  form  (Brittain).  The 
popliteal  vein  appears  from  the  reports  to  have  been  less  frequently 
torn,  but  when  bruised  it  also  may  become  occupied  by  a  thrombus. 
It  seems  probable  that  in  the  cases  in  which  gangrene  followed  the 
vein  as  well  as  the  artery  was  injured.  The  opportunities  for  direct 
examination  after  death  or  amputation  have  been  numerous;  among 
the  reports  may  be  mentioned  those  by  Malgaigne,  Volkmann,^  Albert,^ 
Birkett,^*^  Aunandale,"  Brittain, ^^  Madelung,^^  Spillmann,^*  and  Lowe, 
above  quoted. 

Symptoms.  The  leg  is  usually  in  almost  complete  extension,  and 
when  viewed  from  the  side  it  is  seen  to  lie  in  a  plane  more  or  less  ante- 
rior to  that  of  the  thigh,  according  as  the  dislocation  is  complete  or 
incomplete;  it  may  be  hyperextended  or  partly  flexed,  and  may  be 
rotated  in  either  direction.  The  outlines  of  the  projecting  condyles 
can  be  seen  and  felt  in  the  popliteal  space,  and  above  the  tibia  in  front 
lies  the  patella,  more  or  less  horizontal  and  freely  movable,  and  the 
skin  above  it  shows  marked  transverse  folds;  the  flat  articular  surface 
of  the  tibia  can  be  felt  on  each  side  of  the  ligamentum  patellae.  In 
the  incomplete  form  the  deformity  is  less  marked,  and  the  diagnosis 
may  be  diflicult  if  the  region  is  swollen. 

1  Desormeaus :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgie,  1853,  vol.  ill.  p.  367. 
-  Cooper  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  187. 

3  Knichynicki :  Allg.  Wiener  med.  Zeitung,  1873,  vol.  xviii.  p.  255. 

4  Lowe  :  St,  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Reports,  1869,  vol.  v.  p.  80. 

5  Vevers  ;  Lancet,  1869,  vol.  ii.  p.  542. 

6  Davis  :  Philadelphia  Medical  Times,  1876-77,  vol.  vii.  p.  270. 

^  Hixon  :  North  American  Medico-Chirurgical  Review,  1858,  vol.  ii.  p.  76. 

8  Volkmann  :  Beitriige  zur  Chir.,  p.  119. 

9  Albert :  Wiener  med.  Presse,  1872.  i"  Birkett :  Lancet,  1850,  vol.  ii.  p.  703. 
11  Annandale  :  Lancet,  1881,  vol.  ii.  p.  903. 

1-  Brittain :  London  Medical  Gazette,  1836,  vol.  xviii.  p.  257. 

13  Madelung  :  Berlin,  klin.  Wochenschrift,  1873. 

1*  Spillmann  :  Diet,  encyclop.  des  Sc.  Med.,  art.  Genou,  p.  600. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  KNEE.  753 

The  limb  may  be  fixed  in  its  position,  or  it  may  be  movable  in  any 
direction,  hyperextension,  flexion  to  a  right  angle,  or  laterally. 

If  the  skin  is  broken  the  rent  is  transverse  and  posterior,  and 
through  it  one  or  both  condyles  may  project,  or  the  finger  can  be 
readily  passed  into  the  joint.  The 
main  vessels  and  the  internal  pop- 
liteal nerve  commonly  lie  in  the 
intercondylar  notch,  and  may 
sometimes  be  plainly  visible. 

Injury  to,  or  compression  of, 
the  artery  is  shown  by  the  loss  of 
pulsation  in  the  arteries  of  the      ;i||il|iiH 
foot  and  ankle;    injury  to  the     '  K,U'n,n!  coudi/ie  of  j; 

nerve     by    loss     of     sensation     or  Anterior  dislocation  of  the  knee. 

numbness,  and,  later,  by  changes 

due  to  defective  nutrition  of  the  limb  and  by  pain. 

The  course  after  injury  to  the  artery  is  well  shown  in  the  report  of 
Annandale's  case,  that  after  injury  to  the  nerve  in  Le  Dentu's.' 
Annandale's  patient  complained  that  the  foot  felt  cold,  but  sensation 
in  the  toes  was  normal;  the  dislocation  was  easily  reduced,  and  the 
patient  did  well  for  a  week;  then  it  was  noticed  that  the  foot  was  livid 
and  cold.  Two  days  later  blebs  had  appeared  upon  it,  and  the  discol- 
oration had  advanced  upon  the  leg;  three  days  later  the  signs  of  gan- 
grene were  marked,  and  the  limb  was  then  amputated  above  the  knee. 
The  inner  and  middle  coats  of  the  popliteal  artery,  which  were  ather- 
omatous, were  torn  about  an  inch  above  its  bifurcation,  and  curled 
inward;  the  vessel  was  plugged  by  a  firm  clot. 

Le  Dentu's  patient,  a  man  twenty-seven  years  old,  was  caught  in 
the  belt  of  machinery  and  whirled  around  rapidly,  his  legs  striking 
each  time  against  the  ceiling;  he  received  a  complete  dislocation  for- 
ward of  the  right  knee,  and  a  complete  backward  dislocation  of  the 
left  one;  the  latter  was  reduced  immediately,  the  former  on  the  next 
day.  On  the  nineteenth  day  the  patient  complained  of  sharp  pain  in 
both  legs,  and  on  examination  an  eschar  as  large  as  a  fifty-cent  piece 
was  found  on  the  left  calf,  and  another  over  the  right  tendo  Achillis; 
the  former  healed  promptly,  the  latter  increased,  and  part  of  the  tendon 
sloughed.  The  pain  became  very  severe  in  the  right  leg,  it  was  neu- 
ralgic in  character,  a  sensation  of  numbness  with  darting  pain  in  the 
foot  and  sometimes  in  the  leg,  recurring  especially  at  night.  It  per- 
sisted until  the  thirty-fifth  day,  and  returned  a  week  later.  On  the 
forty-fifth  day  another  eschar  appeared  on  the  sole  of  the  right  foot 
opposite  to  the  head  of  the  first  metatarsal  bone.  Sensation,  which 
had  previously  been  dulled  in  front,  was  now  entirely  lost  throughout 
the  right  leg,  except  in  the  region  supplied  by  the  long  saphenous 
nerve.  Four  days  later  the  pain  ceased,  and  the  eschars  began  to  heal. 
Seven  months  after  accident  the  patient  returned  to  the  hospital;  there 
was  considerable  atrophy  of  the  right  leg,  loss  of  power  in  the  muscles 
that  move  the  foot  and  toes,  and  some  stiffness  at  the  ankle.     The 

1  Le  Dentu  :  Buli.  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgle,  1880,  p.  591, 
48 


754  DI8L  0  QA  TIONS. 

movements  of  both  knees  were  normal,  and  the  ligaments  appeared  to 
have  reunited  solidly.  The  patient  limped  in  walking,  but  the  limp 
was  due  solely  to  the  atrophy  of  the  muscles  and  to  the  persistence  on 
the  outer  side  of  the  sole  of  the  right  foot  of  one  of  the  three  ulcera- 
tions that  had  appeared  upon  the  foot  and  heel.  The  trophic  troubles 
were  attributed  to  a  neuritis  of  the  popliteal  nerves  occasioned  by  their 
laceration  or  bruising  at  the  time  of  the  accident. 

Paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  outer  side  of  the  leg  has  been  ob- 
served in  three  other  cases,  Brand,  Unruh,  and  Poinsot,'  in  one  of 
which,  however  (Brand),  the  fibula  had  been  broken  at  its  upper  end. 

Of  the  compound  cases,  several  recovered  with  good  use  of  the 
limb;  in  others,  amputation  or  excision  of  the  joint  was  done. 

The  prognosis  is  grave  in  the  compound  cases  and  in  those  in  which 
the  artery  has  been  injured,  and  it  is  not  very  favorable  even  in  the 
simpler  ones.  It  must  be  remembered  that  gangrene  may  delay  its 
appearance  until  the  second  or  even  the  third  week,  and  that  even  in 
some  simple  cases  which  have  done  well  for  a  week  or  two  suppuration 
of  the  joint  has  ultimately  occurred.  Even  after  simple  dislocations 
that  have  done  well  there  is  ordinarily  some  limitation  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  joint. 

Treatment.  Reduction  is  easy  by  traction  and  coaptation  of  the  ends 
of  the  bones;  ordinarily,  no  more  force  is  required  in  the  traction  than 
an  assistant  can  make  with  his  hands.  Flexion  of  the  knee  to  an 
acute  angle  has  proved  successful.  The  suggestion  that  the  leg  should 
be  hyperextended,  and  the  head  of  the  tibia  then  pressed  directly  down- 
ward, is  a  dangerous  one,  because  of  the  chance  of  injury  to  the  pop- 
liteal vessels. 

The  rule  of  conduct  in  the  presence  of  compound  dislocations,  and 
of  those  in  which  there  is  evidence  of  injury  to  the  popliteal  artery, 
has  been  the  subject  of  recent  discussion.  Several  compound  disloca- 
tions in  which  the  artery  was  intact  have  recovered,  and  even  with  full 
subsequent  use  of  the  joint,  and  I  believe  that  the  conservation  of  the 
limb  under  such  circumstances  should  be  attempted. 

The  same  rule  should  be  followed  in  case  of  arrest  of  pulsation  in 
the  distal  arteries;  that  is,  the  surgeon  should  wait  until  it  has  become 
evident  that  the  vitality  of  the  limb  is  lost.  If  the  gangrene  is  dry 
little  is  to  be  feared  from  delay,  but  if  the  limb  becomes  swollen  and 
discolored,  with  loss  of  sensation,  indicating  arterial  supply  and  venous 
obstruction,  delay  is  more  dangerous  and  the  formation  of  a  line  of 
demarcation  cannot  be  safely  awaited. 

Dislocations  Backward. 

These  may  be  complete  or  incomplete;  in  the  former  the  head  of 
the  tibia  is  displaced  backward  and  upward  behind  the  condyles;  in 
the  latter  it  still  remains  partly  in  contact  by  its  upper  surface  with 
the  condyles. 

The  common  cause  is  direct  violence  received  upon  the  upper  end  of 
the  tibia  in  front,  or  upon  the  lower  end  of  the  femur  behind,  but  in 

1  Poinsot :  Translation  of  Hamilton,  p.  1142. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  KNEE.  755 

some  cases  the  application  of  the  force  is  more  indirect,  as  when  the 
body  and  thigli  are  forced  forward  while  the  leg;  is  held.  In  four  cases 
the  patients  were  caught  in  machinery  and  whirled  around;  and  in 
one  case  a  boy,  eleven  years  old,  suffered  a  compound  dislocation  by 
having  his  leg  caught  between  the  spokes  of  a  wagon-wheel. 

Pathology.  The  posterior  ligament  is  torn,  and  usually  one  or  both 
of  the  lateral  ligaments;  in  a  case  of  complete  dislocation  with  rupture 
of  the  popliteal  artery  (quoted  by  Malgaigne')  in  which  Kobert  resorted 
to  amputation,  all  the  ligaments  were  intact  except  for  two  rents,  each 
three  centimetres  long,  in  the  posterior  portion  of  the  capsule  through 
which  the  tibia  protruded.  It  seems  likely  that  the  crucial  ligaments, 
or  at  least  the  posterior  one,  must  also  be  ruptured.  The  muscles 
which  bound  the  popliteal  space  have  been  reported  untorn,  but  widely 
infiltrated  with  blood;  and  in  other  cases  one  or  both  heads  of  the 
gastrocnemius  and  the  popliteus  have  been  torn.  The  semilunar  car- 
tilages may  be  in  part  detached  or  otherwise  injured.  In  a  case  reported 
by  Vast^  a  portion  of  the  tubercle  of  the  tibia  had  been  torn  off  by 
the  strain  upon  the  ligamentum  patellae.  The  popliteal  vessels,  both 
artery  and  vein,  are  sometimes  completely  torn  across,  and  sometimes 
only  the  inner  and  middle  coats  of  the  artery  are  torn,  an  injury  the 
consequences  of  which  may  easily  be  as  serious  as  those  of  complete 
rupture.  This  injury  is  produced  by  the  forcible  stretching  of  the 
vessels  across  the  sharp  posterior  margin  of  the  head  oi  the  tibia. 

The  patella  may  be  drawn  directly  downward  so  as  to  lie  below  its 
normal  position,  or  it  may  be  displaced  outward  to  the  side  of  the  con- 
dyle. In  a  case  reported  by  Fitzgerald'^  the  patella  was  broken  into 
several  pieces,  and  the  joint  was  opened  at  the  end  of  a  fortnight  by 
the  sloughing  of  the  overlying  skin.  The  injury  was  caused  by  the 
fall  of  a  heavy  case  upon  the  front  of  the  knee.  The  joint  suppurated, 
but  the  patient  recovered  without  entire  loss  of  mobility. 

As  complications,  fracture  of  the  femur  above  the  condyles,  Testut,^ 
and  fracture  of  the  tibia  just  below  the  knee,  Adams,^  have  been  re- 
ported ;  also  rupture  of  the  tendon  of  the  quadriceps  femoris,  Walsh- 
man,^  Lossen.'' 

Symptoms.  The  leg  is  usually  hyperextended  upon  the  thigh,  the 
antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  knee  notably  increased,  the  head  of 
the  tibia  placed  behind  its  usual  position,  and,  in  the  complete  disloca- 
tions, also  above  the  level  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  condyles  of  the 
femur.  The  leg  may  also  be  deviated  somewhat  to  either  side,  and 
exceptionally  it  may  be  flexed.  The  head  of  the  tibia  can  be  felt  in 
the  popliteal  space,  and  a  marked  depression  exists  below  the  condyles 
of  the  femur  in  front.  The  patella  may  lie  against  the  front  part  of 
the  under  surface  of  the  condyles,  or  may  be  displaced  to  the  outer 
side,  or  rotated  upon  its  axis.  The  amount  of  shortening  is  slight  in 
the  incomplete  form;  in  the  complete  form  it  may  be  one  or  two  inches. 

Pressure  upon  or  rupture  of  the  popliteal  artery  is  manifested  by 

1  Malgaigne  :  Loc.  eit.,  p.  945.  -  Vast:  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgie,  1877,  p.  688. 

3  Fitzgerald  :  Australian  Medical  Journal.  1882,  p.  554. 

■1  Testut:  Bordeaux  M6dical,  1874.  6  Adams:  Lancet,  1881,  vol.  ii.  p.  1108. 

"  Walshman  :  Quoted  by  Cooper,  loc.  cit.,  p.  190. 

"  Lessen  :  Deutsche  Chirurgie,  Lief.  65,  p.  131. 


756  DISLOCATIONS. 

absence  of  pulsation  in  the  posterior  tibial  and  dorsalis  pedis  arteries, 
and  may  result  in  gangrene  of  the  limb. 

The  diagnosis  is  not  difficult;  and  as  reduction  is  usually  easy  the 
prognosis  in  simple,  uncomplicated  cases  is  good;  but  attention  should 
always  be  paid  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  pulsation  in  the  distal 
branches  of  the  artery,  both  before  and  after  reduction. 

In  some  reported  cases  in  which  the  dislocation  has  remained  unre- 
duced, the  patient  has  had  good  use  of  the  limb.  Two  such  are  the  cases 
of  Baguall-Oakeley^  and  Karewski.^  The  former's  patient  was  a  man, 
seventy  years  old,  who  had  dislocated  his  left  knee  at  the  age  of  nine 
months;  he  had  always  made  full  use  of  the  limb,  and  had  earned  his 
living  as  a  brickmaker.  A  false  joint  had  formed  between  the  femur 
and  tibia,  which  permitted  15  degrees  of  flexion.  The  foot  and  leg 
were  normally  developed;  the  thigh  had  an  abnormal  anterior  curva- 
ture. The  patella  could  not  be  recognized,  and  M^as  thought  to  have 
become  united  with  the  femur.  The  different  prominences  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  femur  were  absolutely  subcutaneous  and  seemed  ready  to 
perforate  the  skin,  but  there  was  no  trace  of  previous  ulceration. 

Karewski's  patient  was  a  servant  girl,  thirty-two  years  old,  whose 
dislocation  had  existed  for  more  than  sixteen  years.  The  right  limb 
presented  a  typical  dislocation  backward,  and  when  viewed  from 
behind  looked  like  a  genu  recurvatum,  while  when  seen  from  in  front 
and  the  side  the  thigh  overhung  the  leg  to  a  certain  extent.  The 
muscles  of  the  calf  were  somewhat  atrophied;  the  nerves  and  vessels 
stretched  above  tibia  like  tense  cords.  The  growth  of  the  bones  had 
been  materially  affected,  the  tibia  being  three  centimetres  shorter  than 
the  other,  and  also  thinner;  while  the  femur  was  lengthened  by  three 
or  four  centimetres.  The  overriding  of  the  tibia  and  femur  was  four 
centimetres.  Flexion  and  extension  were  normal,  both  actively  and 
passively,  and  although  there  was  much  lateral  mobility  the  functions 
of  the  limb  were  admirably  performed.  Pain  was  felt  only  after  excep- 
tional use. 

In  Lossen's  case,  in  which  reduction  was  attempted  at  the  end  of 
six  weeks  and  failed,  the  patient  finally  walked  well;  extension  was 
complete;  flexion  to  a  right  angle.  The  rupture  of  the  external  lat- 
eral ligament  resulted  in  the  production  of  a  genu  varum. 

Treatment.  Reduction,  which  is  usually  easy,  has  been  effected  by 
traction  with  coaptative  pressure  upon  the  adjoining  ends  of  the  femur 
and  tibia  and  flexion  of  the  knee  and  hip.  In  some  cases  flexion  alone 
has  been  sufficient. 

Spence^  successfully  treated  an  irreducible  dislocation  by  open  arthrot- 
omy.  The  patient  was  a  man,  sixty  years  old,  who  had  received  the 
dislocation  March  15,  1876,  two  days  before  admission  to  the  hospital. 
After  a  failure  to  reduce  under  ansesthesia,  continuous  traction  with  a 
weight  of  sixteen  pounds  was  made  for  three  days,  and  then  a  second 
unsuccessful  attempt  was  made.  March  22d,  traction  with  pulleys 
having  also  failed,  the  joint  was  opened  by  a  curved  incision  below  the 

1  Bagnall-Oakeley  :  Lancet,  1882,  vol.  i.  p.  53. 

-  Karewski  :  Arch,  furklin.  Chir.,  1886,  vol.  xxxiii.  p.  525. 

3  Spence:  Lancet,  1876,  vol.  li.  p.  534. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  KNEE.  757 

patella;  it  was  found  filled  with  clots,  the  internal  lateral  ligament 
broken,  and  the  posterior  part  of  the  internal  semilunar  cartilage  dis- 
placed. After  division  of  the  external  lateral  ligament  and  the  ten- 
dons of  the  hamstring  muscles,  the  dislocation  was  easily  reduced. 
The  wound  was  drained  and  dressed  antiseptically,  the  limb  placed  on 
a  long  posterior  splint,  and  continuous  traction  made  with  a  weight  of 
eight  pounds.  As  the  lower  end  of  the  femur  tended  to  project  ante- 
riorly, pressure  was  made  upon  it  in  front.  The  traction  was  main- 
tained until  June  15th,  and  when  the  patient  was  last  seen,  September 
13th,  the  limb  promised  to  be  very  useful. 

In  compound  dislocations,  and  in  those  complicated  by  injury  to  the 
main  vessels  and  nerves,  the  principles  of  treatment  are  the  same  as 
in  dislocations  forward. 

Lateral  Dislocations. 

Lateral  dislocation,  more  rare  than  either  of  the  preceding  varieties, 
may  be  outward  or  inward,  complete  or  incomplete,  simple  or  com- 
pound. The  outward  form  is  more  common  than  the  inward.  The 
term  subluxation  has  been  applied  to  those  cases  in  which  the  displace- 
ment is  slight. 

1.  Outward  Dislocations. 

Of  the  complete  form  of  this  dislocation  Malgaigne  could  find  only 
one  recorded  case,  and  that  a  doubtful  one;  but,  since  the  publication 
of  his  work,  von  Pitha^  has  reported  two  cases  in  which  the  dislocation 
was  nearly,  perhaps  quite,  complete;  Hughes^  has  since  published  a 
third,  and  McKenzie'*  a  fourth.  Von  Pitha's  first  patient  was  a  young 
woman  who,  while  carrying  a  heavy  basket  on  her  back,  suddenly 
doubled  up  under  it.  The  right  tibia  was  so  completely  dislocated 
outward  that  its  entire  upper  articular  surface  stood  out  free,  so  that 
von  Pitha  could  easily  lay  four  fingers  upon  it.  The  skin  was  tightly 
and  smoothly  stretched  over  the  articular  surface,  and  was  continuous 
at  a  sharp  angle  with  that  of  the  side  of  the  thigh;  the  edge  of  the 
tibia  threatened  to  cut  through  the  tense,  thin  skin,  and  in  like  manner 
the  internal  condyle  of  the  femur  projected  abruptly  over  the  leg.  The 
patella  was  displaced  outward,  and  was  placed  obliquely,  almost  trans- 
versely. Reduction  was  extraordinarily  easy.  The  reaction  was  so 
slight  that  the  patient  left  the  hospital  on  the  next  day. 

His  second  patient  was  a  robust  young  man  who  received  his  injury 
by  springing  to  the  sidewalk  from  an  overturning  wagon;  the  symp- 
toms were  similar,  reduction  easy.  Hughes's  and  McKenzie's  cases 
were  also  similar  in  appearance  and  ease  of  reduction.  Hughes's 
patient  died  promptly;  McKenzie's  recovered. 

In  the  incomplete  form  only  a  part  of  the  head  of  the  tibia,  usually 
all  the  outer  half,  projects  beyond  the  side  of  the  external  condyle  of 
the  femur. 

The  commonest  cause  is  outward  flexion  of  the  knee,  abduction,  pro- 
duced by  a  fall  upon  the  foot  or  by  the  pressure  of  a  heavy  weight  upon 

1  Pitha  and  Billroth  :  Chirurgie,  vol.  iv.,  part  2,  B.,  p.  258. 

2  Hughes  :  Lancet,  1880,  vol.  ii.  p.  974.  »  McKenzie :  Canadian  Practitioner,  January,  1893. 


758  DISLOCATIONS. 

the  posterior,  or  by  a  blow  upon  the  outer,  side  of  the  knee;  in  the  lat- 
ter case  the  blow  is  probably  received  upon  the  lower  end  of  the  femur 
and  not  upon  the  tibia.  A  rarer  cause  is  direct  violence  acting  trans- 
versely upon  the  outer  side  of  the  lower  end  of  the  femur  or  the  inner 
side  of  the  head  of  the  tibia  without  causing  lateral  inflection  (Annan- 
dale).  The  mode  of  production  appears  to  be  rupture  of  the  internal 
lateral  and  perhaps  of  the  crucial  ligaments  by  abduction  of  the  leg, 
followed  by  the  lateral  gliding  of  the  articular  surfaces. 

The  only  reports  of  direct  examination  of  the  injured  joint  are  fur- 
nished by  Hargrave'  and  Bonn,  quoted  by  Malgaigue,  and  by  Wells.^ 
Hargrave's  patient  died  on  the  fifty-third  day,  after  suppuration  of  the 
joint;  the  internal  lateral  ligaraeut  was  completely  ruptured,  the  exter- 
nal partly  torn;  the  anterior  crucial  torn  across,  the  posterior  crucial 
and  the  ligaments  of  tbe  patella  intact.  Bonn's  was  an  old  unreduced 
dislocation;  he  says  all  the  ligaments  were  intact  and  that  the  external 
condyle  of  the  femur  rested  upon  the  crest  of  the  tibia.  In  Wells's 
case  a  large  scale  of  bone  was  torn  from  the  inner  side  of  the  internal 
condyle;  the  patient  died  on  the  fourth  day  in  consequence  of  gangrene 
of  the  limb. 

Instead  of  being  directly  outward  the  displacement  may  also  be 
somewhat  backward  or  forward.  When  compound,  the  wound  has 
always  been  on  the  inside.  In  one  compound  case,  Notta,'^  the  pop- 
liteal artery  was  ruptured  and  the  patient  died  after  amputation. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  more  or  less  marked  in  accordance 
with  the  degree  of  the  displacement;  the  internal  condyle  of  the  femur 
projects  more  or  less  markedly  on  the  inner  side,  and  the  outer  part  of 
the  head  of  the  tibia  on  the  outer  side;  and  the  greater  the  displace- 
ment the  more  likely,  according  to  Malgaigue,  is  it  that  the  outer  part 
of  the  tibia  will  be  rotated  backward.  The  displacement  outward  of 
the  patella  shows  corresponding  variations  in  degree;  it  may  be  simply 
inclined,  so  that  its  vertical  axis  is  directed  downward  and  outward, 
or  it  may  be  carried  to  the  outer  side  of  the  external  condyle. 

The  leg  may  be  flexed  or  extended,  and  is  usually  adducted,  but 
may  be  widely  abducted  (Fig.  318);  voluntary  movements  are  gener- 
ally impossible. 

Prognosis.  The  prognosis  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  in  the 
two  preceding  forms;  but  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  a  case  seen  six 
years  after  the  accident  by  Desormeaux  (quoted  by  Spillmann)  the  leg 
was  permanently  abducted  45  degrees,  presumably  the  consequence  of 
failure  of  repair  of  the  internal  lateral  ligament.  In  another,  reported 
by  Morgan,^  in  which  the  dislocation  had  remained  unreduced  for  three 
and  a  half  years,  the  limb  could  be  flexed  to  a  right  angle  but  could 
not  be  voluntarily  extended,  so  that  the  patient  fell  whenever  the  leg 
became  at  all  bent  while  he  was  standing  upon  it. 

Treatment.  Reduction,  generally  very  easy,  is  effected  by  traction 
and  direct  coaptative  pressure  upon  the  ends  of  the  bones.     It  is  very 

1  Hargrave:  Dublin  Quarterly  Journal  Med.  Sci.,  1850,  vol.  ix.  p.  473. 
"  Wells :  American  Journal  of  the  Bledical  Sciences,  1832,  vol.  x.  p.  25. 
3  Notta  :  Annales  Med.  du  Calvados,  187().  quoted  by  Poinsot. 
*  Morgan :  Lancet,  182-5-26,  vol.  ix.  p.  843. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  KNEE. 


759 


important  that  the  limb  should  be  immobilized  for  a  long  time  after 
reduction  in  order  that  the  torn  ligaments  may  solidly  reunite.  Prob- 
ably it  would  be  well  to  keep  the  limb  for  three  or  four  months  in  a 
firm  dressing  which  would  keep  it  extended  and  prevent  lateral  bend- 
ing. Massage  and  passive  motion  might  be  systematically  employed 
during  much  of  this  time  if  loss  of  normal  mobility  were  feared. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Braun^  of  incomplete  outward  dislocation 
which  proved  irreducible  arthrotomy  was  done.  The  patient  was  a 
man  forty -four  years  old;  the  leg  was  rotated  inward  and  abducted  at 


Fig.  318. 


UO't''- 


Robert's  case  of  dislocation  of  the  knee  outward,  with  abduction. 

an  angle  of  145  degrees;  the  internal  condyle  of  the  femur  was  promi- 
nent, and  a  small  movable  piece  of  bone  could  be  felt  below  its  inner 
side.  ''A  curved  incision  eight  centimetres  long  was  made  parallel  to 
the  internal  condyle."  The  small  piece  of  bone  proved  to  be  the 
detached  internal  tuberosity.  The  rent  in  the  capsule  was  closely 
filled  by  the  internal  condyle;  it  was  slightly  enlarged  with  the  knife, 
and  then  reduction  was  easily  made.  The  patient  made  a  slow  recov- 
ery; the  joint  remained  stiff. 

The  treatment  of  compound  dislocations  and  of  those  in  which  the 
artery  has  been  torn  is  the  same  as  in  forward  dislocations  (q.  v.). 

2.  Inward  Dislocations. 

These  also  may  be  complete  or  incomplete,  simple  or  compound. 
Of  the  complete  form  there  are  only  two  cases  on  record,  Miller  and 
Hoffmann,^  and  Galli,  both  quoted  by  Malgaigne.  The  first  was  a 
man  twenty-eight  years  old  who  while  getting  into  a  carriage  caught 
his  leg  between  the  spokes  of  the  wheel  and  could  not  free  it  before 
the  horses  started.  The  femur  was  completely  separated  from  the  tibia 
and  projected  outward  and  downward,  the  external  condyle  presenting 
through  a  wound  in  the  skin  three  inches  long.     Through  this  wound 


1  Braun  :  Deutsche  med.  Wochenschrift,  1882,  p.  291. 

2  Miller  and  Hoffmann  :  London  Medical  Repository,  1825,  p.  346. 


760  DISLOCATIONS, 

the  joint  and  the  uninjured  popliteal  artery  could  be  seen.  Reduction 
was  made  at  once  without  difficulty;  recovery. 

Galli's  patient,  a  very  muscular  young  man,  was  thrown  from  a 
horse,  striking  upon  the  right  foot  with  the  limb  abducted.  The  lower 
end  of  the  femur  had  almost  entirely  passed  through  the  soft  parts  on 
the  outer  side;  the  ligamentum  patellse  was  ruptured.  Reduction  was 
made  and  the  patient  recovered. 

The  causes  of  the  incomplete  form  are  similar  to  those  of  the  out- 
ward dislocations:  lateral  flexion  of  the  knee  or  a  blow  upon  the  outer 
side  of  the  tibia  or  on  the  inner  side  of  the  condyle  of  the  femur. 

In  a  case  quoted  from  Cooper  by  Malgaigne^  in  which  there  was  also 
rotation  inward  of  the  tibia,  the  soft  parts  covering  the  external  con- 
dyle of  the  femur  behind  and  externally  had  been  ruptured.  The 
limb  was  amputated,  and  dissection  showed  a  large  rent  in  the  vastus 
externus  immediately  above  its  insertion  upon  the  patella;  posteriorly 
the  capsule  and  gastrocnemius  were  torn;  the  lateral  and  crucial  liga- 
ments were  intact. 

The  symptoms  of  the  incomplete  form  are  the  projection  of  the  head 
of  the  tibia  on  the  inner  side  and  of  the  external  condyle  of  the  femur 
on  the  outer  side.  The  leg  may  be  inclined  outward  or  inward,  rotated 
inward,  and  more  or  less  flexed. 

Reduction  appears  always  to  have  been  effected  without  much  diffi- 
culty by  traction  and  coaptative  pressure;  and  the  only  special  feature 
in  the  prognosis  arises  from  the  rupture  of  the  internal  lateral  ligament, 
for  if  its  repair  is  not  thorough,  or  if  the  limb  is  prematurely  used, 
the  leg  tends  to  deviate  outward  (knock-knee)  under  the  weight  of  the 
body.  It  would,  therefore,  be  advisable  to  support  the  joint  for  a  long 
time  by  means  of  a  brace. 

Antero-lateral  Dislocations, 

Antero-lateral  dislocations  constituted  in  Malgaigue's  classification 
a  separate  class  of  very  rare  occurrence,  the  tibia  being  displaced  for- 
ward and  outward.  Of  the  latter  form  he  found  only  one  recorded 
example  and  that  a  doubtful  one.  In  the  very  rare  examples  of  dis- 
location forward  and  inward  no  special  features  appear;  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  the  equally  rare  dislocations  backward  and  outward. 
They  may,  therefore,  be  treated  as  belonging  to  the  forward  and  back- 
ward dislocations  respectively. 

Dislocations  by  Rotation. 

In  this  form  the  dislocation  is  characterized  by  a  rotation  of  the  leg 
about  its  longitudinal  axis  or  about  a  parallel  axis  passing  through  the 
centre  of  one  of  the  condylar  surfaces  of  the  tibia;  in  the  former  case 
both  condylar  surfaces  are  displaced  from  their  corresponding  con- 
dyles, and  the  dislocation  is  said  to  be  complete;  in  the  latter  only  one 
of  them  is  thus  displaced,  and  the  dislocation  is  said  to  be  incomplete. 
The  descriptive  terms  outward  and  inward  are  used,  as  in  normal  rota- 
tion of  the  leg,  according  to  the  direction  in  which  the  toes  are  turned. 

^  Cooper  :  Quoted  by  Malgaigne,  loc.  cit.,  p.  960. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  KNEE.  761 


OuTvv^ARD  Rotation. 


The  first  recorded  case  is  one  reported  by  Dabreuil  and  Martelliere/ 
at  the  time  internes  in  Malgaigne's  service.  The  patient  was  a  woman, 
who  while  walking  in  the  street  was  struck  upon  the  back  of  the  leg 
by  the  end  of  a  ladder  carried  upon  a  cart.  She  was  knocked  down 
by  the  blow,  her  foot  caught  between  the  rounds  of  the  ladder,  and  she 
was  dragged  a  few  feet.  When  brought  to  the  hospital,  the  leg  was  com- 
pletely extended  and  rotated  outward,  so  that  the  internal  tuberosity 
was  in  front,  below  the  trochlea  of  the  femur,  the  external  tuberosity 
and  the  head  of  the  fibula  behind  in  the  intercondylar  notch.  The 
patella  lay  upon  the  outer  side  of  the  external  condyle.  There  was 
also  a  compound  fracture  of  both  bones  of  the  leg  in  the  middle 
third.  Reduction  was  easily  made  two  hours  after  the  accident  by 
slight  traction  upon  the  upper  portion  of  the  leg  followed  by  inward 
rotation.  Recovery  took  place,  but  the  joint  was  not  firm,  and  nine- 
teen months  after  the  accident  the  patient  could  not  take  a  step  with- 
out crutches. 

By  experiment  upon  tlie  cadaver  the  reporters  found  they  could 
reproduce  the  dislocation  by  forcible  outward  rotation  of  the  leg  con- 
tinued until  the  ligaments  were  felt  to  yield.  The  lateral  ligaments 
were  then  found  to  be  ruptured  or  torn  from  one  or  the  other  insertion; 
the  capsule,  the  fascia  on  the  outer  side,  and  some  muscular  bundles 
were  torn,  the  semilunar  cartilages  loosened  or  displaced.  The  crucial 
ligaments  were  not  torn,  but  lay  parallel  with  each  other  in  the  trans- 
verse vertical  plane  passing  through  their  upper  insertions.  In  one 
experiment  the  tendon  of  the  biceps  was  torn  away  from  the  head  of 
the  fibula.  The  tendon  of  the  semi-membranosus  was  wrapped  under 
the  internal  condyle  and  prevented  full  extension  of  the  leg. 

Sulzenbacher"  reported  another  case  and  repeated  and  confirmed 
these  experiments.  His  patient  was  a  young  Italian  laborer,  and  the 
dislocation  was  caused  by  forcible  outward  rotation  of  the  leg  followed 
by  hyperexteusion  of  the  knee.  The  leg  was  extended,  neither 
abducted  nor  adducted,  and  so  far  rotated  outward  that  as  the  patient 
lay  on  his  back  the  outer  border  of  the  foot  rested  on  the  bed.  Beside 
the  rotation  there  was  displacement  backward  and  outward  of  the 
upper  end  of  the  tibia.  Notwithstanding  the  swelling  there  was  a 
distinct  projection  of  the  condyles,  and  the  soft  parts  below  them  were 
deeply  depressible.  Below  the  internal  condyle  was  a  movable  piece 
of  bone  as  large  as  a  beau.  The  upper  end  of  the  tibia  could  be  felt 
in  the  hollow  of  the  knee  projecting  backward  and  outward  and  so 
rotated  that  the  outer  surface  and  the  head  of  the  fibula  lay  furthest 
back  and  the  outer  articular  surface  could  be  felt  through  the  soft 
parts.  The  inner  articular  surface  lay  in  the  depths  of  the  popliteal 
fossa,  the  patella  laterally  so  that  it  rested  snugly  on  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  external  condyle,  its  anterior  surface  being  directed  outward. 
There  was  one  inch  shortening,  and  the  antero-posterior  diameter  of 
the  joint  was  notably  increased. 

1  Dubreuil  and  Martellifere  :  Arch.  g6n.  de  M6d.,  1852,  vol.  xxx.  pp.  150  and  288. 
"  Sulzenbacher  :  Wiener  med.  Presse,  1880,  vol.  xxi.  p.  272. 


762  DISLOCATIONS. 

Redaction  was  easily  effected  by  flexing  the  leg  a  little,  then  rotating 
it  inward  and  pressing  the  head  forward,  and  finally  extending. 

There  was  a  tendency  during  the  first  fortnight  to  subluxation  back- 
ward and  outward;  a  gypsum  dressing  was  worn  during  the  second 
fortDight,  and  on  its  removal  the  tendency  had  ceased.  At  the  end  of 
six  weeks  the  patient  could  walk  with  a  cane. 

The  case  differs  from  the  preceding  one  in  the  additional  backward 
and  outward  displacement  of  the  rotated  leg. 

Experimenting  on  the  cadaver,  Sulzenbacher  found  that  by  rotating 
the  leg  outward  45  degrees  he  got  an  incomplete  dislocation,  accompa- 
nied by  the  appearance  of  a  small  fragment  of  bone  under  the  internal 
condyle  similar  to  that  observed  in  his  case,  and  that  then  by  hyper- 
extension  he  could  make  the  dislocation  complete  and  exactly  like  that 
of  his  patient.  The  lesions  found  on  dissection  differed  from  those 
noted  by  Dubreuil  and  Martelliere  in  this,  that  the  crucial  ligaments 
were  ruptured  and  the  external  lateral  ligament  untorn.  The  small 
movable  piece  of  bone  proved  to  be  the  part  of  the  internal  condyle 
to  which  the  internal  lateral  ligament  was  attached. 

In  a  case  reported  by  Boursier^  still  another  variety  is  shown,  the 
rotation  taking  place  about  the  internal  condyle  as  a  centre.  The 
patient,  while  standing  with  the  outer  side  of  his  right  leg  resting 
against  the  cross-bar  of  a  pair  of  skids  by  which  he  was  unloading  a 
large  cask,  was  overthrown  by  the  rapid  descent  of  the  cask  which 
struck  against  the  inner  side  of  the  right  knee.  The  pain  was  very 
severe,  and  when  raised  by  his  companions  he  was  unable  to  stand. 
The  knee  appeared  a  little  enlarged  transversely;  the  external  condyle 
overlapped  the  corresponding  articular  surface  of  the  tibia,  forming  a 
rather  large,  hard,  rounded  prominence.  The  patella,  firmly  fixed  upon 
this  condyle,  was  placed  obliquely,  its  external  border  tending  to  turn 
forward.  The  relations  of  the  internal  condyle  and  inner  surface  of 
the  tibia  were  normal.  Palpation  was  painful  along  the  interarticular 
line,  especially  at  the  outer  side.  Voluntary  movement  was  impossible. 
Passively,  flexion  could  be  made  nearly  to  a  right  angle,  but  was  very 
painful;  the  limb  could  not  be  completely  extended,  and  there  was  no 
rotation.  No  sign  of  fracture.  Peduction  was  easily  made  under 
anaesthesia  by  slight  traction  and  inward  rotation  of  the  leg.  The 
patient  recovered  completely. 

Another  case  has  been  reported  by  Mazel,^  and  Malgaigne  quotes 
the  accounts  of  two  specimens  of  old  unreduced  dislocations  given  by 
Godman  and  Petrequin.  Of  the  former  it  is  only  said  that  '^  the  leg 
has  undergone  complete  outward  rotation,  so  that  the  foot  points 
directly  outward,  the  heel  corresponding  to  the  hollow  of  the  other 
foot,  and  the  articulation  of  the  knee  crossing  its  natural  position  at 
right  angles." 

Still  another  variety,  displacement  forward  of  the  inner  side  of  the 
head,  the  outer  remaining  in  place,  has  been  recently  reported  by 
H^naff.^     ^^A  sailor,  thirty-three  years  old,  while  squatting  with  his 

^  Boursier :  Journ.  de  M6d.  de  Bordeaux,  1882-83,  vol.  xii.  p.  225,  quoted  by  Poinsot. 

2  Mazel :  Montpellier  Medical,  1863,  vol.  x.  p.  76.  s  HSnaflf:  Thfese  de  Paris,  1883,  No.  277. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  KNEE.  763 

heels  together  aud  knees  abducted  and  flexed,  was  struck  upon  the 
inner  side  of  the  head  of  the  left  tibia  by  an  iron  ring  through  which 
a  hawser  had  begun  to  run  rapidly.  When  brought  to  the  hospital 
the  leg  was  partly  flexed  and  not  deviated  to  either  side;  flexion  and 
extension  were  limited,  abnormal  lateral  movements  very  free.  The 
relations  of  the  external  condyle  and  tibia  were  unchanged;  the  inner 
side  of  the  head  of  the  tibia  was  displaced  forward,  and  the  internal 
condyle  was  prominent  posteriorly.  The  patella  was  inclined  so  that 
its  anterior  face  looked  forward  and  inward,  its  inner  border  rested  on 
the  inner  condylar  surface  of  the  tibia,  and  its  outer  border  and  point 
raised  the  skin,  the  point  being  nearly  in  the  median  line.  Reduction 
was  easily  effected  by  traction  and  internal  rotation,  and  the  patient 
made  a  complete  recovery." 

Inwaed  Rotation. 

Of  this  the  only  recorded  instance  is  one  reported  by  Paris,  and 
quoted  by  Malgaigne.  ''  The  internal  condyle  of  the  tibia  had  slipped 
behind  the  corresponding  condyle  of  the  femur.  The  limb  was  short- 
ened five  or  six  centimetres,  and  the  leg  and  thigh  formed  an  arc  of  a 
circle."  Malgaigne  supposes  this  to  have  been  an  incomplete  disloca- 
tion by  rotation  inward,  and  explains  the  alleged  shortening  as  an 
error  of  observation.  He  mentions  in  connection  with  it  a  singular 
displacement  which  he  had  himself  seen,  and  which  he  thought 
belonged  to  this  class  more  than  to  any  other.  When  seen  by  him  it 
had  existed  five  years.  Although  the  patient  limped,  he  flexed  and 
extended  the  leg  quite  freely.  In  extension  the  internal  condyle  pro- 
jected very  slightly  forward  and  inward,  and  the  relations  of  the  exter- 
nal condyle  were  normal.  In  marked  flexion  the  internal  condyle 
projected  considerably  forward  and  inward,  the  inward  projection 
being  more  than  two  centimetres,  and  the  external  condyle  projected 
slightly  forward. 

Dislocation  of  the  Semilunar  Cartilages. 

^^Subluxation  of  the  Knee."     Hey's  ''Internal  Derange- 
ment OF  THE  Knee." 

A  certain  group  of  symptoms  at  the  knee,  occasioned  usually  by 
slight  violence,  such  as  the  twisting  of  the  leg,  or  marked  flexion  of 
the  joint,  and  having  a  decided  tendency  to  recur,  to  which  attention 
was  first  permanently  called  by  Hey^  nearly  one  hundred  years  ago, 
have  only  of  late  been  clearly  connected  with  displacement  of  a  semi- 
lunar cartilage  as  the  cause.  In  many  cases  the  symptoms  are  identical 
with  those  caused  by  a  floating  cartilage  in  the  joint,  aud  many  of  the 
reported  cases,  especially  the  earlier  ones,  were  probably  of  this  char- 
acter. Hey  reported  five  cases,  and  said  he  had  seen  many  others; 
the  difficulty  always  occurred  suddenly,  sometimes  without  recognizable 
cause  during  ordinary  use  of  the  limb,  the  joint  becoming  '^  locked" 

Hey  :  Observations  in  Surgery,  Am.  ed.,  1805,  p.  208. 


764  DISLOCATIONS. 

in  the  position  of  slight  flexion,  with  more  or  less  pain,  the  patient 
being  unable  to  bring  his  heel  to  the  ground  and  walking  on  the  toes, 
but  the  joint  could  always  be  freely  mov^ed  passively.  It  was  always 
relieved  by  gradual  passive  extension  of  the  limb  followed  by  sudden 
full  flexion. 

In  1731  Bassius  (quoted  by  Malgaigne)  reported  the  first  case,  but 
it  differs  notably  from  all  that  have  since  been  reported,  for  the  exter- 
nal semilunar  cartilage  had  become  much  hypertrophied  in  conse- 
quence of  an  arthritis,  and  formed  a  projection  on  the  outer  side  as 
large  as  the  thumb;  it  could  be  pressed  into  place  with  crepitus,  and 
became  displaced  when  the  pressure  was  removed. 

In  some  cases  a  distinct  projection  had  been  noticed  in  front,  formed 
by  one  or  the  other  cartilage,  which  could  be  made  to  disappear  by 
pressure  or  by  flexing  and  extending  the  joint,  and  with  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  projection  the  symptoms  ceased.  It  was  upon  these  few 
cases  of  recognizable  projection  and  upon  the  sensation  sometimes  felt 
of  a  distinct  slipping  or  jar  in  the  joint  while  it  is  moved,  that  the 
theory  of  displacement  of  the  cartilage  rested,  it  being  supposed  that  it 
slipped  forward  upon  the  head  of  the  tibia  so  that  its  thicker  posterior 
margin  lay  between  the  condyle  and  tibia  at  or  in  front  of  the  point 
where  they  come  most  nearly  into  contact  or  actually  touch. 

The  only  pathological  data  came  from  chance  examination  of  a  few 
knees  without  history;  thus  in  two  specimens  described  by  Reid^  and 
Godlee,^  the  rupture  of  the  attachments  had  taken  place  along  the 
periphery  of  the  cartilage,  and  it  had  lodged  vertically  in  the  inter- 
condylar notch  alongside  the  spine  of  the  tibia  and  the  posterior  crucial 
ligament.  In  each  the  opposing  articular  cartilage  on  the  condyle  and 
tibia  showed  some  roughening.  lieid's  patient  died  in  the  hospital, 
and  during  his  stay  there  had  made  no  complaint  of  the  knee,  and  had 
not  been  observed  to  limp. 

In  another,  Fergusson  (quoted  by  Marsh)  found  in  a  dissecting- 
room  subject  ''  that  one  of  the  semilunar  cartilages  had  been  torn  from 
the  tibia  throughout  its  whole  length,  except  at  its  ends,  so  that  in 
flexion  and  extension  it  sometimes  slipped  behind  the  articular  sur- 
faces. The  cartilage  was  flattened  in  its  outer  margin,  and  when  it 
passed  behind  the  condyle  of  the  femur,  seemed  to  fit  to  the  articular 
surfaces  as  accurately  as  the  internal  cavity  does  in  the  natural  condi- 
tion of  the  parts." 

Marsh^  gives  a  fourth  case  :  '^^  In  a  subject  lately  in  the  dissecting- 
room  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  a  considerable  piece  had  become 
partially  detached  from  the  rim  of  the  internal  cartilage,  and  was  found 
standing  up  like  a  tongue,  so  that  it  would  have  had  the  effect,  when 
it  was  nipped  between  the  bones  (as  it  was  in  certain  positions  of  the 
joint),  of  locking  the  knee.  A  deep  groove  on  the  cartilaginous  edge 
of  the  femur  had  been  formed  by  long  pressure,  for  its  accommodation." 

Since  1881,  when  Nicoladoni*  exposing  what  he  thought  to  be  a 
floating  cartilage  found  it  was  the  displaced  meniscus,  and  1885,  when 

1  Reid  :  Edinburgh  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  1831,  vol.  xlii.  p.  377. 

2  Godlee  :  Transactions  of  the  Pathological  Society  of  Loudon,  1879-80,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  240. 

3  Marsh  :  Diseases  of  Joints,  p.  199. 

*  Xicoladoni :  Arch,  fiir  klin.  Chir.,  1881-2,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  C67. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  KNEE.  765 

Annandale^  reported  four  cases  diagnosticated  as  displacement  and 
formally  treated  by  arthrotomy,  the  pathology  of  the  condition  has 
been  made  clear  by  a  number  of  direct  examinations  through  incisions. 
The  meniscus  most  frequently  displaced  is  the  internal.  The  detach- 
ment may  be  of  the  anterior  end  or  of  a  variable  length  of  the  periphery, 
or  of  a  piece  from  the  free  border  of  the  cartilage.  The  meniscus 
may  be  displaced  into  the  intercondyloid  notch,  or  backward  into  the 
joint,  or  slightly  forward  in  front,  or  the  detached  end  may  escape  for- 
ward or  backward  and  to  the  side.  Partial  detachment  of  a  piece  from 
the  upper  border  seems  to  be  not  infrequent;  one  such  case  is  quoted 
above;  CrofV  reports  another;  I  have  seen  one. 

Shaffer^  thinks  the  ligamentum  patella?  is  elongated  in  most  cases; 
I  have  not  been  able  to  verify  the  observation. 

Symptoms.  In  most  of  the  cases  the  symptoms  are  like  those  occa- 
sioned by  a  floating  cartilage  ;  the  patient  feels  that  the  knee  has 
suddenly  become  locked,  with  more  or  less  pain  and  loss  of  power 
over  the  limb,  which  he  can  neither  flex  nor  extend.  Then,  after  a 
time,  and  as  the  result  of  manipulation  of  the  joint  or  of  the  limb, 
he  feels  that  all  is  right  again,  and  walks  as  well  as  before.  In 
others  the  joint  has  remained  stiff  and  slightly  flexed  for  weeks, 
or  even  years  (Smith's^),  and  has  then  been  cured  by  pressure  with 
the  thumb  upon  the  projecting  semilunar  cartilage,  while  the  limb 
was  repeatedly  flexed  and  extended.  In  some  cases  the  cartilage, 
usually  the  internal,  can  be  distinctly  felt  to  project  in  front;  in  others 
it  appears  to  be  absent,  and  in  others  again  there  is  no  recognizable 
change. 

Le  Fort,^  himself  the  subject  of  the  affection,  felt  that  something 
became  displaced  forward  in  the  knee  whenever  the  limb  was  mark- 
edly flexed,  and  returned  to  its  place  with  a  distinct  snap  and  with  pain 
when  the  limb  was  straightened.  On  one  occasion  the  displacement 
appeared  to  be  backward;  the  pain  in  straightening  the  limb  was  very 
severe  and  lasted  for  a  week. 

In  a  case  seen  by  Agnew,^  a  lady,  while  playing  with  a  kitten  on  the 
floor,  suddenly  found  both  knees  had  become  locked,  so  that  she  was 
unable  to  rise. 

As  in  these  last  instances,  flexion  of  the  knee  beyond  a  certain  point 
is,  in  some  cases,  sure  to  produce  the  condition,  and  this  is  then 
relieved  by  extension;  but  in  most  the  occurrence  is  not  so  uniform  in 
its  mode  of  production,  and  the  commonest  cause  appears  to  be  out- 
ward rotation  of  the  leg  with  slight  flexion. 

Treatment.  Treatment  has  almost  always  yielded  good  results,  both 
in  relieving  the  condition  and  in  preventing  recurrence.  The  manipu- 
lations which  have  proved  most  efficient  in  the  common  form,  those 
■due  to  a  twist  or  turn  of  the  leg,  have  been  the  ones  recommended  by 
Hey,  extension  as  far  as  is  possible  without  much  pain,  and  then  sud- 
den forcible  flexion.   When  the  cartilage  can  be  felt  to  project  pressure 

1  Annandale :  British  Medical  Journal,  1885,  vol.  i.  p.  779,  and  1887,  vol.  i.  p.  319. 

-  Croft:  British  Medical  Journal,  March  19,  1888. 

3  Shaffer :  Annals  of  Surs;ery,  October.  1898. 

*  Smith  :  Transactions  of  the  Clinical  Society  of  London,  1884,  vol.  xvii.  p.  12,3. 

5  Le  Fort:  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgie,  1879,  p.  578.  o  Agnew  :  Surgery,  vol.  ii.  p.  114. 


Clamp  to  prevent  displacement  of  a  semi- 


766  DISLOCATIONS. 

upon  it  should  be  conjointly  employed.    SmitV  insists  upon  the  neces- 
sity of  repeating  the  reduction  daily  for  several  weeks. 

The  after-treatment  may  require  permanent  pressure  by  a  pad  at  the 
point  at  which  the  cartilage  tends  to  protrude,  or  the  wearing  of  a 
brace  that  will  limit  the  movements  of  the  joint.  Marsh,  who  has 
treated  many  cases,  recommends  a  clamp  (Fig.  319)  ^'  which  consists 
of  a  steel  band  passing  across  the  back  of  the  joint,  and  ending  later- 
ally in  two  plates,  which  clasp  the  joint  and  skirt  the  edges  of  the 

patella,  a  pad  being  placed  beneath 
^^°-  ^^^-  the  plate,  should  either  of  the  semi- 

■ ^^^T""""^— N  lunar  cartilages  be  felt  to  project.'^ 

%^  ^^^:::^^^\  Prolonged    immobilization   of   the 

^^    \\      //\-  limb  in  a  fixed  dressing  has  been 

\\  ^  /  /^         ^\         used  in   a   number  of    cases  and 
\V~V/  ^"     seemed  to  diminish   the  tendency 

I  jf  to  recurrence. 

duj  Operative  measures  to  effect  a 

^^^^Ui  radical  cure  have  been  resorted  to 

'^■^^^^^^"""'^ ^^^>y%  in  a  considerable  number  of  cases; 

^fe  the  object  has  been  either  to  remove 

'^%vx  the  displaced  cartilage  or  to  restore 

it  to  place  and  secure  it  there  by 
lunai^cartnage!""  "'  -•'^^^  suturcs.  The  reported  results  have 
been  uniformly  good,  the  removal 
of  the  meniscus  appearing  to  create  no  functional  difficulty.  A  longi- 
tudinal incision  on  the  antero-lateral  aspect,  or  a  transverse  one  at  the 
articular  line  has  been  employed.  Barker'^  in  four  of  six  cases  found 
the  meniscus  hidden  in  the  intercondyloid  notch,  drew  it  out  with  a 
hook,  sutured  it  in  place,  and  got  a  good  result,  as  he  did  also  in  the 
other  two  by  fixation. 

Congenital  Dislocations. 

Excluding  a  few  cases  in  which  various  malformations  of  the  knee 
have  been  found  in  foetal  monstrosities  showing  many  other  abnormali- 
ties, and  one  or  two  doubtful  cases,  the  reported  cases  of  congenital  dis- 
location are  now  nearly  forty  in  number f  in  22  the  dislocation  was 
unilateral,  backward  in  2,  forward  in  20  with  hyperextension  of  the 
leg  upon  the  thigh,  frequently  so  extreme  that  the  foot  lay  at  the  groin. 
Of  the  15  bilateral  dislocations  11  were  forward,  2  backward,  2  inward; 
6  of  the  cases  were  stillborn,  and  many  showed  other  defects  of  devel- 
opment. 

In  a  few  cases  there  is  mention  of  a  blow  or  fall  received  by  the 
mother  while  carrying  the  child,  but  it  cannot  be  maintained  that  such 
a  cause  is  in  any  case  clear.  The  facility  with  which  the  displacement 
in  the  unilateral  cases  could  always  be  reduced,  the  normal  shape  of 
the  bones,  and  the  prompt  establishment  of  the  functions  of  the  limb 

1  Smith  :  Lancet,  June  13,  1891.  "-  Barker:  Lancet,  September  18,  1897. 

3  In  addition  to  the  bibliography  given  in  the  1st  edition  see  Joachimsthal,  in  Berlin,  klin.  Woch., 
October  21, 1889,  p.  923,  4  cases,  and  New  York  Medical  Journal,  March  2, 1889,  6  cases. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  KNEE. 


767 


point  toward  an  accidental  mechanical  cause;  probably,  in  the  mov^e- 
ments  of  the  foetus  the  leg  is  extended  and  becomes  engaged  in  such  a 
position  that  it  cannot  be  flexed,  and  then  by  the  pressure  of  the  wall 
of  the  uterus  hyperextension  is  effected.  Hyperextension  in  conse- 
quence of  unopposed  contraction  of  the  quadriceps  can  hardly  be 
supposed,  for  the  flexors  have  not  been  found  paralyzed.  In  Hamil- 
ton's case  of  double  backward  dislocation  the  flexors  were  con- 
tracted, and  their  tendons  had  to  be  divided  before  the  legs  could  be 
straightened. 

In  Friedleben's  (bilateral)  the  articular  surface  of  the  tibia  rested 
against  the  front  of  the  lower  end  of  the  femur;  the  condyles  of  the 
femur  and  the  head  of  the  tibia  were  normally  developed,  the  patella 
normally  attached,  the  capsule  loose  and  large. 

In  Albert's,  a  new-born  child,  both  legs  were  in  dorsal  flexion  at  a 
right  angle.  The  articular  surface  of  the  femur  varied  from  the  nor- 
mal.     The  upper  part  of  the  synovial  sac  and  the  ligamentum  alare 


Fig.  320. 


Congenital  dislocation  of  the  knee. 


were  lacking.  The  inner  semilunar  cartilage  was  only  a  narrow  stri^D, 
the  outer  one  was  well  developed;  the  crucial  ligaments  were  very 
broad  and  long,  the  inner  one  being  inserted  further  inward  on  the 
tibia  than  normal;  on  slight  outward  rotation  of  the  leg  the  two  crucial 
ligaments  became  parallel  to  each  other.  The  popliteal  vessels  and 
nerves  lay  behind  the  external  condyle. 

The  attitude  of  the  limb  at  birth,  in  the  forward  dislocations,  was 
hyperextension  to  or  beyond  a  right  angle,  sometimes  so  extreme  that 
the  front  of  the  leg  was  actually  in  contact  with  the  front  of  the  thigh; 
usually  there  was  no  deviation  of  the  leg  to  either  side.  It  was  always 
freely  movable,  could  be  brought  down  to  the  position  of  straight  exten- 


768  DISLOCATIONS. 

sion  by  moderate  force,  and  in  most  cases  could  even  be  flexed  nearly 
or  quite  as  far  as  usual;  on  removal  of  the  pressure  the  limb  resumed 
the  position  of  hyperextension.  While  the  joint  was  dislocated  the 
condyles  of  the  femur  projected  at  the  back  of  the  popliteal  space,  the 
head  of  the  tibia  lying  against  their  anterior  surface,  and  the  patella 
situated  well  up  on  the  thigh.  In  several  cases  the  skin  on  the  front 
of  the  knee  was  thrown  into  transverse  folds,  in  the  grooves  between 
which  sebaceous  matter  had  sometimes  collected.  Nothing  in  any  case 
indicated  that  the  dislocation  was  recent  and  traumatic,  and  the  experi- 
ments made  by  Hibon  upon  the  bodies  of  newborn  and  stillborn  chil- 
dren show  that  in  a  similar  forcible  dislocation,  even  by  a  force  acting 
continuously  for  several  hours,  detachment  of  one  or  both  epiphyses 
always  occurred,  with,  however,  but  slight  separation  and  not  always 
with  rupture  of  the  periosteum.  In  the  forcible  straightening  of  the 
leg  the  quadriceps  became  tense,  and  in  a  few  cases  this  tension  pre- 
vented further  flexion  of  the  straightened  limb. 

The  results  of  treatment  were  almost  always  very  good,  the  limb 
showing  a  complete  restoration  of  form  and  function  after  a  few  weeks; 
but  in  two  cases  the  result  was  not  entirely  satisfactory.  Six  weeks 
after  birth  the  leg  in  Perier's  case  showed  exaggerated  extension  and 
outward  rotation;  the  quadriceps  was  manifestly  retracted,  and  showed 
as  a  tense  cord  whenever  the  attempt  was  made  even  slightly  to  flex 
the  leg.  In  the  hope  of  an  ultimate  return  to  the  normal  condition, 
Gueniot,  who  then  had  charge  of  the  case,  limited  treatment  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  extended  position  and  to  slight  passive  flexion  and 
traction  repeated  two  or  three  times  daily.  In  the  other  case,  Maas, 
the  limb  when  first  seen  was  in  anterior  flexion  at  a  right  angle;  reduc- 
tion was  easily  made,  and  the  limb  could  then  be  normally  flexed.  It 
was  placed  in  a  plaster-of-Paris  dressing  for  six  weeks,  and  as  the  ten- 
dency to  recurrence  had  not  then  entirely  disappeared  the  dressing  was 
renewed  for  a  tiuie,  and  afterward  a  leather  knee-cap  was  worn.  In 
its  second  year  the  child  walked  for  a  time  without  support,  but  at  the 
time  of  the  report,  when  it  was  two  and  a  half  years  old,  there  was 
still  a  tendency  to  anterior  flexion  and  abduction,  and  a  brace  was  con- 
stantly worn. 

Spontaneous  or  Pathological  Dislocations. 

These  are  very  frequent  at  the  knee,  mainly  as  the  result  of  chronic 
disease  involving  the  ligaments  and  the  bones  of  the  joint,  and  of  pro- 
longed maintenance  of  the  partly  flexed  position.  There  are  also 
instances  on  record  of  sudden  dislocation  due  to  muscular  contraction 
during  an  acute  arthritis,  and  quite  a  number  of  the  class  to  which 
Volkmann  gave  the  name  defoi'mations-luxationen,  or  dislocations  by 
deformity,  those  in  which  the  shape  of  the  articular  ends  of  the  bones 
has  been  greatly  changed  without  suppuration,  as  in  arthritis  defor- 
mans and  Charcot's  disease. 

The  principal  displacements  are  backward  and  backward  and  out- 
ward, usually  combined  with  outward  rotation  of  the  leg.  As  a  great 
exception  dislocation  forward  has  occasionally  been  observed. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  KNEE.  769 

Ullmau^  reports  two  cases  of  bilateral  subluxation  inward  gradually 
produced  by  swinging  the  body  from  side  to  side  while  at  work. 

Examples  of  dislocation  due  to  the  prolonged  action  of  the  flexor 
muscles,  the  knee  being  long  held  partly  flexed  because  of  disease  at 
some  point  in  the  thigh,  are  not  very  uncommon,  and  in  young  people 
its  effect  is  intensified  by  the  exaggerated  growth  of  the  femoral  con- 
dyles downward  by  which  the  lateral  ligaments  become  too  short  to 
permit  the  tibia  to  return  to  its  place.  This  last-mentioned  change 
was  first  pointed  out  by  Volkmann,  in  1874,  and  deserves  to  be  con- 
stantly borne  in  mind,  for  if  the  attempt  is  made  forcibly  to  straighten 
such  a  limb  the  tibia  may  turn  upon  its  anterior  edge  as  a  centre,  so 
that  when  straightened  it  is  found  to  lie  well  behind  its  proper  posi- 
tion, '^  dislocation  by  leverage,"  as  it  has  been  termed. 

The  dislocations  that  occur  in  the  course  of  chronic  tubercular  or 
other  destructive  disease  must  here  be  passed  with  simple  mention. 

1  Ullman  :  Centbl.  fur  Chir.,  August  11, 1894. 


49 


CHAPTER    LV. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE   PATELLA. 

Dislocations  of  the  patella  are  rare,  less  than  1  per  cent,  of  all 
dislocations,  according  to  the  tables  in  Chapter  XXVII.,  and  the  infre- 
quency  with  which  they  have  come  under  the  observation  of  individual 
surgeons  and  the  incompleteness  or  the  obscurity  of  the  reports  of 
many  cases  have  combined  to  make  the  systematic  descriptions  rather 
artificial  and  unsatisfactory.  The  physical  conditions  and  relations  of 
the  patella,  which  is  really  a  sesamoid  bone  developed  in  the  tendon  of 
the  quadriceps  extensor  and  not  an  integral  part  of  the  joint,  are  entirely 
different  from  those  of  other  bones,  and  the  changes  in  position  and 
relations  which  it  undergoes  in  displacement  are  very  varied.  The 
anterior  articular  surface,  or  trochlea,  of  the  femur  extends  higher 
upon  the  outer  than  the  inner  side  and  presents  a  central  groove 
bounded  laterally  by  a  sharp  margin  from  w^hich  the  internal  and 
external  surfaces  of  the  inner  and  outer  condyles,  respectively,  run 
abruptly  backward,  and  the  outer  condyle  projects  more  sharply  for- 
ward than  the  inner  one  does.  The  articular  or  posterior  surface  of 
the  patella  presents  a  longitudinal  ridge  nearer  its  inner  than  its  outer 
margin  from  which  the  surface  slopes  forward  to  the  edge.  From  each 
lateral  border  of  the  bone  passes  a  strong  aponeurotic  expansion,  the 
so-called  lateral  ligaments  of  the  patella,  portions  of  the  fascia  lata 
which  receive  expansions  from  the  vasti  muscles  and  are  attached  to 
the  tibia;  of  the  outer  one,  the  '■'■  ilio-tibial  ligament"  is  the  strongest 
part  and  tends  to  displace  the  patella  outward  when  the  knee  is  flexed. 
A  superficial  layer,  given  off  from  the  fascia  lata  on  the  sides,  crosses 
the  front  of  the  patella  and  is  separated  from  it  by  a  bursa.  In  full 
extension  of  the  knee  the  patella  lies  upon  the  upper  part  of  the 
trochlea  of  the  femur,  but  it  can  be  drawn  almost  completely  above  it 
by  the  forcible  contraction  of  the  quadriceps.  This  muscle  is  inserted 
upon  the  upper  border  and  somewhat  on  each  side  of  the  patella,  and 
the  long  axis  of  the  muscle  is  inclined  to  that  of  the  patella  and  its 
ligament  as  the  shaft  of  the  femur  is  to  that  of  the  tibia — that  is,  they 
meet  at  an  obtuse  angle  whose  apex  is  directed  inward.  As  a  conse- 
quence of  this  inclination  the  traction  of  the  muscle  tends  to  displace 
the  bone  toward  the  outer  side,  and  this  tendency  is  resisted  by  the 
projection  of  the  anterior  surface  of  the  outer  condyle  and  by  the  inter- 
nal lateral  ligament  of  the  patella. 

The  first  collation  of  recorded  cases  was  made  by  Malgaigne^  in 
1836;  the  25  cases  which  he  then  collected  were  increased  to  46  in 
1855,  when  he  published  his  work  on  dislocations.     StreubeP  in  1866 

1  Malgaigne  :  Gazette  MiJdieale,  1836,  p.  433. 

2  Streubel :  Schmidt's  Jahrbuch,  1866,  vol.  cxxix.  p.  311,  and  vol.  cxxx.  p.  54. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  PATELLA.  771 

collected  120  cases  and  made  a  number  of  experiments  upon  the 
cadaver.  Elaborate  articles  were  furnished  by  Panas^  in  1872  and 
Berger^  in  1877,  but  the  most  original  and  at  the  same  time  the  most 
recent  one  is  the  paper  by  Von  Meyer,^  Professor  of  Anatomy  at 
Zurich. 

The  patella  may  be  displaced  to  different  distances  on  the  outer  or 
the  inner  side  while  the  knee  is  extended  or  partly  flexed,  and  with 
such  displacement  may  be  combined  varying  degrees  of  rotation  about 
its  own  longitudinal  axis.  These  combinations  are  so  numerous  and 
varied  that  if  a  classification  should  be  made  according  to  them  it 
would  confuse  rather  than  simplify  their  study  and  description.  Mal- 
gaigne  in  his  first  paper,  based  on  only  twenty-five  cases,  described 
nine  forms  of  dislocations,  including  one  upward  and  after  rupture  of 
the  ligamentum  patellae,  but  in  his  later  work  he  made  only  two  prin- 
cipal forms,  dislocation  outward  and  inward,  with  subvarieties  corre- 
sponding to  the  degree  of  displacement  and.  the  addition  to  it  of  more 
or  less  rotation  of  the  patella  upon  its  axis.  As  some  of  the  most 
striking  differences  depend  upon  this  last  element,  it  will  perhaps  sim- 
plify the  subject  first  to  consider  the  conditions  which  determine  the 
fixation  of  the  displaced  bone,  and  in  doing  this  I  shall  speak  only  of 
displacements  to  the  outer  side,  which  are  much  the  more  common. 

The  bone  may  be  displaced  to  the  outer  side  by  muscular  action  or 
by  a  force  acting  upon  its  inner  lateral  border;  as  it  passes  sideways 
along  the  projecting  surface  of  the  condyle  its  outer  border  is  raised 
and  its  inner  border  depressed  into  the  bottom  of  the  trochlear  groove; 
if  the  force  continues  to  act  the  patella  is  carried  past  the  edge  of  the 
trochlea  to  the  outer  side  of  the  external  condyle,  and  when  its  longi- 
tudinal ridge  passes  this  edge  the  outer  border  of  the  patella  may  be 
turned  backward  by  the  traction  of  its  outer  lateral  attachments  and 
the  bone  comes  to  rest  with  its  articular  surface  against  the  outer  side 
of  the  condyle,  and  its  anterior  surface  looking  outward;  or  it  may 
undergo  no  rotation,  and  may  come  to  rest  with  its  inner  border  against 
the  outer  surface  of  the  condyle,  its  anterior  surface  looking  more  or 
less  directly  forward,  and  its  outer  border  projecting  markedly  out- 
ward; or,  again,  it  may  undergo  rotation  in  the  opposite  direction  and 
come  to  rest  with  its  inner  border  directed  backward,  its  anterior  sur- 
face looking  inward  against  the  outer  surface  of  the  condyle,  and  its 
outer  border  directed  forward.  These  three  forms  constitute  the 
'^  complete  outward  dislocations." 

If  the  force  is  not  sufficient  to  carry  the  patella  entirely  past  the 
outer  edge  of  the  trochlea,  the  bone  may  come  to  rest  with  its  inner 
border  in  the  bottom  of  the  trochlear  groove,  its  posterior  surface  rest- 
ing partly  against  the  outer  surface  of  the  trochlea  and  partly  project- 
ing beyond  it,  its  outer  border  directed  forward  and  outward,  and  its 
anterior  surface  looking  forward  and  inward^the  '^  incomplete  out- 
ward;" or  the  rotation  may  be  somewhat  greater,  and  while  the  inner 
border  still  rests  in  the  groove  of  the  trochlea  the  outer  border  looks 

1  Paims  :  Diet,  de  M6d.  et  Chir.  pratiques,  vol.  xvi.  p.  40,  art.  Genou. 

2  Berger :  Diet.  Encyclop.  des  So.  Med.,  3d  series,  vol.  v.  p.  334,  art.  Rotule. 
''  Von  Meyer :  Arch,  filr  klin.  Chirurgie,  1882-3,  vol.  xxviii.  p.  256. 


772  DISLOCATIONS. 

directly  forward,  and  the  anterior  surface  directly  inward — "  vertical " 
or  '^edgewise"  dislocation;  or  the  rotation  may  be  still  greater,  the 
anterior  surface  being  turned  so  as  to  look  directly  backward  and  lie 
upon  the  front  of  the  trochlea,  and  the  posterior  surface  looking 
directly  forward  under  the  skin — "  complete  reversal." 

It  appears,  then,  that  the  bone  frequently  becomes  fixed,  and  firmly 
fixed,  in  pbsitions  of  apparently  great  instability — that  is,  resting  upon 
the  front  or  side  of  the  femur  only  by  its  narrow  lateral  edge,  and  the 
fixation  which  is  given  to  it  in  these  positions  is  given  by  the  tension 

of  the  soft  parts  attached  to  it  and  by  the 

^^^-  ^^^-  overlying  fascia.      It  may  be  compared  to 

r^      6      ^  a  stick  on  end  under  a  tightly  stretched 

r -.  ;■"  \   A  sheet,  which  will  stand  not  only  upright, 

!\    \V"-v-.  X  !  but    also  when    inclined,   so    long   as   its 

lower  end  does  not  slip  along  the  ground, 

or  its  upper  along  the  sheet. 

It  also  appears,  in  consequence,  that  the 
bone  may  take  many  intermediate  posi- 
tions between  the  extremes,  and  that  con- 
sequently the  grouping  of  the  different 
])Ositions  must  be  somewhat  arbitrary. 
The  terms  in  general  use  are  complete  and 
„.  r.     *      ^     J  ^      ■         incomplete    outward   and    inward   disloca- 

Diagram  of  outward  and  edgewise  .  ^     ,  .  •      7    /  i  i 

dislocations  of  the  patella.  tions,    edgewise  or  vertical  (outward   and 

inward)  dislocations,  and  complete  reversal 
in  either  of  the  two  directions.  Dislocations  upward  and  downward 
should  not,  I  think,  have  a  place  in  the  classification,  since  they  are 
the  secondary  results  of  other  lesions,  rupture  of  the  ligamentum 
patellae,  or  of  the  tendon  of  the  quadriceps,  which  are  to  be  deemed 
the  principal  and  controlling  ones.  Among  the  incomplete  outward 
and  inward  dislocations  those  in  which  one  edge  of  the  patella  is 
turned  sharply  forward  differ  from  the  corresponding  edgewise  ones 
only  in  the  degree  of  rotation,  and  the  distinction  between  them  is  not 
only  difficult  to  make  in  practice,  but  also  does  not  seem  worth  pre- 
serving. I  shall,  therefore,  group  them  all  as  edgewise  dislocations, 
and  limit  the  term  incomplete  to  others  in  which  the  rotation  is  absent 
or  slight. 

The  outward  dislocations  are  much  the  more  common;  it  is  doubtful 
if  any  really  complete  inward  dislocation  has  been  recorded,  and  of 
Malgaigne's  46  cases  only  6  were  incomplete  inward.  Of  the  vertical 
or  edgewise  dislocations  the  outward  appear  to  be  somewhat  more 
frequent  than  the  inward. 

Cause.  The  cause  and  mode  of  production  of  the  different  forms 
are,  in  many  respects,  the  same.  The  dislocation  may  be  produced 
either  by  muscular  action,  contraction  of  the  quadriceps,  or  by  external 
violence  acting  directly  upon  the  patella.  Of  the  former  there  are 
many  unquestionable  examples;  a  man  dislocates  the  patella  while 
fencing,  a  woman  by  jumping  backward  and  to  one  side,  a  boy  by 
jumping  upward  and  turning  partly  around  to  strike  a  ball.  Of  the 
latter,  external  violence  acting  directly  upon  the  patella,  the  com- 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  PATELLA. 


IIZ 


mon  examples  are  falls  and  blows  upon  the  kuee;  in  several  instances 
a  man  riding  a  horse  has  struck  his  knee  violently  against  another 
moving  in  the  opposite  direction.  In  a  number  of  cases  it  has  been 
noted  that  the  knee  was  previously  affected  with  hydrarthrosis,  and  in 
a  few  genu  valgum  existed.  In  the  cases  of  frequent,  or  habitual,  dis- 
location some  such  predisposing  cause  is  supposed  ahva3's  to  exist. 

Outward  Dislocations. 
1.  Complete. 

In  complete  outward  dislocations  the  patella  is  displaced  entirely  to 
the  outer  side  of  the  external  condyle,  against  which  it  rests  either  by 
its  posterior,  cartilaginous  surface,  or,  more  rarely,  by  its  inner  border, 
its  anterior  surface  being  still  directed  forward,  or  by  the  inner  part 
of  its  anterior  surface,  the  outer  border  projecting  forward  and  the 
anterior  surface  looking  inward. 

According  to  von  Meyer,  and  his  opinion  is  based  upon  clinical 
observations,  as  well  as  upon  anatomical  and  experimental  data,  the 
patella  can  reach  this  position  either  by  passing  outward  at  or  above 
the  upper  part  of  the  trochlea  in  complete  extension  or  hyperextension 
of  the  knee,  or  by  passing  outward  and  upward  over  the  lower  border 
of  the  condyle  while  the  knee  is  flexed 
nearly  to  a  right  angle.  In  the  former  case 
the  dislocation  may  be  produced  by  muscular 
action,  the  contraction  of  the  quadriceps  ex- 
tensor, by  which  the  patella  is  raised  so  high 
that  its  passage  is  no  longer  resisted  by  the 
outer  border  of  the  trochlea.  Hyperextension 
of  the  knee  favors  the  displacement  by  carry- 
ing the  patella  still  higher  above  the  trochlea. 
Other  conditions  that  favor  the  displace- 
ment are  exaggerated  outward  rotation  of 
the  leg  and  bending  inward  of  the  knee. 
As  illustrative  examples  Meyer  quotes  cases 
reported  by  Foucart  and  Robert.  A  mus- 
cular young  man  jumping  down  from  a 
stool  (apparently  backward)  felt  a  sharp 
pain,  and  found  he  could  no  longer  stand 
on  the  right  foot;  examination  showed  an 
outward  dislocation  of  the  patella.  A 
woman,  carrying  a  heavy  burden  upstairs, 
felt  a  sharp  pain  and  a  cracking  in  the  right 
knee,  and  was  unable  to  walk;  the  patella  was  dislocated  outward. 

External  violence  can  produce  the  dislocation  at  the  same,  upper, 
point. 

In  either  case  the  further  displacement  of  the  patella  downward 
upon  the  outer  surface  of  the  condyle  and  its  fixation  there  are  aided 
by  the  subsequent  flexion  of  the  knee  which  involuntarily  follows  upon 
the  sensation  of  an  injury  received  there. 

In  studying  the  manner  in  which  displacement  took  place,  by  exter- 


Complete  dislocation  of  the 
patella  outward.  (Anger.) 


774  DISLOCATIONS. 

nal  violence,  while  the  knee  was  partly  flexed,  von  Meyer  found  that 
the  resistance  of  the  ligamentum  patellae  compelled  the  bone  to  move 
in  a  curve  downward  and  outward,  so  that  it  lodged  over  the  lower 
part  of  the  condyle,  or  even  in  the  groove  between  it  and  the  tibia,  and 
the  tendon  of  the  quadriceps  slipped  sidewise  over  the  edge  of  the 
trochlea,  and  lay  upon  the  outer  surface  of  the  condyle. 

Pathology.  The  pathology  of  the  commoner  form  has  been  studied 
only  in  experiments  upon  the  cadaver  and  in  specimens  of  old  unre- 
duced dislocations,  of  which  seven  cases  have  been  reported.  In  four 
of  these  seven  cases  the  internal  lateral  ligament  of  the  patella  was 
torn,  and  in  one  the  rent  extended  upward  in  the  vastus  internus  more 
than  three  inches  above  the  patella.  Experiments  upon  the  cadaver 
confirm  these  facts.  Fig.  322  represents  a  specimen  obtained  experi- 
mentally. It  may  be  added  that  in  three  cases  of  long  standing  the 
bones  had  undergone  various  changes;  in  some  the  patella  was  hyper- 
trophied,  in  others  atrophied;  in  some  it  had  lost  part  or  all  of  its 
articular  cartilage;  in  some  the  leg  was  distinctly  rotated  outward, 
presumably  the  result  of  the  traction  exerted  upon  it  through  the 
ligamentum  patellae. 

The  only  examination  of  an  nncomplicated  recent  case  of  which  1 
have  knowledge  is  one  reported  by  Andrews;^  the  specimen  was 
obtained  by  amputation,  which  was  rendered  necessary  by  a  compound 
fracture  of  the  leg.  The  displacement  was  of  the  rare  form  in  which 
the  patella  has  undergone  no  deviation  about  its  longitudinal  axis  and 
rests  against  the  external  condyle  only  by  its  inner  border  (Fig.  323). 
The  patient  had  been  run  over  by  a  freight  car. 
Fig.  323.  ^^  The  patella  was  found   shoved   nearly  straight  out- 

ward with  its  inner  edge  resting  firmly  against  the 
outer  condyle,  and  with  its  front  and  back  surfaces 
presenting  in  a  nearly  normal  direction.  ...  At 
the  place  where  the  inner  border  of  the  patella  rested 
against  the  femur  the  shell  and  spongy  tissue  of  the 
condyle  were  crushed  in,  making  an  oval  or  spoon- 
shaped  hollow  about  one  inch  long  and  five-eighths 
inch  wide.  The  sharp  inner  edge  of  the  patella  rested 
firmly  in  this  hollow  and  was  thus  effectually  pre- 
vented from  slipping.  The  rest  of  the  patella  was 
stoutly  held  in  position,  like  a  tent-pole  or  derrick, 
.   ^       ,  .by  tig-ht  bands  drawing  in  three  different  directions, 

AllQ.r6VVS  S  CS.SG  of  »'  o  o  ' 

dislocation  of  the  ^s  follows  :  1.  By  a  portion  of  the  vastus  externus 
patella  outward.  muscle  drawing  the  outer  angle  upward,  inward,  and 
backward.  2.  By  a  part  of  the  rectus  femoris,  not 
represented  in  the  figure,  but  drawing  upward,  inward,  and  forward. 
3.   By  the  ligamentum  patellae,  drawing  downward  and  inward. 

'^  The  vastus  internus  was  torn  off.  The  inner  half  of  the  rectus 
was  torn  off  with  the  vastus  internus,  and  the  lateral  attachments  of 
the  capsular  ligament  to  the  sides  of  the  patella  were  effectually  ripped 
away,  but  the  outer  part  of  the  rectus  was  still  attached." 

1  Andrews  :  Annals  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery,  1883,  vol.  vii.  p.  199. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  PATELLA. 


775 


Fig.  324. 


Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  loss  of  power  to  stand  upon  the  limb 
or  actively  to  move  the  knee,  pain,  and  deformity.  The  knee  is  usually 
partly  flexed,  but  occasionally  has  been  found  fully  extended.  Passive 
motion  is  painful,  complete  extension  usually  possible,  further  flexion 
rarely  possible. 

The  knee  appears  broadened  and  flattened  anteriorly;  the  normal 
prominence  of  the  patella  is  lost,  and  in  its  place  is  a  depression  through 
which  the  anterior  articular  surface  of  the  condyles  can  be  distinctly 
traced  unless  the  swelling  is  too  great.  The  patella  can  be  readily  felt 
upon  the  outer  side  of  the  condyle,  and  the  tendon  of  the  quadriceps 
and  the  ligamentum  patellae  show  as  tense 
bands  under  the  skin.  Usually  the  patella 
rests  with  its  articular  surface  against  the 
outer  surface  of  the  condyle  and  its  inner 
border  directed  forward,  but,  as  has  been 
already  said,  it  may  stand  directly  out  from 
the  condyle,  resting  against  it  by  its  inner 
border  only,  or  it  may  be  rotated  in  the  op- 
posite direction  so  that  its  outer  border  is 
directly  in  front. 

Treatment.  The  method  of  treatment  that 
has  proved  the  most  successful  is  one  pro- 
posed more  than  a  hundred  years  ago  by 
Valentin,  which  consists  in  full  extension 
of  the  knee  and  flexion  of  the  hip  to  relax 
the  quadriceps,  followed  by  direct  pressure 
with  the  hands  upon  the  patella;  it  may  be 
necessary  to  increase  the  laxity  of  the  ten- 
don of  the  quadriceps  by  pressing  the  lower 
part  of  the  muscle  downward  toward  the 
knee.  Possibly  a  device  which  Duplay  em- 
ployed successfully  in  a  vertical  dislocation 
might  be  used,  if  pressure  with  the  hands 
failed;    he  inserted  the  points  of  a  strong 

double  hook  through  the  skin,  engaged  them  under  the  edge  or  in  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  patella,  and  drew  the  bone  forward.  Moreau 
did  an  arthrotomy,  but  the  joint  suppurated  and  the  patient  barely 
escaped  with  his  life.  Albert  and  Konig  speak  rather  lightly  of  the 
risk  involved  in  such  an  operation,  and  the  latter  employed  it  in  a 
case  of  three  months'  standing. 

In  cases  that  have  remained  unreduced  the  usefulness  of  the  limb 
has  sometimes  been  well  restored,  the  patients  being  able  to  walk  freely 
and  troubled  only  in  making  complete  extension.  In  other  cases,  again, 
the  disability  has  been  great,  the  knee  being  stiff  and  the  patient  able 
to  walk  only  with  crutches.  Occasionally  the  accident  is  followed  by 
a  marked  tendency  to  recurrence  on  flexion  of  the  knee. 

2.  Incomplete. 

The  cases  to  which  I  limit  this  group  are  those  in  which  the  dislo- 
cation takes  place  while  the  knee  is  extended,  and  in  which  the  patella 


Dislocation  of  the  patella  out- 
ward.   (Duplay.) 


776  DISLOCATIONS. 

rests  above  and  partly  to  the  outside  of  the  outer  part  of  the  femoral 
trochlea,  its  apex  being  probably  still  on  the  median  side  of  the  crest. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  most  systematic  descriptions  the  group 
is  made  also  to  include  cases  of  moderate  edgewise  or  vertical  displace- 
ment, those  in  which  the  inner  border  of  the  patella  rests  in  the  hollow 
of  the  trochlea  and  the  outer  border  projects  outward  and  forward; 
but  still  the  majority  of  the  reported  cases  are  of  the  kind  to  which  I 
have  restricted  the  use  of  the  term.  There  are,  however,  cases  of 
habitual  dislocation  in  which  the  patella  moves  outward  during  flexion 
of  the  knee  and  the  outer  border  turns  backward,  which  might  properly 
be  termed  incomplete.  Malgaigne^  reports  one  such  in  which  the  con- 
dition followed  a  primary  traumatic  dislocation,  and  a  number  have 
been  reported  in  which  the  condition  developed  gradually  or  was 
thought  to  have  existed  at  birth. 

The  causes  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  which  produce  the  com- 
plete outward  dislocations  in  which  the  patella  escapes  at  or  above  the 
upper  part  of  the  trochlea,  that  is,  muscular  action  and  external  vio- 
lence received  while  the  knee  is  fully  extended  or  even  hyperextended. 

Von  Meyer  finds  the  explanation  of  the  incompleteness  of  the  dis- 
location in  the  supposition  that  the  lateral  movement  of  the  patella 
takes  place  while  it  is  still  at  a  lower  point  upon  the  femur  than  it  is 
when  it  undergoes  displacement  outward;  the  outer  margin  of  the 
trochlea  engages  in  the  sulcus  at  the  junction  of  the  patella  and  liga- 
mentum  patellse,  and  thus  the  bone  is  prevented  from  being  drawn 
further  outward  by  the  traction  of  the  ilio-tibial  band. 

Direct  examination  has  been  reported  in  only  one  case,  and  that  an 
old  one,  Diday;^  the  specimen  came  from  a  man  thirty-four  years  old; 
the  deformed  patella  rested  on  the  external  condyle  and  was  prevented 
from  moving  inward  by  a  bony  ridge  which  occupied  the  trochlea;  the 
articular  surface  extended  an  inch  higher  upon  the  outer  than  upon 
the  inner  condyle.     The  patient  walked  without  difficulty. 

The  limb  is  in  extension,  and  any  attempt  to  flex  is  painful.  The 
inner  half  of  the  trochlea  can  be  distinctly  traced  with  the  finger,  and 
the  patella  can  be  recognized  above  and  to  the  outer  side  of  its  normal 
position,  with  its  anterior  surface  looking  almost  directly  forward,  and 
if  inclined  at  all  it  appears  to  be  usually  inclined  outward. 

The  treatment  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  complete  form  :  flexion  of 
the  hip  and  extension  of  the  knee  to  relax  the  quadriceps,  followed  by 
direct  pressure  inward  upon  the  patella.  Reduction  is  easy  and  some- 
times spontaneous;  in  a  case  reported  by  Cooper  the  reduction  followed 
immediately  and  spontaneously  upon  the  displacement,  the  only  proof 
of  the  dislocation  being  a  demonstrable  rupture  of  the  inner  anterior 
part  of  the  capsule  and  swelling  of  the  joint. 

3.  Outward  Edgewise  or  Vertical  Dislocations. 

According  to  Malgaigne  this  form  of  dislocation  was  first  reported 
in  1777  by  Nannoni,  an  Italian  surgeon,  who  communicated  two  cases 
to  the  Academic  royale  de  Chirurgie.     His  account  appears  not  to 

1  Malgaigne :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  912.  2  Diday  :  Bull,  de  la  Soeiete  Anatomique,  1836,  p.  297. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  PATELLA.  777 

have  been  credited,  and  the  sabject  was  not  again  mentioned  until 
Malgaigne,  in  1836,  gave  a  description  of  it.  Since  that  time  a  con- 
siderable number  of  cases  have  been  reported;  without  making  a  very 
thorough  search  I  found  about  thirty,  five  of  which  were  re|)orted  in 
the  New  York  Medical  Record  between  the  years  1873  and  1879,  and 
in  this  enumeration  I  have  not  included  cases  reported  as  incomplete 
outward  dislocations,  although  I  include  such  in  the  classification. 

The  dislocation  is  characterized  by  a  displacement  outward  of  the 
patella  and  its  rotation  upon  its  longitudinal  axis,  by  which  its  inner 
border  is  brought  to  rest  at  or  near  the  bottom  of  the  groove  of  the 
trochlea,  while  the  outer  border  projects  more  or  less  directly  forward 
and  its  anterior  surface  looks  inward;  it  is  said  by  Panas  that  its  apex 
is  also  directed  slightly  backward. 

Muscular  action  is  the  most  frequent  cause,  and  in  some  cases  the 
contraction  of  the  muscle  appears  not  to  have  been  forcible,  as  in 
Martin's^  patient,  a  young  girl,  who  caused  the  dislocation  by  moving 
in  bed;  in  others  more  force  has  been  exerted,  as  a  boy  in  throwing  a 
snowball,  a  man  in  wrestling,  another  in  stumbling,  another  in  jump- 
ing. External  violence  is  a  less  frequent  cause;  a  blow  upon  the  inner 
edge  of  the  patella  by  which  the  bone  is  pushed  outward,  its  inner 
border  depressed  into  the  hollow  of  the  trochlea,  and  its  outer  border 
raised  by  the  passage  of  the  bone  along  the  slope  of  the  external  con- 
dyle. The  mode  of  production  by  muscular  action  has  not  been  made 
clear. 

The  patella  may  rest  partly  against  the  projecting  outer  portion  of 
the  trochlea,  or  it  may  touch  the  femur  only  by  its  inner  edge  even 
when  its  outer  border  still  lies  somewhat  to  the  outer  side  of  a  sagittal 
plane  passing  through  the  inner  one,  and  in  one  case,  Payen,  quoted 
by  Malgaigne,  the  patella  had  turned  more  than  90  degrees,  so  that  its 
outer  border  lay  a  little  to  the  inner  side  of  the  inner  border.  Its 
fixation  in  this  position  without  lateral  support  must  be  attributed  to 
the  tension  of  the  overlying  soft  parts  and  the  untorn  parts  of  the 
capsule,  for  in  one  case  in  which  both  the  tendon  of  the  quadricej)s 
and  the  ligamentum  patellae  were  cut  subcutaueously  by  the  surgeon 
in  the  effort  to  reduce,  the  bone  remained  as  firmly  fixed  as  before. 

The  knee  is  generally  extended,  but  in  some  cases  it  was  flexed  half 
way  to  a  right  angle,  and  is  usually  immovable  because  of  pain.  The 
deformity  is  characterized  by  the  sharp  projection  of  the  outer  border 
of  the  patella  in  front,  on  each  side  of  which  the  skin  is  depressed  so 
that  the  anterior  and  articular  surfaces  of  the  patella  can  be  felt,  but 
sometimes  the  skin  is  stretched  tightly  toward  each  side. 

The  most  successful  treatment  has  been  that  recommended  for  the 
preceding  forms:  flexion  of  the  hip,  extension  of  the  knee,  and  pressure 
upon  the  patella,  the  latter  being  so  directed  as  to  force  the  projecting 
outer  border  outward  and  backward,  but  this  has  failed  in  several  cases 
in  which  reduction  was  afterward  obtained  by  forced  flexion  of  the  leg 
or,  in  one  case,  by  getting  the  patient  forcibly  to  contract  the  quadriceps 
and  then  pressing  upon  the  patella  after  it  had  been  thus  drawn  upward. 

1  Martin  :  Arch.  gen.  de  M(5d.,  1831,  vol.  xxvi.  p.  259, 


778  DISL  OCA  TIONS. 

Possibly  Daplay's  device,  above  mentioned,  of  drawing  the  patella  for- 
ward with  a  strong  sharp  hook,  would  be  of  use  by  diminishing  the 
friction  between  it  and  the  femur.  Eben  Watson,  and  others  following 
his  example,  succeeded  by  slightly  flexing  the  leg  upon  the  thigh  during 
anaesthesia,  pressing  the  patella  moderately  outward,  and  then  suddenly 
extending  the  leg.  Three  surgeons  have  resorted  to  section  of  the  liga- 
mentum  patellae,  and  one  of  them  also  to  that  of  the  tendon  of  the  quad- 
riceps, but  without  success,  and  in  the  last  one  the  joint  suppura,ted 
and  the  patient  died. 

Inward  Dislocations. 

These  are  so  similar  to  the  outward  dislocations  in  their  nature, 
causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment  that  a  detailed  description  is  unneces- 
sary. 

Complete  Inward. 

This  dislocation  is  denied  by  several  authors,  the  only  alleged  cases 
being  those  of  Put^gnat  and  Walther,  both  quoted  by  Malgaigne. 
The  farmer  was  traumatic  in  origin,  but  when  the  patient  came  under 
observation  the  condition  was  that  of  habitual  dislocation:  the  patient, 
a  girl  thirteen  and  a  half  years  old,  had  fallen  upon  her  knees  five 
years  before,  and  since  that  time  both  patellse  had  been  so  freely 
movable  that  she  sometimes  amused  herself  by  dislocating  and 
reducing  them  more  than  a  hundred  times  in  an  hour.  The  right 
patella  could  be  more  easily  dislocated  outward,  the  left  one  inward; 
but  both  could  be  dislocated  so  completely  inward  that  their  anterior 
surfaces  were  exactly  in  contact  when  the  knees  were  brought  together. 
The  ligaments  were  so  relaxed  that  the  legs  could  not  be  completely 
extended  by  the  contraction  of  the  quadriceps. 

Of  Walther' s  case,  nothing  is  known  but  a  brief  description  in 
Latin  of  a  specimen  in  a  museum  at  Berlin.  Malgaigne  thought  it 
might  be  a  complete  inward  dislocation,  but  admits  that  its  character 
is  uncertain. 

Incomplete  Inward. 

Of  complete  inward  dislocation  only  one  case  has  been  reported,  by 
Key;^  it  also  was  quoted  by  Malgaigne.  The  patient,  a  girl  twenty 
years  old,  slipped  and  fell;  she  felt  great  pain  in  the  left  knee,  and 
was  unable  to  walk.  ''  The  patella  was  found  resting  on  the  inner 
condyle,  the  outer  part  of  its  articulating  surface  being  supported 
obliquely  by  the  projecting  edge  of  the  trochlea  of  the  femur.  Gentle 
pressure  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  patella,  as  the  limb  lay  on  the  bed, 
reduced  it  to  its  natural  position."  The  joint  suppurated,  and  appar- 
ently the  patient  died  or  the  limb  was  amputated.  The  tendon  of  the 
vastus  extern  us  was  partly  torn  through. 

Inward  Edgewise  or  Yertical  Dislocation. 

This  seems  to  be  nearly  as  frequent  as  the  corresponding  outward 
form.  Possibly  its  relative  frequency  and  the  rarity  or  absence  of  the 
complete  and  incomplete  inward  forms  are  to  be  explained  by  the 

1  Key  :  Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  1836,  vol.  i.  p.  260. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  PATELLA.  779 

greater  projection  inward  of  the  internal  condyle,  and  the  relative 
shortness  of  the  ligamentura  patellae,  which  prevents  the  patella  from 
reaching  that  side  of  the  condyle. 

Complete  Reversal. 

Complete  reversal,  the  outer  border  passing  in  front  to  the  inner  side, 
so  that  the  anterior  surface  rests  against  the  trochlea  and  the  articular 
surface  is  directed  forward,  has  been  reported  in  only  two  cases,  which 
are  briefly  quoted  by  Malgaigne  as  follows  :  ''In  1872  J.  Sue  saw  a 
dislocation  produced  by  muscular  action  in  which  he  clearly  recognized 
a  two-thirds  reversal  of  the  patella  from  without  inward  without  any 
evidence  of  rupture  of  the  ligaments.  Subsequently  Hevin  said  that  he 
had  heard  Bruyeres  read  before  the  Academic  royale  de  Chirurgie  the 
details  of  a  total  reversal  of  the  patella  upside  down,  also  without  rup- 
ture of  the  ligaments;  in  the  latter  case  the  cause  was  a  blow  receiv^ed 
upon  the  inner  part  of  the  knee." 

Complete  reversal,  the  inner  border  passing  in  front  to  the  outer  side, 
has  been  reported  in  three  cases,  Castara,  quoted  by  Malgaigne,  Wragg,^ 
and  Gaulke.^ 

Castara' s  patient,  a  girl  seventeen  years  old,  bent  forward  to  lift  a 
book  from  a  table,  resting  her  weight  upon  the  extended  right  leg,  and 
pressing  the  outer  border  of  the  patella  against  the  edge  of  a  chair; 
she  suddenly  cried  out,  and  Castara,  summoned  immediately,  found  the 
leg  partly  flexed,  and  could  extend  it  but  very  little.  The  patella 
rested  by  its  outer  border  upon  the  outer  and  upper  part  of  the  trochlea 
of  the  femur,  which  it  covered  only  over  a  breadth  of  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  ;  its  inner  border  inclined  outward  and  projected  in  this 
direction  two  and  a  half  centimetres,  its  articular  surface  looking  for- 
ward, and  inward.  The  tendon  of  the  quadriceps  and  the  ligamentum 
patellte  each  formed  a  quite  thick  and  hard  rounded  cord  above  and 
below.  The  surgeon  grasped  the  bone  with  his  thumbs  and  forefingers, 
and  by  a  simple  movement  of  rotation  from  behind  forward,  and  from 
without  inward,  restored  it  easily  to  its  place. 

Wragg's  patient  was  a  negro,  who  had  been  struck  upon  the  outer 
side  of  the  right  patella.  The  limb  was  extended  and  immovable. 
The  inner  border  of  the  patella  had  turned  forward  and  outward,  and 
lay  about  half  an  inch  to  the  outside  of  the  normal  position  of  the 
outer  border;  the  outer  border  could  be  felt  deep  in  the  trochlea  about 
half  an  inch  from  its  inner  edge.  The  tendon  of  the  quadriceps  and 
the  ligamentum  patellae  showed  under  the  skin  as  hard  twisted  cords; 
very  little  passive  motion  at  the  knee.  The  dislocation  was  reduced 
easily  by  pressing  with  the  thumbs  against  the  projecting  border,  and 
with  the  index  and  middle  fingers  against  the  outer  border  in  the  oppo- 
site direction.  The  reaction  was  slight,  and  the  patient  made  a  good 
recovery. 

Gaulke's  patient,  a  girl  seventeen  years  old,  injured  her  knee  in  a 
fall  from  a  horse,  and  was  not  seen  by  him  until  ten  days  after  the 

1  Wragg:  Charleston  Medical  Journal,  May,  1856,  abstract  in  Schmidt's  Jahrbuch,  1856,  vol.  xci. 
p.  362. 
-  Gaulke:  Deutsche  Klinik,  1863,  p.  108. 


780  DISLOCATIONS. 

accident.  "  The  patella  lay  entirely  upon  the  outer  condyle  of  the 
femur,  and  had  been  so  turned  about  its  longitudinal  axis  that  its  pos- 
terior surface  looked  forward  and  inward,  and  the  anterior  surface 
backward  and  outward."  After  several  failures  he  reduced  by  making 
pressure  against  the  projecting  inner  border  with  one  jaw  of  a  vise, 
such  as  is  used  by  carpenters  to  hold  pieces  of  wood  that  have  been 
freshly  glued  together,  the  counter-pressure  being  made  with  the  other 
jaw  against  the  internal  condyle.  The  force  of  the  screw  was  so 
applied  as  to  press  the  inner  border  of  the  patella  forward  and  inward, 
while  its  outer  border  was  expected  to  move  along  the  outer  slope  of 
the  trochlea.  After  many  efforts,  the  patella  suddenly  moved  with  a 
snap,  turned  about  its  long  axis,  and  fell  back  into  place.  The  patient 
recovered  in  a  fortnight. 

Congenital  Dislocations. 

In  a  number  of  reported  cases  the  term  congenital  has  been  used 
although  the  writers  knew  that  the  dislocation  had  first  appeared  long 
after  birth;  in  most  of  the  others  it  has  not  been  possible  to  ascertain 
with  certainty  the  date  of  the  appearance  of  the  condition,  and  in  many 
the  probability  is  very  great  that  it  had  been  gradually  developed  long 
after  birth.  The  reported  cases  in  which  it  is  reasonably  certain  that 
the  condition  existed  at  birth  are  not  numerous,  perhaps  fifteen  or 
twenty,  but  if  to  these  are  added  the  other  cases  which  several  of  the 
patients  have  said  existed  in  other  members  of  their  families,  the  num- 
ber becomes  considerably  increased.  The  principal  paper  upon  the 
subject  is  one  by  Zielewicz;^  Bessel-Hagen^  recently  read  one  before 
the  Berlin  Medical  Society,  and  presented  two  cases,  but  the  published 
abstract  is  very  short.  Zielewicz's  paper  gives  the  details  of  13  cases, 
in  3  of  which  the  patella  was  dislocated  upward  with  elongation  of  its 
ligament;  in  the  remaining  10  the  dislocation  was  outward.  The  con- 
genital character  of  the  first  3  is  uncertain.  Of  the  outward  ones  in 
which  the  sex  is  noted,  6  were  males,  3  females;  in  5  both  patellae  were 
dislocated,  and  in  all  the  patients  were  able  to  make  good  use  of  the 
limb. 

Bessel-Hageu  points  out  that  the  cases  may  be  grouped  in  three 
classes  :  1.  The  incomplete,  in  which  the  patella  lies  upon  the  outer 
condyle  when  the  knee  is  extended,  and  returns  to  its  normal  place 
when  the  knee  is  flexed;  2,  complete  intermittent,  in  which  the  displace- 
ment occurs  during  flexion;  3,  complete  permanent,  in  which  the  dis- 
placement is  increased  during  flexion,  and  is  not  overcome  during 
extension. 

CaswelP  reported  a  case  of  congenital  dislocation  of  both  patellae  in 
a  man,  forty-three  years  old,  who  said  that  five  members  of  his  family, 
in  three  generations,  had  the  same  deformity — his  father,  sister,  son, 
and  nephew.  Dr.  Caswell  examined  the  son  and  confirmed  the  state- 
ment to  that  extent. 

1  Zielewicz :  Berlin,  klin.  Wochenschrift,  1869,  vol.  vi.  p.  25. 

-  Bessel-Hagen  :  Deutsche  med.  Wochenschrift,  1881,  p  45. 

3  Caswell :  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  July,  1865. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  PATELLA.  781 

Shapleigh^  saw  a  man,  thirty-nine  years  old,  botli  of  whose  patellae 
^'  were  dislocated  outward,  resting  on  the  upper  and  outer  surface  of 
the  external  condyle  of  the  femur."  They  were  of  normal  size.  The 
patient  said  the  condition  had  existed  from  birth,  and  that  his  grand- 
father, father,  and  one  of  his  own  children,  four  generations,  had  the 
same  deformity.  The  man  walked  without  difficulty  and  had  served 
as  a  soldier  during  the  war. 

An  anonymous  writer^  reported  a  case  of  congenital  dislocation  of 
both  patellae  in  a  girl  whose  father,  aunt,  and  aunt's  daughter  were  in 
the  same  condition. 

Habitual  or  Pathological  Dislocations. 

A  number  of  varying  conditions  in  the  bones  or  ligaments  of  the 
knee  may  have  for  consequence  the  frequent,  even  habitual,  dislocation 
of  the  patella  in  certain  positions  or  movements.  Almost  without 
exception,  these  dislocations  are  to  the  outer  side  and  complete.  Many 
cases  reported  as  congenital  are  probably  of  this  character;  Isemeyer,^ 
indeed,  published  an  elaborate  paper  on  the  subject  in  which  he  claimed 
that  all  reported  cases  of  congenital  dislocation  were  really  pathological 
ones. 

Among  the  alleged  causes  are  relaxation  of  the  ligaments,  chronic 
arthritis  of  different  kinds,  malformations  of  the  knee,  especially  genu 
valgum,  and  injury  of  the  lower  part  of  the  vastus  internus. 

In  genu  valgum  the  increased  abduction  of  the  leg  upon  the  thigh 
produces  a  corresponding  exaggeration  of  the  angle  between  the  quad- 
riceps and  the  ligamentum  jmtellse  in  consequence  of  which  the  con- 
traction of  the  muscle  constantly  tends  to  draw  the  patella  outward, 
and  if  the  patella  passes  to  the  outer  side  of  the  outer  condyle  the 
muscle  then  aids  still  further  to  abduct  the  leg  and  increase  its  devia- 
tion. Indeed,  in  some  of  the  reported  cases  it  has  remained  in  doubt 
whether  the  abduction  of  the  leg  preceded  or  was  itself  the  conse- 
quence of  the  dislocation  of  the  patella. 

Condamiu*  reported  a  case  in  which  persistent  outward  displacement 
took  place  gradually  in  consequence  of  operative  division  of  the  lower 
portion  of  the  vastus  internus  in  the  treatment  of  an  osteomyelitic 
abscess. 

The  patella  is  habitually  very  movable,  and  the  dislocation  takes 
place  or  is  increased  during  flexion  of  the  knee  and  is  reduced  or 
diminished  during  extension.  The  functions  of  the  limb  are  more  or 
less  interfered  with,  complete  voluntary  extension  being  difficult  or 
impossible.  The  femur  tends  to  rotate  inward,  and  the  leg  outward 
and  to  become  abducted. 

A  case  which  resembles  Putegnat's  of  complete  inward  dislocation 
in  the  facility  with  which  the  patient  could  rapidly  produce  and  reduce 
the  dislocation  by  muscular  action  is  reported  by  Albert f  the  patient 
was  a  boy,  sixteen  years  old,  with  genu  valgum  on  the  affected  side. 

1  Shapleigh  :  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  1881,  vol.  cv.  p.  252. 

2  New  York  Medical  Journal,  1885,  vol.  xlii.  p.  27. 

3  Isemeyer:  Arch,  fiir  klin.  Chirurgie,  1866,  vol.  viii.  p.  1. 

*  Condamin :  Lyon  M(5d.,  September  30,  1888.  '->  Albert :  Chirurgie,  vol.  iv.  p.  393. 


782  DISLOCATIONS. 

When  the  knee  was  held  at  an  angle  of  160  degrees  he  could  repeat 
the  production  and  reduction  with  great  rapidity  and  ease.  Flexion 
at  150  degrees  was  the  limit  at  which  voluntary  reduction  could  be 
made;  voluntary  dislocation  was  possible  even  when  flexion  was  carried 
to  90  degrees. 

The  treatment  consists  in  the  wearing  of  a  knee-cap  designed  to 
oppose  the  displacement  during  flexion  or  to  restrict  the  flexion  to  the 
range  beyond  which  the  displacement  took  place. 

Roux^  relieved  a  case  of  habitual  dislocation  outward  following 
rupture  of  the  aponeurosis  on  the  inner  side  by  dividing  the  vastus 
externus,  sutnring  the  reut  on  the  inner  side,  and  displacing  the  inser- 
tion of  the  ligamentum  patellae  upon  the  tibia  half  an  inch  inward. 
Bradford^  did  the  same  with  success. 

Another  French  surgeon  (I  have  mislaid  the  reference)  relieved  the 
condition  by  narrowiug  the  internal  lateral  expansion  by  means  of 
three  silk  sutures  so  placed  as  to  make  a  longitudinal  tuck  in  it;  others 
have  excised  a  piece  and  closed  the  opening  with  sutures. 

1  Roux:  Rev.  de  Chir.,  August,  1888. 

-  Bradford  :  Boston  Medical  aud  Surgical  Journal,  February  20, 1896. 


CHAPTER    LVI. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  FIBULA. 

The  fibula  may  be  dislocated  at  its  upper  or  at  its  lower  end,  and 
as  the  result  of  external  violence,  or  of  muscular  action,  or  of  unequal 
growth  of  the  tibia  and  fibula. 

Dislocations  of  the  Upper  End. 

Of  these  there  are  now  about  twenty-five  reported  cases.  ^  In  the 
majority  the  displacement  was  outward  and  forward,  in  others  back- 
ward, and  in  a  few  upward.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that,  as  the  head 
of  the  fibula  is  situated  behind  the  most  external  part  of  the  tibia,  a 
dislocation  forward  must  also  be  outward. 

Of  cases  complicated  by  fracture  of  either  the  tibia  or  fibula,  or  of 
both  bones,  quite  a  number  have  been  reported.  Of  those  in  which 
the  dislocation  is  produced  by  the  overriding  of  the  fragments  by 
which  the  head  of  the  fibula  is  forced  upward,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
say  that,  although  the  reported  displacement  has  been  very  great  in 
some  cases,  it  does  not  appear  seriously  to  have  affected  the  treatment 
of  the  fracture,  and  in  most  cases  reduction  was  easy.  In  some,  in 
which  the  fracture  united  with  shortening,  there  remained  a  permanent 
displacement  of  the  head  of  the  fibula  upward.  The  dislocation  is 
not  always  upward,  but  is  sometimes  forward,  and  sometimes  the  head 
has  been  freely  movable  backward  and  forward. 

1.  Forward. 

The  cause  has  been  a  fall  with  the  leg  bent  under  the  body  or  a  mus- 
cular effort  without  a  fall,  and  there  is  reason  to  think  that  the  forcible 
depression  and  inversion  of  the  front  of  the  foot  may  be  a  factor  in 
the  production;  thus,  Savournin's  patient  caught  her  heel  while 
descending  a  staircase  and  the  foot  was  sharply  depressed  and  turned 
inward,  and  in  my  two  patients,  ooe  of  whom  had  not  fallen,  move- 
ment of  the  foot  in  the  direction  mentioned  caused  pain  at  the  site  of 
the  dislocation  after  reduction.  Tillaux,  also,  observed  a  case  of  dias- 
tasis associated  with  fracture  of  the  lower  end  of  the  tibia  (q.  v.). 

The  head  of  the  fibula  can  be  seen  and  felt  in  front  and  outside  of 
its  normal  position,  and  the  tendon  of  the  biceps  shows  plainly  in  an 
unusual  curve.  The  patient  is  usually  unable  to  walk  because  of  pain, 
but  can  move  the  knee  quite  freely. 

Reduction  has  usually  been  easy  by  direct  pressure  while  the  knee 
was  partly  flexed;  in  Savournin's  case  while  the  knee  was  extended 

1  In  addition  to  the  bibliography  given  in  the  first  edition,  see  Hirschberg,  Arch,  fiir  klin.  Ohir., 
]S88,  vol.  xxxvii.  p.  199:  Leggett,  Lancet,  March  31,  1888  ;  and  Stimson,  New  Yorli  Medical  Jour- 
nal, May  2.5,  1889,  and  February  6,  1892. 


784  I^ISL  0  GA  TIONS. 

and  the  foot  in  dorsal  flexion.  I  was  obliged  to  resort  to  arthrotomy 
in  one  case.  Leggett  refers  to  an  unreported  case  in  which  reduction 
failed,  two  attempts  having  been  made  under  anaesthesia.  The  obstacle 
in  mj  case  appeared  to  be  a  strong  fibrous  band  extending  from  the 
head  of  the  fibula  to  the  front  of  the  tibia;  after  its  division  reduction 
was  easy. 

2.  Backwaed. 

In  at  least  one  of  these,  Dabreuil,  the  cause  clearly  seems  to  have 
been  forcible  contraction  of  the  biceps;  in  the  others  the  patients  fell, 
and  the  cause  may  have  been  a  twist  of  the  leg  which  ruptured  the 
tibio-fibular  attachments  by  the  pnll  of  the  external  lateral  ligament  of 
the  knee,  the  biceps  then  acting  to  displace  the  bone  backward. 

In  two  cases  the  foot  was  slightly  everted,  and  in  one  of  them  there 
was  a  sensation  of  cold  and  numbness  along  the  peroneal  region  of  the 
leg;  in  one  the  tendon  of  the  biceps  was  tense.  The  displacement  is 
described  as  backward  in  all,  and  its  extent  as  one  inch  in  Dubreuil's. 

Redaction  was  effected  without  much  difficulty  in  three  by  direct 
pressure  upon  the  head  of  the  fibula  while  the  knee  was  flexed.  In 
Dubreuil's  the  displacement  recurred  on  the  following  day,  and  was 
then  less  easily  reduced;  a  knee-cap  of  leather  was  then  worn  for 
twelve  days,  and  the  patient  was  then  able  to  walk  with  a  cane,  but 
for  some  time  the  leg  had  a  tendency  to  bend  outward;  ultimately 
recovery  was  complete,  as  it  was  also  in  the  other  two  cases. 

Erichsen  and  Oldright  did  not  see  their  patients  until  some  time 
after  the  accident;  in  the  former's  the  displacement  was  permanent 
and  '^  the  limb  was  somewhat  weakened,  so  that  the  patient  could  not 
jump,  but  otherwise  he  suffered  no  inconvenience."  In  Oldright' s 
the  displacement  could  be  easily  reduced,  but  it  immediately  recurred; 
local  pressure  and  immobilization  of  the  knee  failed  to  cure.  Possibly 
retention  by  a  strip  of  adhesive  plaster  placed  round  the  upper  part  of 
the  leg  would  be  effective. 

3.  Upward.^ 

Of  this  form  there  are  only  three  reported  cases,  Boyer,  Stoll,  and 
Sorbets,  and  the  account  of  the  latter  is  too  incomplete  to  be  of  any 
use  or  even  to  establish  the  accuracy  of  the  diagnosis. 

Boyer' s  patient  appears  to  have  received  a  dislocation  outward  of 
the  foot  or  a  Pott's  fracture  of  the  ankle  in  which  the  fibula,  instead 
of  breaking,  had  been  pushed  bodily  upward;  the  extent  of  the  dis- 
placement is  not  stated;  the  restoration  of  the  foot  to  its  place  cor- 
rected the  upper  dislocation  also,  and  the  patient  recovered. 

In  Stoll' s  case  the  head  of  the  fibula  is  described  as  standing 
"notably  higher  than  normal  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  tibia,  and 
forming  there  an  immovable,  firm,  sharply  projecting  tumor,  very 
painful  on  pressure."  He  quotes  Dubreuil's  case  as  identical,  and 
attributes  the  displacement  to  the  forcible  contraction  of  the  biceps, 
and,  therefore,  it  seems  possible  that  the  dislocation  may  belong  among 

1  This  is  sometimes  called  "total  "  dislocation,  because  the  lowfer  end  also  is  displaced. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  FIBULA.  785 

the  backward  ones.  The  patient  was  a  circus-rider  and  received  the 
injury  in  jumping  from  his  horse,  aligliting  upon  his  toes.  The  sole 
was  everted,  the  toes  abducted;  the  inner  side  of  the  ankle  swollen 
and  tender;  passive  motion  of  the  knee  and  ankle  very  painful;  numb- 
ness of  the  outer  side  of  the  leg.  No  fracture  could  be  found.  Re- 
duction was  made  by  forcible  traction  on  the  foot,  the  knee  being 
flexed  at  a  right  angle,  and  was  accompanied  by  a  snapping  sound. 

Dislocations  of  the  Lower  End. 

Of  this  the  only  two  recorded  cases,  excluding,  of  course,  the  numer- 
ous ones  in  which  diastasis  of  this  joint  has  formed  one  of  the  lesions 
of  Pott's  fracture  at  the  ankle  and  the  few  cases  in  which  the  same 
diastasis  has  been  part  of  inward  or  outward  dislocation  of  the  foot, 
are  one  observed  by  JSTelatou  in  the  service  of  Gerdy  and  -one  in  the 
service  of  Tillaux  reported  by  Duuand.^  Gerdy's  patient  came  to  the 
hospital  thirty-nine  days  after  the  accident.  The  wheel  of  a  wagon 
had  passed  across  the  lower  end  of  his  leg  and  had  forced  the  external 
malleolus  so  far  backward  that  it  was  almost  in  contact  with  the  outer 
border  of  the  tendo  Achillis;  the  outer  surface  of  the  astragalus  could 
be  felt  through  almost  its  entire  extent.  The  patient  walked  fairly 
well,  and  Gerdy  thought  no  attempt  to  reduce  should  be  made. 

In  Tillaux' s  case  the  patient  in  stepping  from  an  omnibus  caught 
his  foot  and  fell  forward.  The  foot  was  everted,  there  was  a  large 
ecchymosis  on  the  inner  side  of  the  leg  and  foot,  and  another  on  the 
outer  side;  the  ankle  was  swollen  and  tender,  especially  on  the  inner 
side;  no  fracture  could  be  found.  The  lower  end  of  the  fibula  was 
freely  movable  forward  and  backward  with  cartilaginous  crepitus, 
and  could  be  drawn  outward  so  far  that  the  end  of  the  finger  could  be 
inserted  between  it  and  the  astragalus.  The  patient  made  a  good 
recovery. 

I  have  seen  one  case  of  dislocation  backward  from  the  tibia,  possibly 
with  preservation  of  the  relations  with  the  calcaneum.  The  patient, 
a  lad  of  seventeen,  was  admitted  to  the  House  of  Relief,  July  17,  1889, 
having  been  injured  in  the  left  ankle  while  wrestling.  The  foot  was 
abducted,  its  inner  side  normal  and  painless;  the  lower  part  of  the  fibula 
was  prominent,  the  region  swollen  and  tender.  A  careful  examination 
was  made  under  ether,  and  the  above  diagnosis  reached.  On  adduction 
of  the  front  of  the  foot  the  bone  returned  to  its  place  with  an  audible 
snap.  The  dislocation  was  then  reproduced  by  abduction  of  the  foot, 
and  again  reduced  by  adduction. 

Spontaneous  or  Pathological  Dislocations. 

These  have  been  reported  as  occurring  at  the  upper  end  in  conse- 
quence of  inflammation  of  the  joint,  of  rhachitic  changes  in  the  bones, 
and  of  exaggerated  growth  of  the  tibia  following  necrosis.  In  the 
same  group  may  be  classed  a  dislocation  outward  reported  by  Bryant, 
which  was  due  to  arrest  of  the  growth  of  the  tibia. 

1  Dunand  :  These  de  Paris,  1878,  No.  217. 
50 


786  DISLOCATIONS. 

Malgaigne,  after  quoting  a  general  description  given  by  Cooper, 
according  to  which  chronic  hydrarthrosis  leads  to  the  easy  displace- 
ment of  the  head  of  the  fibula  and  to  much  weakness  and  fatigue  in 
walking,  describes  a  case  under  his  own  care  in  which  this  laxity  of 
the  joint  existed;  in  certain  movements  of  the  knee  the  fibula  was  dis- 
placed backward,  returning  almost  at  once  to  its  place  with  a  cracking 
sound;  the  condition  followed  an  arthritis  which  had  produced  a  sim- 
ilar relaxation  of  the  knee.  In  a  case  of  rhachitic  curvature  of  the 
leg  in  an  infant  Malgaigne  thought  he  could  recognize  the  head  of  the 
fibula  displaced  upward  almost  to  the  level  of  the  articular  surface  of 
the  tibia,  and  on  examining  the  rhachitic  skeletons  preserved  in  the 
Mus6e  Dupuytren  he  found  several  examples;  the  displacement  was 
upward  and  outward  at  the  upper  end,  the  lower  end  preserving  its 
normal  relations. 

Dislocation  downward  of  the  upper  end  due  to  elongation  of  the 
tibia  following  necrosis  was  described  by  Parise  (quoted  by  Malgaigne), 
who  reported  three  cases.  In  one  of  them  the  elongation  was  three 
centimetres  on  the  inner  side  of  the  tibia,  one  and  a  half  centimetres 
on  the  outer.  Malgaigne  subsequently  saw  and  reported  a  fourth 
case.      The  condition  did  not  affect  the  functions  of  the  limb. 


CHAPTEK    LVII. 

DISLOCATIONS   AT   OR   NEAR   THE   ANKLE. 

DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  FOOT.  SUBASTRAGALOID  DISLOCATIONS. 
DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  ASTRAGALUS.  MEDIO-TARSAL  DIS- 
LOCATIONS. 

Anatomy.  The  principal  movements  of  the  foot  are  those  of  flexion 
and  extension,  or  dorsal  and  plantar  flexion,  which  takes  place  in  the 
joint  formed  by  the  astragalus  and  the  tibia  and  fibula,  and  that  of 
adduction  and  abduction  combined,  respectively,  with  inversion  and 
eversion  of  the  sole,  which  takes  place  in  the  joints  between  the  astrag- 
alus on  one  side,  and  the  calcaneum  and  scaphoid  on  the  other,  and  is 
aided  by  slight  motion  between  the  calcaneum  and  cuboid.  The  axis 
of  the  first  joint,  the  ankle,  is  horizontal  and  nearly  transverse,  its 
inner  end  inclining  forward;  that  of  the  other  runs  obliquely  from  a 
point  near  the  inner  tuberosity  of  the  calcaneum  upward  and  forward 
to  a  point  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  neck  of  the  astragalus. 

The  astragalus  articulates  above  with  the  under  surface  of  the  tibia, 
and  on  the  sides  with  the  malleoli,  between  which  it  is  so  snugly  placed 
that  no  lateral  motion  is  possible.  On  each  side  the  lateral  ligament 
passes  to  the  astragalus  and  calcaneum  from  the  malleolus,  and  the 
lower  ends  of  the  tibia  and  fibula  are  bound  together  by  ligaments  in 
front  and  behind.  The  range  of  dorsal  and  plantar  flexion  is  nearly  90 
degrees,  and  as  the  articular  surface  of  the  astragalus  is  somewhat  nar- 
rower behind  than  in  front  some  lateral  motion  of  the  joint  is  possible 
in  full  plantar  flexion. 

The  rounded  head  of  the  astragalus  articulates  with  the  posterior 
concave  surface  of  the  scaphoid,  the  inferior  calcaneo-scaphoid  liga- 
ment, and  slightly  with  the  anterior  end  of  the  calcaneum.  On  the 
under  surface  of  the  astragalus  are  two  articular  facets  corresponding 
to  two  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  calcaneum,  and  between  them  is  the 
strong  interosseous  ligament  which  fills  the  canal  formed  by  a  groove 
on  each  bone  separating  its  two  articular  surfaces,  and  binds  the  bones 
firmly  together.  The  maximum  range  of  motion  in  these  joints  is 
about  40  degrees,  and  is  limited  partly  by  bony  contact  and  partly  by 
the  ligaments. 

In  this  chapter  1  shall  describe  four  different  dislocations  :  those  of 
the  foot,  those  of  the  astragalus,  the  subastragaloid,  and  the  medio- 
tarsal  dislocations;  under  the  first  term  are  included  those  in  which 
the  astragalus,  while  maintaining  its  relations  with  the  other  bones  of 
the  foot,  is  displaced  from  the  bones  of  the  leg;  under  the  second, 
those  in  which  it  is  also  displaced  from  the  calcaneum  and  scaphoid; 
under  the  third,  those  in  which  the  astragalus  remains  in  the  tibio- 
fibular mortise  and  is  separated  from  the  calcaneum  and  scaphoid;  and 


788  DISLOCATIONS. 

in  the  fourth,  those  in  which  the  scaphoid  and  cuboid  are  together 
dislocated  from  the  astragalus  and  calcaneum. 

Dislocations  of  the  Foot.     Tibio-tarsal  Dislocations. 

The  displacements  of  the  astragalus  and  the  foot  are  so  complex 
that  the  nomenclature  of  the  various  dislocations  presents  serious  diffi- 
culties, and  the  confusion  has  been  increased  by  the  varying  practices 
of  different  writers,  some  of  whom  treat  the  tibia  as  the  dislocated  bone 
and  apply  the  terms  indicative  of  direction  to  it,  while  others  consider 
the  foot  as  the  dislocated  portion.  I  shall  here  follow  the  latter  prac- 
tice, and  shall  use  in  the  classification  only  four  main  terms,  disloca- 
tions forward,  backward,  outward,  and  inward,  disregarding  for  the 
moment  the  many  deviations  in  the  direction  of  the  toes  and  of  the 
sole  which  are  seen  in  conjunction  with  the  principal  dislocations.  Of 
these  four  the  first  two  are  pure  dislocations;  in  the  latter  two  are  fre- 
quently placed  cases  in  which  the  displacement  is  associated  with  frac- 
ture of  one  or  both  bones  of  the  leg,  and  of  which  the  more  common 
forms  have  been  elsewhere  described  among  fractures  at  the  ankle. 
It  must  be  freely  conceded  that  the  classification,  especially  in  respect 
of  the  last  two  groups,  is  arbitrary  and  open  to  serious  criticism,  bnt 
so  are  all  others  that  have  been  proposed,  and  it  is  believed  that  this 
one  has  a  sound  clinical  basis  in  so  far  that  the  terms  outward  and 
inward  correspond  to  displacement  outward,  or  eversion,  or  to  displace- 
ment inward,  or  inversion  of  the  foot,  the  symptoms  which  would  at 
once  attract  the  attention  of  the  surgeon,  and  that  its  divisions  coincide 
also  with  those  of  the  modes  of  production. 

Two  striking  varieties,  in  which  the  toes  are  turned  directly  inward 
or  outward,  will  be  mentioned  under  inward  and  outward  dislocations 
respectively.  The  latter  has  been  classified  by  some  as  a  separate 
form,  under  the  title  of  dislocation  of  the  foot  by  rotation  outward. 

The  mechanism  of  the  joint  and  the  mode  of  production  of  the  dis- 
locations have  been  experimentally  studied  by  many  surgeons  and 
anatomists,  of  whom  I  shall  here  name  only  one  of  the  more  recent, 
Honigschmied,^  whose  experiments  were  exceptionally  numerous,  and 
whose  article  is  very  full. 

1.  Dislocations  Backwaed. 

(Syn.  Dislocations  of  the  lower  end  of  the  tibia  forward;  see  also 
Fractures  at  the  Ankle.) 

In  these  dislocations  the  astragalus,  and  with  it  the  foot,  is  displaced 
backward  to  a  variable  distance,  with  rupture  of  the  lateral  ligaments 
and  sometimes  of  other  parts  of  the  capsule,  and  sometimes  with  frac- 
ture of  one  or  both  malleoli  or  of  the  posterior  edge  of  the  lower 
articular  surface  of  the  tibia. 

The  cause  is  usually  extreme  plantar  flexion  of  the  foot,  in  which 
the  posterior  border  of  the  end  of  the  tibia  comes  into  contact  with  the 
posterior  lip  of  the  astragalus   (ITenke^),  by  which  a  new  centre  of 

1  Hiinigschmied  :  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fiir  Chir.,  1877,  vol.  viii.  p.  239. 
-  Heuke  :  Zeitschrift  fiir  rat.  Med.,  1858,  3d  ser.,  vol.  ii.  p.  177. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  OR  NEAR  THE  ANKLE.  789 

motion  is  established  behind  the  line  of  the  malleoli;  the  continuation 
of  the  movement  ruptures  the  lateral  and  the  anterior  ligaments,  and 
the  bones  being  thus  freed  the  tibia  is  pushed  forward  ov^er  the  astrag- 
alus, or  the  foot  is  pushed  backward  under  the  tibia,  according  as  the 
causative  violence  acts  upon  the  leg  or  upon  the  foot.  The  rupture  of 
the  ligaments  is  the  first  step,  and  the  fixation  of  the  astragalus  behind 
the  tibia  takes  place  by  correction  of  the  plantar  flexion.  Commonly 
the  injury  is  produced  by  a  fall  backward  while  the  foot  is  fixed.  In 
an  incomplete  dislocation  reported  by  Sanson  (quoted  by  Albert)  the 
patient's  leg  was  bent  under  him  in  a  fall  in  such  a  way  that  the  dor- 
sum of  the  foot  and  the  front  of  the  leg  rested  on  the  ground,  and  the 
buttocks  rested  on  the  heel;  in  this  case  the  mechanism  appears  to  have 
been  pure  exaggerated  plantar  flexion.  Examples  of  pure  primary  dis- 
location are  rare,  Malgaigne  could  find  only  eighteen  reported  cases; 
but  partial,  and  perhaps  complete,  dislocations  occurring  as  a  second- 
ary result  of  rupture  of  the  lateral  ligaments  or  fracture  of  the  fibula 
and  internal  malleolus,  as  in  fracture  by  eversion  at  the  ankle,  are  fre- 
quent, and  always  need  to  be  guarded  against  in  the  treatment  of  this 
last-named  injury ;  they  are  produced  either  by  the  falling  backward 
of  the  insufficiently  supported  foot,  as  the  patient  lies  upon  his  back, 
or  by  contraction  of  the  flexor  muscles,  and  occasionally  subcutaneous 
division  of  the  tendo  A  chillis  has  been  resorted  to  to  overcome  or 
prevent  it. 

Honigschmied  produced  the  dislocation  twenty  times  and  found  the 
results  quite  constant;  in  14  the  internal  lateral  and  the  anterior  branch 
of  the  external  lateral  ligament  were  the  first  to  yield,  being  torn  away 
from  their  insertions,  then  the  middle  and  posterior  branches  of  the 
external  lateral  ligament  yielded,  and  the  foot  was  thus  completely 
freed.  The  ligaments  were  torn  away,  and  occasionally  small  scales 
of  bone  came  away  with  them.  In  5  experiments  on  the  bodies  of 
elderly  people,  both  malleoli  were  broken  off  in  3,  and  the  external 
malleolus  in  2.  The  internal  malleolus  broke  at  its  base,  and  the  line 
of  fracture  ran  downward  and  backward;  that  of  the  external  mal- 
leolus ran  upward  and  backward,  beginning  ju^t  above  the  insertion 
of  the  anterior  branch  of  the  lateral  ligament. 

Clinically  and  post  mortem  the  same  lesions  have  been  found;  frac- 
ture of  the  external  malleolus  is  common,  that  of  the  internal  mal- 
leolus and  of  the  posterior  articular  border  of  the  tibia  is  occasionally 
seen. 

The  foot  appears  sliortened  in  front,  and  the  heel  lengthened,  to  an 
extent  that  varies  with  the  degree  of  the  displacement,  the  maximum 
being  about  an  inch;  the  lower  end  of  the  tibia  projects  more  or  less 
markedly  in  front  and  sometimes  is  exposed  by  rupture  of  the  skin; 
the  extensor  tendons  may  be  felt  as  tense  cords  crossing  to  the  dorsum 
of  the  foot,  and  the  tendo  Achillis  curves  backward  to  the  heel  leaving 
on  each  side  a  well-marked  depression  between  itself  and  the  malleolus. 
The  toes  may  be  a  little  depressed,  and  perhaps  abducted  or  adducted. 
If  the  fibula  is  broken  its  malleolus  accompanies  the  foot  in  its  dis- 
placement backward. 

Reduction,  with  the  exception  of  Cooper's  first  case,  in  which  he 


790  DISL  0  CA  TIONS. 

appears  not  to  have  made  the  diagnosis  at  the  time,  has  always  been 
easily  obtained  by  pressing  the  foot  forward  and  the  lower  end  of  the 
leg  backward,  and  the  limb  should  then  be  immobilized,  preferably  in 
a  posterior  moulded  splint  so  as  more  surely  to  prevent  recurrence. 

2.  Dislocations  Forwaed. 
(Syn.  Dislocations  of  the  lower  end  of  the  tibia  backward.) 

In  this  dislocation,  which  is  much  rarer  than  the  preceding,  the 
astragalus,  and  with  it  the  foot,  is  displaced  forward  from  beneath  the 
tibia.  Malgaigne  collected  only  five  cases,  Delamotte,  Colles,  Nela- 
ton,  Pierre,  and  R.  W.  Smith,  and  I  am  able  to  add  only  five  more, 
Huguier,^  Sarazin,^  Augarde,'  Willemin,*  and  Hornby,^  making  ten 
in  all. 

The  mode  of  production  may  be  by  dorsal  flexion  of  the  foot  fol- 
lowed by  impulsion  of  the  tibia  downward  and  backward  by  a  force 
acting  in  the  direction  of  its  long  axis,  or  by  direct  pressure  of  the 
foot  forward  and  of  the  leg  backward  while  they  are  at  right  angles  to 
each  other.  Among  the  recorded  cases  are  clear  examples  of  each, 
such  as  R.  W.  Smith's  and  Nelaton's  of  the  former,  and  Huguier's 
of  the  latter.  E,.  W.  Smith's®  patient,  while  standing  with  the  hip 
and  knee  flexed  and  with  the  foot  resting  on  a  stone  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  toes  were  higher  than  the  heel,  was  struck  upon  the  knee  by 
a  falling  cask  which  forced  it  downward  and  increased  the  flexion  at  the 
knee  and  ankle.  In  Nelaton's  case,'^  a  woman,  who  fell  from  the 
fourth  floor,  the  anterior  lip  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  tibia  was 
broken  off,  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  astragalus  was  scratched 
antero-posteriorly,  showing  that  the  tibia  had  been  inclined  forward  so 
that  the  edge  of  the  fracture  was  in  contact  with  the  astragalus  and 
had  been  pressed  firmly  against  it  as  the  tibia  slipped  backward. 

The  second  method  of  production  differs,  therefore,  from  the  first 
only  in  the  direction  in  which  the  force  and  counter-force  are  applied, 
both  acting,  in  the  second,  at  right  angles  to  the  long  axis  of  the  limb, 
the  one  upon  the  front  of  the  lower  end  of  the  tibia,  the  other  in  the 
opposite  direction  upon  the  back  of  the  heel.  Huguier's  case  is  an 
example:  a  man,  while  engaged  in  turning  a  railway  turntable,  fell 
and  caught  his  foot  in  such  a  manner  that  the  heel  was  fixed  and  a 
projecting  rail  on  the  moving  turntable  pressed  against  the  front  of 
the  tibia  six  inches  above  the  ankle  and  produced  a  well-marked  dis- 
location of  the  foot  forward. 

The  symptoms  are  lengthening  of  the  front  of  the  foot  and  shorten- 
ing of  the  heel,  with  effacement  of  the  depressions  on  each  side  of  the 
tendo  Achillis.  The  foot  is  in  the  position  of  more  or  less  plantar 
flexion,  and  in  one  or  two  cases  the  hollow  of  the  instep  was  exagger- 
ated.   The  upper  articular  surface  of  the  astragalus  can  be  felt  in  front 

1  Huguier :  Gaz.  des  Hopitaux,  1855,  p.  469,  and  Arch.  g6n.  de  M6d.,  1868,  vol.  i.  p.  513. 

"  Sarazin  :  Recueil  de  mem.  de  m(5d.  chir.  et  pharm.  mil.,  1860,  vol.  iv.  p.  66. 

3  Augarde :  Idem,  1880,  vol.  xxxvl.  p.  168. 

<  Willemin  :  L'Union  m6d.,  1866,  vol.  xxix.  pp.  50  and  73. 

s  Hornby:  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1871,  vol.  ii.  p.  10. 

'J  R.  W.  Smith  :  Dublin  Quarterly  Journal  of  Medicine,  1852,  vol.  i.  p.  465. 

"  N61aton:  Pathol,  externe,  vol.  ii.  p.  477. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  OB  NEAR  THE  ANKLE.  791 

of  the  end  of  the  tibia,  and  the  malleoli  are  nearer  to  the  heel  and  to 
the  sole  than  normal. 

In  four  cases  reduction  was  easily  made  by  traction  and  direct  press- 
ure; in  Smith's  it  could  not  be  made,  but  tiiere  is  reason  to  think  the 
efforts  were  not  guided  by  a  correct  appreciation  of  the  nature  of  the 
injury;  Nelaton's  patient  was  killed  by  the  fall;  in  the  remaining  cases 
the  details  of  treatment  are  lacking, 

3.  Dislocations  Inward. 

In  this  division  are  placed  those  cases  in  which,  usually  by  adduction 
and  inversion  (supination),  the  foot  is  moved  downward  and  to  the 
inner  side,  so  that  the  astragalus  leaves  the  tibio-fibular  mortise  more 
or  less  completely.  Two  distinct  forms  are  observed :  in  one  the  foot 
is  markedly  inverted  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  astragalus  can  be 
seen  and  felt  raising  the  skin  under  the  external  malleolus;  in  the 
other  the  inversion  of  the  foot  is  less  or  is  absent  and  there  is  marked 
adduction,  so  that  sometimes  the  ends  of  the  toes  point  directly  inward; 
in  the  latter  form  it  is  thought  that  the  displacement  is  secondary  to  a 
backward  dislocation. 

Malgaigne  includes  in  the  group  (which  he  terms  tibio-tarsal  dislo- 
cations outward)  many  cases  complicated  by  fracture  of  the  astragalus 
or  of  one  or  both  bones  of  the  leg;  but  of  his  total  of  22  cases,  8  were 
not  thus  complicated,  and  to  these  I  can  add  5,  Busch,^  Nunnely,- 
Eames,^  Carmichael,*  and  Spaeth,'  I  have  described  under  "  frace 
tures  by  inversion  and  adduction  of  the  foot"  the  lesions  and  symp- 
toms in  cases  in  which  fracture  is  present  and  the  displacement  is  slight- 
Excluding  for  the  moment  those  cases  in  which  the  displacement  i. 
secondary  to  a  backward  dislocation,  it  seems  probable  that  the  causs 
is  violent  supination,  or  inversion,  of  the  foot,  but  the  histories  of  the 
cases  do  not  positively  establish  this  opinion.  In  most  the  cause  has 
been  a  fall,  usually  from  a  height. 

The  astragalus  fits  so  snugly  and  squarely  into  the  tibio-fibular  mor- 
tise that  in  a  considerable  proportion  of  cases  it  cannot  be  turned  in  it 
about  its  own  autero-posterior  axis  without  breaking  the  external  mal- 
leolus or  forcing  it  away  from  the  tibia  by  the  pressure  of  the  upper 
outer  edge  of  the  astragalus.  In  the  experiments  which  Honig- 
schmied  made  by  fixing  the  foot  in  a  vise  and  bending  the  leg  directly 
toward  the  inner  side — tibial  flexion — the  external  malleolus  was 
broken  5  times,  the  external  lateral  ligament  torn  from  its  insertion 
12  times,  and  in  3  cases  the  joint  remained  unopened  and  separation 
took  place  between  the  astragalus  and  the  calcaneum.  These  results 
coincide  in  the  main  with  those  obtained  in  a  similar  manner  by  Bon- 
net, and  Honigschmied  accepts  the  latter' s  opinion  that  the  fracture  of 
the  malleolus  is  effected  by  the  direct  pressure  upon  it  of  the  outer 
upper  border  of  the  astragalus  and  not  by  traction  exerted  through  the 
external  lateral  ligament.  Bonnet  frequently  found  the  internal  mal- 
leolus also  broken,  Il5nigschmied  never. 

1  Buscb  :  Lehrbuch  der  Chir.,  vol.  ii.,  part  3,  p.  327  ;  quoted  by  Lessen. 

-  Nunnely :  British  Medical  Journal,  1868,  vol.  ii.  p.  362. 

3  Eames  :  Idem,  1871,  vol.  i.  p.  503.  ^  Carmichael :  Idem,  1871,  vol.  ii.  p.  35. 

^  Spaeth  :  Mlinchen.  med.  Wochen.,  January  17, 1888. 


792  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  one  case,  Busch,  in  which  there  was  no  fracture,  the  dislocation 
was  compound  and  the  bones  of  the  leg  protruded  through  the  wound 
in  front,  the  astragalus  lay  entirely  to  the  inner  side  of  the  internal 
malleolus,  and  the  foot  was  greatly  adducted;  Busch  thought  the  dis- 
location had  been  primarily  backward.  In  Bardy's  case  fracture  of 
the  fibula  was  noted,  and  in  Ravaton's  (both  quoted  by  Malgaigne) 
there  was  diastasis  of  the  lower  tibio-fibular  joint,  which  gave  him 
much  trouble  in  the  treatment. 

In  some  cases,  in  which  the  displacement  inward  may  be  assumed  to 
have  been  secondary  to  a  backward  dislocation,  the  adduction  of  the 
foot  has  been  very  great,  90  degrees,  so  that  the  toes  pointed  directly 
toward  the  other  ankle;  in  the  others  the  adduction  is  less,  but  the 
inversion  is  great:  in  Carmichael's  ''  the  plantar  aspect  pointed  to  the 
middle  line  of  the  body,"  in  Eames's  '^  the  plantar  aspect  of  the  foot 
was  completely  inverted,"  in  Spaeth's  the  inner  border  lay  directly 
beneath  the  tibia.  In  some  the  external  malleolus  was  very  promi- 
nent; in  Nunnely's  "  there  was  a  large  and  well-marked  projection 
below  the  outer  malleolus"  over  which  the  skin  was  very  tense,  and 
''  there  was  a  deep,  narrow  depression  at  the  inner  malleokis  where  the 
skin  was  also  very  tight." 

Reduction  has  always  been  easily  effected  by  traction  and  eversion 
of  the  foot,  and  in  the  uncomplicated  cases  the  recovery  has  been 
complete. 

4.  Dislocations  Outwaed, 

The  injuries  which  have  been  described  under  this  head  are,  almost 
without  exception,  those  which  are  now  commonly  known  as  Pott's 
fracture  at  the  ankle,  and  which  have  been  described  in  Chapter  XXV. 
as  fractures  by  eversion  and  abduction  of  the  foot.  A  few  more  or 
less  doubtful  cases  have  been  reported  which  differ  more  or  less  from 
those  of  Pott's  fracture  in  their  mode  of  production  and  lesions,  and 
which  might  be  termed  partial  dislocations  of  the  foot  outward.  One 
such,  Boyer,  has  been  quoted  in  Chapter  LVI.  as  an  example  of 
upward  dislocation  of  the  head  of  the  fibula. 

In  four  cases,  Huguier,^  Thomas,^  Soubie,^  and  Knust,'^  the  foot  has 
been  so  far  abducted  that  the  toes  pointed  directly  outward.  This  form 
was  first  observed  by  Huguier  and  described  by  him  as  "  dislocation  of 
the  foot  by  I'otation  outward.''  His  patient  was  overthrown  by  a  cask, 
which  rolled  upon  his  legs;  Thomas's  by  a  falling  mass  of  straw; 
Soubie's  fell  from  a  height  of  six  feet,  alighting  upon  his  left  foot, 
which  was  then  engaged  between  a  large  stone  and  the  trunk  of  a  vine, 
while  the  body  was  twisted  to  the  right,  and  the  patient  fell  on  his 
right  side;  and  Knust's  twisted  his  right  foot  in  like  manner,  the  body 
turning  to  the  left.  In  Huguier' s  case  the  external  malleolus  was 
separated  from  the  tibia,  pressed  backward,  and  rotated  outward,  and 
the  shaft  of  the  fibula  was  broken  in  the  upper  third.  In  the  other 
two  cases  no  fracture  was  found.  Reduction  was  easily  effected  under 
anaesthesia  in  the  first  three  cases;  not  mentioned  in  the  fourth. 

1  Huguier :  L' Union  Medicale,  1848,  p.  128.  -  Thomas  :  Revue  de  Chirurgie,  1887,  p.  821. 

3  Soubie  :  Quoted  by  Thomas.  *  Knust :  Centbl.  fiir  Chir.,  1898,  p.  320. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  OR  NEAR  THE  ANKLE.  793 


5.  Compound  and  Complicated  Dislocations  of  the  Foot. 

Dislocations  of  the  foot  may  be  compound,  primarily  or  secondarily, 
with  protrusion  of  the  bones  of  the  leg  or  of  the  astragalus  through 
the  wound,  and  they  may  be  complicated  by  rupture  of  bloodvessels 
and  by  other  fractures  than  those  of  the  malleoli  already  referred  to. 

In  dislocations  that  are  primarily  conipouud  the  wound  of  the  skin 
may  be  made  from  within  outward  by  the  projecting  bone  or  by  contact 
with  the  ground.  In  those  that  become  secondarily  compound  the 
sloughing  of  the  soft  parts  may  be  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  unre- 
duced bones  or  to  bruising  of  the  soft  parts  inflicted  at  the  time  of 
dislocation. 

Statistics  that  have  been  collected  from  the  period  anterior  to  the 
introduction  of  antiseptic  methods  cannot  be  trusted  to  show  the  neces- 
sity or  desirability  of  amputation  or  excision.  Later  ones  (Scudder') 
show  that  conservative  treatment  may  be  safely  tried  in  many  cases. 
Amputation  or  excision  is  indicated  when  infection  is  certain,  the 
patient  feeble,  or  the  functional  result  otherwise  likely  to  be  bad. 
Neither  the  loss  of  the  astragalus  nor  anchylosis  of  the  ankle-joint 
usually  causes  much  disability.  Particular  attention  must  be  given 
to  drainage,  and  as  the  astragalus  completely  fills  the  space  between 
the  malleoli  separate  drainage  must  be  provided  for  the  back  and  front 
of  the  joint. 

The  limb  must  be  carefully  immobilized  with  the  foot  at  a  right 
angle  to  the  leg  and  without  inversion  or  eversion,  in  order  that  if  the 
joint  should  become  stiff  the  disability  will  not  be  increased  by  a 
faulty  position  of  the  foot. 

Subastragaloid  Dislocations.     Dislocation  of  the  Astragalo-calcaneoid  and 
the  Astragalo-scaphoid  Joints. 

For  the  establishment  of  this  group  in  the  classification  of  disloca- 
tions of  the  tarsal  bones  we  are  indebted  to  Broca,^  who,  in  a  remark- 
able paper  read  before  the  Societe  de  Chirurgie  in  1852,  carefully 
analyzed  the  scattered  cases  that  had  been  reported  under  various  titles 
and  gave  a  detailed  and  systematic  description  of  the  various  forms  of 
the  injury,  to  which  little  has  since  been  added  except  in  amplification 
of  the  statistics.  His  plan  of  subdivision  recognized  dislocations  back- 
ward, inward,  and  outward  of  the  calcaneum  and  scaphoid  from  the 
astragalus.  Malgaigne  added  a  fourth  variety,  dislocations  forward, 
and  changed  the  nomenclature  by  treating  the  astragalus  as  the  dislo- 
cated bone  and  applying  the  terms  indicative  of  the  direction  of  the 
displacement  according  to  its  position  with  relation  to  the  others.  I 
shall  here  follow  Broca's  use  of  the  terms,  which  is  in  harmony  with 
that  used  in  the  other  dislocations. 

The  dislocation,  then,  presents  four  varieties:  that  in  which  the  cal- 
caneum and  scaphoid  are  displaced  inward  (and  somewhat  backward), 
the  head  of  the  astragalus  projecting  on  the  outer  part  of  the  dorsum 

1  Scudder  :  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  April  7,  1892. 

2  Broca :  M^^'in.  de  la  Soc.  de  Chirurgie,  1852,  vol.  ill.  p.  566,  and  abstract  in  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de 
Chirurgie,  1853,  vol.  iii.  p.  241. 


794 


DISLOCATIONS. 


of  the  foot;  that  in  which  they  are  displaced  outward;  and  those  in 
which  they  are  displaced  directly  forward  or  backward  and  downward. 
The  first  two  are  about  equal  in  frequency  and  together  comprise  most 
of  the  reported  cases;  of  each  of  the  last  two  only  one  or  two  exam- 
ples have  been  reported.  The  most  notable  addition  to  the  collected 
statistics  has  been  made  by  Poiosot.^ 


Fig.  325. 


1.  Dislocations  Inward,  or  Inward  and  Backward. 

The  cause  is  forcible  inversion  and  adduction  of  the  foot,  usually 
combined  with  violence  acting  in  the  direction  of  the  long  axis  of  the 
leg,  as  in  a  fall  from  a  height.  The  displacement  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
directly  inward,  but  is  also  somewhat  backward,  so  that  the  head  of 
the  astragalus  rests  partly  upon  the  cuboid.  The  only  autopsy  is  one 
made  in  an  old  case  by  Quenu;^  there  were  shortening  of  the  dorsum 
of  the  foot  and  elongation  of  the  heel,  and  the  foot  was  in  the  position 
of  varus.  The  head  of  the  astragalus  lay  upon  the  interarticular  lines 
between  the  calcaneum  and  cuboid  and  the  cuboid  and  scaphoid,  over- 
lapping the  former  half  an  inch  and  thus  resting  on  the  cuboid.     The 

posterior  border  of  the  astragalus  lay  in  the 
groove  between  the  anterior  and  posterior 
superior  articular  surfaces  of  the  calcaneum, 
and  its  posterior  lip  had  been  broken  off  and 
remained  in  its  normal  relations  with  the 
calcaneum.  There  was  no  fracture  of  either 
malleolus.  The  dorsalis  pedis  artery  and  the 
extensor  tendons  lay  to  the  inner  side  of  the 
head  of  the  astragalus;  the  peroneal  tendons 
had  been  displaced  from  their  groove  and 
separated  half  an  inch  from  the  fibula.  In 
other  cases  the  displacement  has  been  greater 
and  the  skin  has  been  broken  on  the  outer 
side  of  the  foot;  in  one  of  Malgaigne's  the 
head  of  the  astragalus  was  almost  in  contact 
with  the  fifth  metatarsal  bone  ;  in  one  of 
Letenneur's  it  corresponded  to  the  outer  bor- 
der of  the  foot  and  projected  entirely  through 
a  wound  in  the  skin,  and  the  calcaneum  had 
been  completely  displaced  from  its  inferior 
articular  surface.  The  form  and  degree  of 
the  displacement  vary  with  the  different  com- 
binations of  displacement  inward,  backward, 
and  by  adduction  of  the  front  of  the  foot,  the  latter  sometimes  leaving 
the  posterior  part  of  the  calcaneum  less  displaced  inward  than  its  front 
part.  With  the  dislocation  there  are  sometimes  associated  injury  to 
the  calcaneo-cuboid  joint,  rupture  of  its  ligaments,  and  partial  disloca- 
tion of  the  bones. 


Subastragaloid  dislocation  in- 
ward ;  5,  sustentaculum  tali ;  4, 
inner  malleolus.    (Du  Bodrg.) 


1  Poinsot :  L'intervention  chirurgicale  dans  les  luxations  compliqu^es  du  cou-de-pied,  Paris,  1877, 
and  his  translation  of  Hamilton's  Fractures  and  Dislocations,  p.  1196. 

2  Qu6nu  :  Progres  Med.,  1883,  p.  187. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  OR  NEAR  THE  ANKLE. 


705 


Fig  326 


The  symptoms  are  ndore  or  less  shortening  of  the  dorsum  of  the 
foot  and  lengthening  of  the  heel,  adduction  of  the  toes,  and  elevation 
of  the  inner  border  of  the  foot;  prominence  of  the  tip  of  the  external 
malleolus  and  of  the  head  of  the  astragalus  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
dorsum,  with  marked  depressibility  of  the  soft  parts  below  each;  the 
internal  malleolus  is  deeply  placed  under  the  skin,  and  below  and 
behind  it  can  be  felt  the  projecting  sustentaculum  tali,  and  in  front  of 
it  the  inner  surface  of  the  scaphoid. 

2.  Dislocations  Outward. 

Of  these  Malgaigne  makes  two  varieties,  distinguished  clinically  by 
the  existence  of  marked  abduction  of  the  toes  in  one,  and  its  absence 
in  the  other.  In  the  former  (his  luxation  oblique  en  dedans,  or  obliquely 
outward,  according  to  the  nomenclature  here  used)  the  posterior  artic- 
ular surface  of  the  astragalus  is  not  separated  from  the  calcaneum,  but 
the  foot  has  turned  upon  the  posterior  calcaneo-astragaloid  joint,  or  upon 
the  outer  part  of  the  interosseous  ligament  as  a  centre,  and  the  scaphoid 
has  been  carried  to  the  outer  side  of  the  head  of  the  astragalus,  and 
also  sometimes  either  upward  or  downward.  In 
the  second  form,  that  without  abduction  of  the 
toes,  the  foot  is  displaced  bodily  outward  from 
beneath  and  in  front  of  the  astragalus.  The 
cause  in  the  former  is  forcible  abduction  of  the 
foot  ;  in  the  latter  it  appears  to  be  either  ab- 
duction and  eversion  of  the  foot,  or  great  vio- 
lence exerted  directly  against  the  inner  side  of 
the  foot,  or  the  outer  side  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  leg.  The  dislocation  may  be  primarily  or 
secondarily  compound,  the  wound  in  the  skin 
corresponding  to  the,  head  of  the  astragalus, 
which  may  project  entirely  through  it.  The 
tendon  of  the  tibialis  anticus  sometimes  lies 
along  the  inner  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  of 
the  astragalus,  which  is  thus  tightly  held  be- 
tween it  and  the  calcaneo-scaphoid  ligament. 
In  a  case  of  the  oblique  form  quoted  by  Mal- 
gaigne, in  which  the  patient  died  four  days  after 
the  accident,  the  outer  part  of  the  interosseous 
ligament  in  the  sinus  tarsi  was  entire;  the  inner 
part  was  ruptured.  In  one  of  the  complete 
outward  form,  of  which  the  specimen  was  dis- 
sected, and  reported  by  Nelaton^  (^ig*  326),  the 
head  of  the  astragalus  rested  against  the  inner 
side  of  the  scaphoid,  and  its  posterior  lip  was 
engaged  in  the  groove  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  calcaneum  ;  the 
lower  part  of  the  internal  lateral  ligament,  the  interosseous  ligament, 
and  the  astragalo-scaphoid  ligament  were  ruptured,  and  the  posterior 
and  outer  part  of  the  external  malleolus  was  broken. 


Subastragaloid  dislocation 
outward.  (Malgaigne.) 


1  N61aton  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1835,  p.  38. 


796  DISLOCATIONS. 

The  calcaneo-CLiboid  joint  may  also  be  injured,  and  the  bones  partly 
displaced  from  each  other. 

The  symptoms  in  the  oblique  variety  are  the  marked  abduction  of 
the  foot,  more  or  less  eversion,  and  marked  prominence  of  the  head  of 
the  astragalus  on  the  inner  side.  In  a  case  reported  by  Boyer  the  dis- 
placement was  slight,  and  was  at  first  overlooked;  when  recognized,  it 
was  irreducible,  but  the  patient  regained  good  use  of  the  limb. 

The  symptoms  in  the  variety  in  which  the  displacement  is  directly 
outward  are  the  marked  displacement  of  the  foot,  with  but  little,  if 
any,  eversion  or  abduction,  the  axis  of  the  leg  falling  to  the  inner  side, 
and  somewhat  in  front  of  the  part  of  the  foot  to  which  it  normally 
corresponds.  Above  the  outer  surface  of  the  calcaneum  and  cuboid 
is  a  notable  depression  in  the  place  of  the  usual  prominences  formed 
by  the  external  malleolus  and  the  head  of  the  astragalus.  The  inter- 
nal malleolus  is  very  prominent  and  nearer  to  the  level  of  the  sole, 
and  below  and  in  front  of  it  is  the  projecting  head  of  the  astragalus. 
On  the  dorsum  of  the  foot  the  scaphoid  is  recognizable  with  a  depression 
behind  it. 

3.  Dislocation  Backward. 

In  this  the  calcaneum  and  scaphoid  are  displaced  directly  backward, 
the  scaphoid  descending  to  a  lower  level  so  as  to  lie  under  the  head  or 
neck  of  the  astragalus.  Deviation  of  the  foot  to  either  side  would 
create  forms  intermediate  between  this  and  the  two  preceding  ones.  A 
number  of  reported  cases,  which  were  claimed  to  be  subluxations  of 
this  kind,  the  relations  between  the  scaphoid  and  astragalus  being 
changed  while  those  between  the  calcaneum  and  astragalus  remained 
unchanged,  were  rejected  by  Broca  as  errors  of  diagnosis,  but  are 
accepted  by  Malgaigne  as  probably  correct.  In  some  of  them  reduc- 
tion was  easy;  in  others  it  failed,  but  the  persistence  of  the  displace- 
ment did  not  permanently  impair  the  functions  of  the  limb. 

Of  the  complete  form  there  are  only  two  recorded  examples  :  the 
first  is  the  much  quoted  case  of  Prof.  Carmichael,  reported  by  Mac- 
donald.^  Carmichael,  in  his  effort  to  avoid  a  fall  w^hen  his  horse 
stumbled  and  came  upon  his  knees,  leaned  back  in  the  saddle  and 
thrust  his  feet  forward;  his  weight  was  received  upon  the  inner  side 
of  the  ball  of  the  right  foot,  and  the  dislocation  was  thereby  produced, 
the  deformity  being  so  great  that  it  was  recognizable  through  his  boot. 
The  toes  were  abducted  about  30  degrees,  the  foot  slightly  everted; 
the  concavity  of  the  tendo  Achillis  was  manifestly  increased  and  the 
heel  lengthened;  the  astragalus  could  not  be  felt  behind  the  tibia. 
Below  and  in  front  of  the  inner  malleolus  was  a  hard  prominence,  over 
which  the  skin  was  tense,  formed  by  the  inner  surface  of  the  astragalus. 
The  most  striking  deformity  was  a  prominence  on  the  dorsum  of  the 
foot;  "  immediately  in  front  of  the  tibia  it  presented  a  flat  surface 
broad  enough  to  receive  the  finger,  from  which  there  was  an  abrupt 
descent  upon  the  anterior  part  of  the  tarsus.  Over  the  projection 
caused  by  the  head  of  the  astragalus  thrown  on  the  upper  surface  of 

1  Macdonald  :  Dublin  Quarteily  Journal  Med.  Sci.,  1838,  vol.  xiv.  p.  235. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  OR  NEAR  THE  ANKLE.  797 

the  scaphoid  and  cuneiform  bones,  the  integuments  were  so  tense  that 
it  was  very  evident  a  small  additional  force  would  have  driven  it 
through  the  skin."  The  distance  from  the  internal  malleolus  to  the 
end  of  the  great  toe  was  one  inch  less  than  on  the  other  foot.  No 
fracture  could  be  found.  Flexion  and  extension  were  very  painful. 
The  dislocation  was  reduced  by  traction  with  the  pulleys  and  direct 
pressure  on  the  heel  and  leg. 

The  second  case  was  observed  by  Thierry,  and  communicated  to 
Malgaigne  by  Broca;  the  dislocation  was  caused  by  a  fall  upon  the 
toes;  the  head  of  the  astragalus  was  prominent  under  the  skin,  the 
front  of  the  foot  appeared  shortened,  the  heel  lengthened;  the  foot  was 
extended,  and  not  deviated  to  either  side.     Good  recovery. 

An  irregular  case  of  subastragaloid  dislocation  backward  and  out- 
ward in  which  the  scaphoid  preserved  its  relations  with  the  astragalus 
and  the  anterior  portion  of  the  line  of  dislocation  ran  between  the 
scaphoid  and  cuneiform  bones  was  reported  by  Kaufmann.^  The  dis- 
placement had  existed  nine  months  and  was  then  treated  by  excision 
of  the  scaphoid  and  head  of  the  astragalus  with  a  good  result. 

4.  Dislocation  Forward. 

Of  this  only  two  examples  have  been  reported,  one  by  Parise, 
quoted  by  Malgaigne,  the  other  by  Broca. ^  Parise' s  patient  was 
injured  by  being  crushed  under  a  heavy  weight,  the  thigh  being  flexed 
on  the  trunk,  the  leg  on  the  thigh,  and  the  foot  on  the  leg  (dorsal 
.flexion).  Nine  months  afterward  the  condition  was  as  follows  :  the 
foot  was  at  a  right  angle  with  the  leg,  a  little  adducted,  and  very 
slightly  everted;  it  was  displaced  forward,  so  that  it  appeared  length- 
ened in  front,  and  the  external  malleolus  almost  touched  the  tendo 
Achillis.  The  extensor  tendons  on  the  instep  were  tense,  and  no 
prominence  could  be  felt  beneath  them,  but  on  the  outer  side  a  bony 
prominence  could  be  felt,  which  was  thought  to  be  the  head  of  the 
astragalus,  and  immediately  in  front  was  a  depression  which  admitted 
the  finger.  The  hollow  between  the  astragalus  and  calcaneum  seemed 
to  be  filled.  Behind,  the  prominence  of  the  heel  was  completely  lost, 
the  leg  flattened,  and  its  surface  interrupted  at  the  level  of  and  a  little 
below  the  malleoli  by  a  bony  prominence  which  raised  the  tendo 
Achillis  and  overlapped  the  heel  nearly  half  an  inch;  above  it  was 
another,  less  prominent,  formed  by  the  posterior  articular  edge  of  the 
tibia.  There  was  no  trace  of  fracture,  no  separation  of  the  malleoli. 
There  was  slight  motion  in  the  tibio-tarsal  joint;  motion  in  the  joints 
of  the  tarsus  was  entirely  lost.  The  patient  could  hardly  walk  without 
crutches. 

In  Broca' s  case  the  displacement  was  much  less  marked,  and  the 
only  symptoms  were  an  increase  of  one  centimetre  in  the  distance  from 
the  internal  malleolus  to  the  great  toe,  and  a  corresponding  shortening 
of  the  heel,  and  the  absence  of  abnormal  prominence  of  the  astragalus 
•in  front  of  the  tibia.   By  traction  and  pressure  under  chloroform  the  in- 

1  Kaufmann  :  Central  blatt  fur  Chir.,  1888,  p.  869. 

2  Broca :  Report  by  Petit  of  a  clinical  lecture,  Gaz.  hebdom.,  1874,  p.  316. 


798  DISLOCATIONS. 

equality  in  the  measurements  was  overcome  and  the  patient,  at  the  time 
of  the  report,  was  in  a  fair  way  to  recover.  So  far  as  can  be  judged 
from  the  report,  Broca  did  not  consider  the  diagnosis  entirely  clear,  and 
the  symptoms  as  given  are  identical  with  those  of  Sarazin's  case  of 
incomplete  tibio-tarsal  dislocation  forward.  The  differential  diagnosis 
between  these  two  injuries  would  have  to  be  made  on  the  existence  of 
a  gap  between  the  astragalus  and  scaphoid  in  the  subastragaloid  dislo- 
cation, and  the  absence  of  such  a  gap  and  possibly  the  abnormal  promi- 
nence of  the  upper  articular  surface  of  the  astragalus  in  front  of  the 
tibia  in  the  incomplete  tibio-tarsal  dislocation  forward.  The  recogni- 
tion of  either  symptom  might  be  made  difficult  or  impossible  by 
swelling. 

Diagnosis  of  Subastragaloid  Dislocations. 

If  the  date  of  the  injury  is  so  recent  that  swelling  has  not  yet  super- 
vened, or  so  remote  that  it  has  disappeared,  the  diagnosis  may  usually 
be  made  with  considerable  ease  and  certainty,  but  if  swelling  is  pres- 
ent it  may  be  very  difficult.  The  important  functional  features  are 
the  preservation  of  the  normal  movements  in  the  tibio-tarsal  joint, 
and  the  loss  or  the  exaggeration  in  one  or  the  other  direction  of  the 
lateral  and  rotatory  movements  of  the  foot  which  take  place  in  the 
subastragaloid  and  medio-tarsal  joints.  As  no  lateral  motion  takes 
place  in  the  tibio-tarsal  joint,  except  in  the  position  of  full  plantar 
flexion,  the  exaggeration  of  the  normal  movement  to  either  side  must 
be  due,  when  the  ankle  is  sound,  to  injury  of  the  two  last-named  joints. 
The  physical  signs  are  the  preservation  of  the  relations  between  the 
astragalus  and  the  bones  of  the  leg,  as  shown  by  the  normal  relations 
of  the  malleoli  to  the  head  of  the  astragalus  and  by  the  absence  of 
abnormal  projection  of  the  body  of  the  astragalus  in  front  or  behind 
the  tibia,  the  changes  in  length  of  the  front  part  of  the  foot  and  heel, 
and  the  change  in  the  relations  of  the  calcaneum  and  scaphoid  with 
the  astragalus  and  malleoli. 

Treatment  of  Subastragaloid  Dislocations. 

The  statistics  collected  by  Broca  and  Poinsot  give  23  simple  cases 
in  which  reduction  was  attempted;  to  these  may  be  added  Pick's^  case. 
Of  these  24  reduction  was  successfully  made  in  14  and  the  ultimate 
result  was  good;  in  2  the  reduction  was  incomplete,  and  1  of  these 
died  of  septicaemia.  The  8  failures  (excluding  the  2  incomplete  reduc- 
tions) gave  4  secondary  amputations  with  3  deaths,  3  secondary  re- 
movals of  the  astragalus  with  1  death,  and  1  good  functional  result 
notwithstanding  the  persistence  of  the  deformity. 

In  7  additional  cases  in  which  reduction  was  not  attempted,  4  of 
the  patients  (Du  Bourg,  Dubreuil,  S^e,  quoted  by  Poinsot,  and  Quenu) 
had  apparently  good  use  of  the  limb,  although  in  1  of  them  sloughing 
and  a  violent  arthritis  followed  the  accident;  in  1,  Brown, ^  reduction 

1  Pick  :  Lancet,  1880,  vol  i.  p.  170. 
-  Brown  :  Lancet,  1876,  vol.  i.  p.  314. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  OR  NEAR  THE  ANKLE.  799 

was  made  after  six  months;  in  2  (Sinnigen,  quoted  by  Poinsot,  Eaffa') 
the  disability  was  such  that  the  patient  sought  relief;  Sinnigen  removed 
the  astragalus  and  external  malleolus,  and  at  the  time  of  the  report 
death  by  septicaemia  was  expected;  liaffa  chiselled  away  the  head  and 
the  neck  of  the  astragalus  and  was  then  able  to  straighten  the  foot; 
recovery  without  suppuration;  good  result. 

In  2  cases  (Verneuil,^  Ore  quoted  by  Poinsot),  primary  excision  of 
the  astragalus  was  done,  in  each  with  a  good  result.  In  Verneuil's 
there  was  fracture  of  the  astragalus  and  rupture  of  the  peroneal  artery; 
in  Ore's  an  attempt  to  reduce  had  failed  and  gangrene  of  the  tense 
skin  was  imminent. 

Of  compound  dislocations  17  cases  were  collected  by  Broca  and  6 
additional  by  Poinsot  in  1884,  and  to  these  1  reported  by  Jackson^  is 
to  be  added;  of  these  reduction  was  made  in  10,  with  2  deaths,  with 
persistent  suppuration  apparently  maintained  by  necrosis  in  2,  and 
with  secondary  removal  of  the  astragalus  in  1,  In  14  reduction  was 
not  made;  in  3  of  these  primary  amputation  was  done,  in  10  removal 
of  the  astragalus,  with  2  deaths,  and  in  1  the  head  of  the  astragalus 
became  necrosed  and  was  spontaneously  cast  out,  the  patient  recover- 
ing. The  results  of  primary  removal  of  the  astragalus  according  to 
these  statistics  are  rather  better  than  those  of  reduction,  but,  as  has 
been  said  before,  the  value  of  these  statistics  as  a  basis  for  the  choice 
of  a  method  of  treatment  has  been  greatly  diminished  by  the  improve- 
ment in  the  methods  of  treatment  of  open  wounds  that  has  taken  place 
in  the  last  few  years,  and  there  is  good  reason  to  hope  that  suppuration 
and  its  attendant  dangers  will  be  less  frequent  in  future. 

Reduction,  which  has  sometimes  been  made  by  traction  with  the 
hands  alone,  more  frequently  has  needed  the  aid  of  pulleys,  even  when 
anaesthesia  has  been  employed.  The  knee  should  be  flexed  to  relax 
the  muscles  of  the  calf,  and  the  traction  in  the  lateral  cases  should  be 
downward  and  usually  also  forward,  and  coaptative  pressure  should  be 
made  upon  the  foot  and  leg.  The  cause  of  the  irreducibility  in  some 
cases  is  not  entirely  clear;  it  has  been  attributed  to  the  engagement  of 
the  posterior  lip  of  the  astragalus  in  the  groove  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  calcaneum,  and  in  the  outward  cases  to  the  constriction  of  the 
astragalus  under  the  tendon  of  the  tibialis  anticus. 

Total  Dislocation  of  the  Astragalus. 

{^'Double  Dislocation  of  the  Astragalus") 

This  dislocation  is  a  combination  of  the  two  preceding  ones,  the 
tibio-tarsal  and  the  subastragaloid,  the  astragalus  being  simultaneously 
displaced  from  its  normal  relations  with  the  bones  of  the  leg,  the  cal- 
caneum, and  the  scaphoid.  It  is  much  more  frequent  than  either  of 
the  other  two  and  is  often  compound.  The  astragalus  may  be  displaced 
forward,  backward,  or  to  either  side,  or  to  any  intermediate  position, 
and  may  at  the  same  time  be  rotated  about  any  of  its  axes,  or  it  may 

1  Raflfa  :  Centralblatt  fur  Chir.,  1885,  p.  211. 

2  Verneuil :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1872,  p.  493. 

3  Jackson  :  Lancet,  1881,  li.  p.  590. 


800  DISLOCATIONS. 

be  rotated  while  remaining  in  the  tibio-fibular  mortise.  The  varieties 
of  dislocation  are,  consequently,  very  numerous,  but  they  may  be 
grouped  as  dislocations  forward,  backward,  outward  and  forward,  and 
inward  and  forward,  these  terms  indicating  the  direction  in  which  the 
astragalus  is  displaced,  and  dislocations  by  rotation,  including  in  the 
latter  only  those  in  which  the  bone  remains  more  or  less  completely 
within  the  mortise. 

The  causes  are  varied,  the  most  common  being  falls  from  a  height 
upon  the  feet  and  violent  twisting  of  the  foot,  as  when  it  has  been 
caught  between  the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  It  is  seldom  possible  to  deter- 
mine the  exact  mode  of  production  in  any  given  case,  and  experiment 
upon  the  cadaver  has  not  done  much  to  elucidate  the  subject;  but  it 
seems  probable  that  dorsal  or  plantar  flexion  and  abduction  or  adduc- 
tion are  requisite  to  rupture  the  ligaments  that  bind  the  astragalus  to 
the  other  bones,  and  that  then  it  is  forced  from  its  place  by  pressure 
exerted  through  the  bones  of  the  leg. 

1.  Dislocation  Forward. 

In  this  form,  which  is  very  rare,  the  astragalus  is  displaced  directly 
forward.  To  the  briefly  described  and  somewhat  doubtful  cases  col- 
lected by  Malgaigne,  Delorme^  added  only  two,  in  one  of  which  (Morel- 
La  vallee)  the  astragalus  had  been  rotated  180  degrees  about  its  vertical 
axis  and  both  malleoli  were  broken;  the  foot  was  very  movable  on  the 
astragalus,  and  the  astragalus  on  the  tibia.  The  sides  of  the  bone 
could  be  distinctly  felt,  and  its  posterior  surface,  which  looked  directly 
forward.  Reduction  was  easily  made.  In  the  other  case,  Barral,  the 
dislocation  was  compound,  the  head  of  the  astragalus  projecting 
through  the  wound  and  resting  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  scaphoid. 
Both  it  and  the  foot  were  freely  movable.  The  extensor  tendons  and 
that  of  the  tibialis  anticus  were  ruptured,  the  malleoli  and  calcaneum 
were  broken. 

2.  Dislocation  Outward  and  Forward. 

In  this,  the  most  common  form,  the  head  of  the  astragalus  rests  on 
the  outer  cuneiform  and  the  cuboid  bones  or  even  on  the  fifth  meta- 
tarsal, its  posterior  part  lying  just  within  the  mortise,  and  is  freely 
movable;  the  foot  is  adducted  and  inverted  and  usually  displaced 
bodily  inward,  so  that  the  external  malleokis  is  prominent  and  the 
internal  hidden,  and  sometimes  the  adduction  of  the  front  of  the  foot 
is  very  marked  and  combined  with  abduction  of  the  heel.  If  the  dis- 
location is  compound  the  astragalus  presents  in  the  wound,  which  com- 
monly extends  backward  to  or  beyond  the  external  malleolus.  The 
lower  end  of  the  fibula  may  be  torn  away  from  the  tibia,  and  either 
or  both  malleoli  broken.  With  the  displacement  may  be  combined 
various  kinds  and  degrees  of  rotation  of  the  astragalus,  and  sometimes 
the  astragalus  is  broken. 

1  Delorme  :  Diet,  de  M<5d.  et  Chir.  pratiques,  1879,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  640. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  OR  NEAR  THE  ANKLE.  801 

3.  Dislocation  Inward  and  Forward. 

In  this,  the  second  in  order  of  frequency,  the  foot  is  everted  and 
abducted,  but  sometimes  is  bodily  displaced  to  the  outer  side  without 
deviation.  The  astragalus  projects  in  front  of  or  below  the  internal 
malleolus,  and  its  head  appears  always  to  be  depressed,  sometimes  so 
far  that  the  bone  must  have  undergone  rotation  of  90  degrees  about  its 
transverse  axis.  In  a  case  reported  by  Hunt^  it  was  so  far  rotated 
about  its  vertical  axis  that  the  head  was  directed  toward  the  middle  of 
the  other  foot.  If  the  injury  is  compound  the  Nvound  lies  on  the  inner 
side  and  extends  backward  below  the  malleolus.  It  may  be  accom- 
panied by  fracture  of  the  malleolus. 

4.  Dislocation  Inward. 

A  unique  case  is  reported  by  Seiler.^  The  astragalus  lay  directly 
beneath  the  internal  malleolus  and  had  been  so  rotated  that  its  lower 
surface  looked  inward.  A  free  incision  was  made  and  the  bone 
restored  to  its  place.  The  internal  malleolus  and  sustentaculum  tali 
had  been  broken.     Recovery  with  good  function. 

5.  Dislocation  Backward. 

In  this  form,  which  also  is  rare,  the  astragalus  may  be  displaced 
backward  or  backward  and  to  either  side,  and  in  some  of  the  reported 
cases  the  bone  has  been  broken  at  the  neck  and  only  the  posterior  frag- 
ment has  been  displaced.  Malgaigue^  collected  8  cases,  including  one 
reported  by  Denonvilliers,  which  he  places^  among  "  dislocations  by 
rotation  in  place,"  but  which,  I  think,  belongs  here;  the  cases  are 
Phillips  2,  Lizars,  Liston,  Turner,  jSTelaton,  Denonvilliers,  and  one 
anonymously  reported  in  the  Lancet,  1838-39,  vol.  ii.  p.  559.  To 
these  Delorme  adds  5 — Blatin,  Lejeune,  3IacCormac,  Pichorel,  and 
Cheever  ;  he  also  quotes  Foucher  as  having  reported  two  cases,  but,  I 
think,  erroneously,  one  of  them  being  Denonvilliers' s  case,  the  other 
Thierry's,  a  dislocation  by  rotation.  Another  case  was  reported  by 
Munro,^  and  one  by  myself,^  and  another,  Legros  Clark,  is  reported  in 
MacCormac's  paper,  making  16  in  all.  In  the  seven  printed  in  italics 
the  bone  was  broken  at  the  neck,  and  only  the  posterior  fragment  was 
dislocated.^ 

Of  the  9  not  complicated  by  fracture  of  the  astragalus,  the  disloca- 
tion was  backward  in  6,  backward  and  outward  in  1,  Turner,  and  back- 
ward and  inward  in  2,  Lancet,  Munro.  Reduction  was  made  in  3 
{Lancet,  Blatin,  Munro),  and  failed  in  4,  the  functional  result  being 
good  in  3  of  the  latter;  Tnrner,  and  apparently  Nelatou,  removed  the 
astragalus. 

1  Hunt:  Philadelphia  Medical  Times.  T872,  vol.  lii.  p.  50. 

-'  Seller:  Corre.spblt.  fur  Schweiz.  Aerzte,  August  15,  1893. 

3  Malgaigne  :  Loc,  cit.,  p.  lOoS.  ^  Malgaigne  :  Loe.  cit.,  p.  1060. 

5  Muuro;  Lancet,  1859,  vol.  ii.  p.  364. 

'''  Siimosn  :  New  York  Medical  Journal,  May  28,  18S7,  p.  .594. 

"  The  following  are  two  of  the  references;"  MacCormac  (and  Clark's  ca.=e).  Transactions  of  Ihe 
Pathological  Society  of  London,  1875,  vol.  xxvi.  p.  174,  with  plate  of  specimen  obtained  two  years 
later ;  Cheever,  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  1875,  vol.  xciii.  p.  237. 

51 


802  DISLOCATIONS. 

Of  the  7  complicated  by  fracture,  the  displacement  in  Lejeune's  is 
described  as  backward,  in  the  others  as  backward  and  inward;  the 
difference  is  slight,  for  in  the  latter  the  most  prominent  part  of  the 
astragalus  projects  but  little  beyond  the  level  of  the  side  of  the  internal 
malleolus.  The  tendons  of  the  flexor  longus  digitorum  and  tibialis 
posticus  are  displaced  upon  the  inner  side  of  the  malleolus,  and  that 
of  the  flexor  longus  pollicis  sometimes  lies  to  the  outer  side  of  the 
astragalus  and  sometimes  is  pushed  directly  backward  by  it.  The 
fragment  is  also  rotated,  so  that  its  trochlear  surface  looks  inward, 
and  its  fractured  surface  is  directed  forward  and  downward.  The  line 
of  fracture  runs  from  the  anterior  border  of  the  trochlea  into  the  groove 
occupied  by  the  interosseous  ligament.  In  3,  Lejeune,  MacCormac, 
Denonvilliers,  the  injury  was  compound;  in  Cheever's  the  skin  over 
the  astragalus  sloughed,  but  the  ulcer  soon  healed  without  having 
exposed  the  bone. 

Reduction  was  made  in  none,  although  Pichorel  divided  the  tendo 
Achillis,  and  Cheever  successively  divided  the  tendo  Achillis,  the  tibi- 
alis anticus  and  posticus,  the  flexor  longus  digitorum,  and  the  flexor 
longus  pollicis  at  the  toe.  In  three,  MacCormac,  Clark,  Cheever,  the 
patients  recovered  with  good  use  of  the  limb;  in  1,  Pichorel,  suppura- 
tion followed  and  the  limb  was  amputated;  in  2,  Denonvilliers,  Stim- 
son,  the  posterior  fragment  was  removed  and  both  patients  died,  mine 
of  pneumonia  on  the  ninth  day.     The  result  in  Lejeune's  is  not  stated. 

The  astragalus  can  be  felt  behind  the  ankle,  either  pressing  the  tendo 
Achillis  backward  or  lying  on  one  side  of  it.  If  the  entire  bone  is 
displaced  the  absence  of  the  head  from  its  normal  position  is  shown  by 
the  depressibility  of  the  soft  parts  behind  the  scaphoid.  Marked, 
incorrigible  flexion  of  the  terminal  phalanx  of  the  great  toe  is  noted 
in  three  of  the  cases.  In  mine  the  tendons  of  the  peroneus  longus  and 
brevis  were  displaced  upon  the  outer  side  of  the  external  malleolus. 

In  the  three  cases  in  which  reduction  was  made  the  means  employed 
were  traction  followed  by  extension  of  the  foot,  traction,  direct  pressure, 
and  inversion  of  the  foot,  and  traction  and  direct  pressure;  in  Muuro's 
case  several  months  elapsed  before  the  patient  regained  good  use  of 
the  limb. 

6.   Dislocation  by  Rotation. 

In  this  class  are  not  included  those  numerous  cases  in  which  the  bone 
has  undergone  rotation  in  connection  with  displacement  from  the  tibia 
and  fibula,  but  only  those  in  which  it  still  lies  mainly  within  the 
mortise. 

Two  distinct  varieties  of  this  class  may  be  made;  those  in  which  the 
bone  has  been  rotated  upon  its  vertical  or  transverse  axis,  and  also, 
perhaps,  upon  the  antero-posterior  axis,  but  still  remains  in  great  part 
within  the  mortise;  and  those  in  which  the  bone  still  lies  almost  exactly 
in  its  normal  position  between  the  malleoli  and  has  undergone  only 
rotation  about  its  antero-posterior  axis. 

The  division  between  the  first  variety  and  that  of  dislocations  for- 
ward and  inward  is  rather  arbitrary  and  is  perhaps  not  always  to  be 
made  clinically,  and  the  three  cases  collected  by  Malgaigne  differ 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  OR  NEAR  THE  ANKLE.  80B 

notably  from  one  another.  Barwell/  in  a  valuable  paper  containing 
a  well-observed  and  well-reported  case  of  his  own  and  abstracts  of  all 
the  other  alleged  cases  except  Chevallez's,  proposes  to  term  the  injury 
dislocation  of  the  foot  with  version,  or  with  torsion,  of  the  astragalus, 
applying  the  term  version  to  the  cases  of  rotation  about  the  vertical 
axis,  and  torsion  to  those  of  rotation  about  the  antero-posterior  axis. 
I  see  no  sufficient  reason  for  using  the  term  dislocation  of  the  foot, 
which  has  already  been  employed  for  another  form  of  injury;  and 
version  and  torsion  do  not  in  themselves  indicate  the  sense  in  which 
they  are  used,  but  must  be  accompanied  by  a  definition, 

Malgaigne  gives  four  cases  of  rotation  about  the  vertical  axis,  but 
I  have  placed  one  of  them,  Denonvilliers,  among  the  dislocations 
backward.  To  the  remaining  three  Barwell  adds  two  reported  by 
Verebelyf  in  three  of  them  the  head  of  the  astragalus  lay  below  the 
internal  malleolus,  in  one  just  behind  it,  and  in  one  just  in  front  of 
the  external  malleolus.  As  they  cannot  well  be  grouped  1  give  a  sum- 
mary of  each. 

Laumonier  :  The  head  of  the  astragalus  protruded  under  the  inner 
malleolus  between  the  tendons  of  the  tibialis  posticus  and  flexor  longus 
digitorum,  the  trochlea  lying  transversely  in  the  mortise  and  forcing 
apart  the  tibia  and  fibula. 

Foucher  :'^  The  specimen  was  taken  from  a  subject  found  in  the 
dissecting-room.  The  astragalus  had  been  rotated  90  degrees  about  its 
vertical  axis,  the  trochlea  being  still  upright  in  the  mortise,  and  the 
head  below  the  internal  malleolus.  The  tendon  of  the  tibialis  posticus 
and  the  posterior  tibial  artery  lay  in  front  of  the  internal  malleolus. 
The  posterior  half  of  the  astragalus  lay  on  the  calcaneum,  the  latter 
bone  lying  under  the  external  malleolus  and  displaced  forward  and 
outward,  and  its  axis  directed  forward  and  inward.  The  cuboid  was 
partly  dislocated  downward  from  the  calcaneum.  There  was  no  cica- 
trix; the  foot  was  flattened,  the  heel  shortened. 

Thierry:  The  head  of  the  astragalus  projected  midway  between  the 
internal  malleolus  and  the  tendo  Achillis,  the  outer  border  of  the  foot 
was  much  raised,  and  it  was  then  seen  that  the  bone  was  also  so  turned 
that  its  upper  surface  looked  forward  and  inward,  the  tibia  resting  on 
the  internal  lateral  face  of  the  body  of  the  bone,  and  the  internal  border 
of  the  trochlea  exactly  occupied  the  angle  between  the  internal  mal- 
leolus and  the  under  surface  of  the  tibia.      Amputation;  recovery. 

Verebely:  Male,  twenty-nine.  Fibula  fractured  above  the  malle- 
olus. Under  the  internal  malleolus  the  skin  was  very  tense;  about 
an  inch  lower  there  was  a  hard  bony  prominence  about  half  an  inch 
in  diameter.  Reduction  failed.  At  the  end  of  the  third  week  an 
abscess  was  opened,  and  it  was  seen  that  the  prominence  under  tlie 
malleolus  was  the  head  of  the  astragalus.  After  four  months'  treat- 
ment the  man  could  with  difliculty  put  the  foot  to  the  ground. 

Verebely,  second  case:  Male,  forty-five.  The  foot  was  at  right 
angles  with  the  leg,  the  sole  looking  somewhat  inward  and  upAvard. 

1  Barwell:  Medico-Chlrurpical  Transactions,  1883,  vol.  Ixvi.  p.  39. 

2  Verebely  :  Wiener  med.  WoehenschriJt,  1869,  vol.  xix.  pp.  279  and  296. 

3  Foucher;  Bull,  de  la  Soci(ite  Anatomique,  1854,  vol.  xxix.  p.  888. 


804  DISLOCATIONS. 

^'  Under  the  easily  distinguishable  outer  malleolus  and  in  front  of  it  a 
long  projection  half  an  inch  in  diameter  may  be  plainly  felt;  this  can 
be  moved  without  much  pain  backward  and  forward  independently  of 
the  other  bones.  Behind  the  scaphoid  is  a  considerable  hollow." 
Reduction  failed. 

Of  the  second  variety,  rotation  about  the  antero -posterior  axis,  Mal- 
gaigne  gives  seven  cases,  most  of  which  Barwell  rejects  because  of  the 
incompleteness  of  the  description  or  because  the  astragalus  was  more 
or  less  displaced  from  the  mortise.  Rejecting  Boyer's,  Smith's,  Lis- 
ton's,  and  two  of  Dupuytreu's,  there  still  remain  Malgaigne's  own  and 
one  of  Dupuytren's;  to  these  are  to  be  added  Bar  well's  and  Cheval- 
lez's.^  In  all  four  cases  the  condition  was  shown  by  direct  examina- 
tion: Malgaigne  describes  a  specimen  from  an  old  case,  Chevallez's 
patient  was  killed  by  the  fall  that  caused  the  dislocation,  and  Dupuy- 
tren  and  Barwell  excised  the  astragalus.  In  Malgaigne's,  Chevallez's, 
and  Barwell's  the  rotation  was  outward,  that  is,  the  upper  surface  of 
the  trochlea  had  become  external  and  rested  against  the  inner  face  of 
the  external  malleolus,  although  in  Malgaigne's  the  rotation  was  some- 
what less  than  90  degrees;  in  Dupuytren's  the  bone  was  turned  com- 
pletely upside  down,  rotation  of  180  degrees. 

Of  Malgaigne's  specimen,  which  is  represented  in  his  Atlas,  plate 
XXX.,  Fig.  5,  it  is  said  that  the  head  of  the  astragalus  rested  on  the 
scaphoid  and  cuboid;  its  trochlea,  turned  outward,  corresponded  almost 
entirely  to  the  inner  facet  of  the  fibula,  and  its  inner  side  lay  under 
the  tibia.  The  rotation,  however,  was  not  a  complete  quarter  of  a 
circle,  for  a  portion  of  the  outer  side  of  the  body  of  the  astragalus 
could  still  be  seen  partly  in  contact  with  the  point  of  the  external 
malleolus  and  looking  downward  and  outward.  There  was  bony 
anchylosis  between  the  astragalus  and  calcaneura,  and  it  was  evident 
that  the  man  had  walked  only  on  the  outer  border  of  his  foot. 

In  Chevallez's  specimen  there  was  subluxation  of  the  head  of  the 
astragalus  on  the  scaphoid,  the  upper  surface  of  the  trochlea  was 
turned  outward,  the  calcaneum  was  broken  transversely  and  its  pos- 
terior fragment  driven  up  behind  the  astragalus;  the  lateral  ligaments 
of  the  ankle  were  detached,  and  the  anterior  border  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  tibia  was  broken. 

Dupuytren's  patient  was  a  man  fifty  years  old,  who  had  jumped 
from  a  ladder,  alighting  on  his  heel.  There  was  a  large,  hard,  irreg- 
ular, and  irreducible  prominence  in  front  of  the  tibia  and  extending 
to  the  instep.  An  incision  was  made  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  foot, 
and  the  head  and  neck  of  the  astragalus  were  immediately  brought 
into  view.  Efforts  to  remove  the  bone  failed,  for  the  posterior  part 
was  grasped  and  held  fast  between  the  tibia  and  calcaneura.  On  seek- 
ing for  the  cause  of  this  fixation  it  was  found  that  the  astragalus  was 
turned  around  in  such  a  way  that  its  upper  surface  was  directed  down- 
ward, its  lower  upward,  and  that  the  hook-like  process  at  its  inferior 
and  posterior  part  was  fixed  beneath  the  tibia  so  as  completely  to 
frustrate  our  efforts  to  extract  it.      The  patient  did  well. 

1  Chevallez:  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1870,  vol.  xlv.  p.  406. 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  OR  NEAR  THE  ANKLE.  805 

Barwell's  patient,  a  man  twenty-eight  years  old,  was  injured  by  the 
overturning  of  his  wagon.  When  seen  an  hour  and  a  half  after  the 
aecident  the  foot  was  greatly  inverted,  its  front  somewhat  turned  in, 
the  heel  raised.  The  inner  malleolus  was  much  hidden;  beneath  it  the 
skin  was  thrown  into  two  ridges  by  three  deep  folds  drawn  in  segments 
of  concentric  circles  from  a  centre  a  little  above  the  malleolus.  The 
outer  malleolus  projected  abnormally,  the  skin  ov'er  it  was  rather 
tightly  drawn.  About  an  inch  in  front  of  it  and  a  little  below  its 
level  was  a  rounded  projection,  which  also  somewhat  stretched  the  skin. 
An  inch  and  a  half  up  the  leg  and  in  front  of  the  fibula  was  a  small 
but  deep  wound.  The  foot  was  immovable  and  painful.  Below  and 
in  front  of  the  inner  malleolus  deep  pressure  revealed  absence  of  the 
usual  bony  substratum,  the  finger  sank  into  a  hollow  bounded  in  front 
by  the  tuberosity  of  the  scaphoid,  which  lay  abnormally  near  the  mal- 
leolus. The  rounded  projection  in  front  of  the  malleolus  could  readily 
be  recognized  as  the  head  of  the  astragalus.  A  little  way  behind  this 
was  a  ridge  of  bone,  also  evidently  a  part  of  the  astragalus;  it  led  from 
the  head  backward  and  a  little  upward,  disappearing  under  the  upper 
part  of  the  malleolus,  at  the  angle  between  it  and  the  anterior  edge  of 
the  tibia.  This  ridge  was  markedly  convex  outward.  The  extensor 
tendons,  pressed  together,  ran  in  a  bundle  a  little  distance  inside  the 
rounded  projection.  The  wound  communicated  with  the  injury.  No 
fracture  could  be  detected. 

It  was  seen  that  the  relations  of  the  astragalus  to  the  other  bones 
were  altered,  although  it  was  still  within  the  mortise,  but  the  exact 
nature  of  the  injury  was  not  recognized.  Various  attempts  were  made 
to  reduce,  and  even  the  tendo  Achillis  was  divided,  but  in  vain;  a 
moulded  splint  was  applied,  and  the  wound  dressed  with  carbolic  acid. 

Two  days  later  a  semilunar  incision  was  made  from  the  middle  of 
the  lower  end  of  the  tibia  across  the  head  of  the  astragalus  to  the  tip 
of  the  outer  malleolus,  the  flap  turned  up,  and  the  bone  fully  exposed. 
It  was  a  little  turned  on  its  vertical  axis,  the  head  having  moved  out- 
ward, and  90  degrees  on  its  antero-posterior  axis,  the  trochlea  being  in 
contact  with  the  cartilaginous  surface  of  the  external  malleolus.  The 
inner  upper  angle  of  the  trochlea  fitted  closely  into  the  reentrant  angle 
formed  by  the  external  malleolus  and  the  tibia.  The  bone  was  not  at 
all  displaced  forward — that  is,  it  did  not  protrude  abnormally  from  its 
socket.  The  interosseous  ligament  had  been  ruptured;  the  few  remain- 
ing fibres  were  divided,  and  the  bone  removed.  Examination  of  the 
cavity  failed  to  show  any  fracture  or  detachment  of  cartilage.  The 
patient  made  a  good  recovery,  and  was  discharged  nine  and  a  half 
weeks  after  the  operation. 

Treatment  of  Total  Dislocations  of  the  Astragalus. 

The  statistics,  collected  by  Broca,  Dubreuil,  and  Poinsot,  show  that 
of  121  cases  of  dislocations  not  compound,  43  were  successfully 
reduced,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  Poinsot' s  list,  composed  of 
cases  reported  between  1864  and  1883,  shows  19  reductions  in  31 
cases,  about  60  per  cent.,  and  as  many  of  Broca' s  cases  were  treated 


806  DISLOCATIONS. 

without  the  aid  of  ansesthesia  it  may  reasonably  be  hoped  that  Poin- 
sot's  percentage  is  an  indication  of  the  success  that  will  be  obtained  in 
future.  Primary  extirpation  of  the  astragalus  was  done  in  9  of  the 
121  caseSj'with  6  successes,  1  death,  and  2  deaths  after  secondary  am- 
putation. Consecutive  extirpation  was  done  in  41  cases,  with  39  suc- 
cesses and  2  deaths.  Of  15  cases  in  which  the  dislocation  remained 
unreduced  and  in  which  the  result  is  known  (excluding  those  of  sec- 
ondary extirpation)  the  functional  result  in  8  was  good. 

Of  63  compound  dislocations,  collected  by  Broca,  reduction  was 
made  in  9,  and  of  these  9  6  recovered,  secondary  removal  of  the 
astragalus  was  done  in  2,  and  1  died.  Poinsot  adds  2  cases  in  which 
reduction  was  made;  1  was  successful,  in  the  other  extirpation  became 
necessary. 

In  58  compound  cases  primary  removal  of  the  astragalus  was  done, 
with  42  successes,  14  deaths,  and  2  consecutive  amputations  followed 
by  death. 

For  reasons  that  have  been  already  given,  we  have  the  right  to 
expect  better  results  in  the  future  in  compound  cases,  and  may  feel 
encouraged  to  make  reduction  whenever  it  is  possible.  Expectation 
in  irreducible  compound  dislocations  has  almost  always  ended  in 
removal  of  the  astragalus,  or  amputation,  or  death,  and  the  cases  will 
probably  be  very  few  in  which  primary  removal  of  the  astragalus  will 
not  give  the  patient  the  most  speedy  recovery,  the  least  risk,  and  the 
most  useful  limb. 

Of  56  simple  irreducible  dislocations  contained  in  these  statistics, 
suppuration  of  the  joint  and  sloughing  of  the  skin  followed  in  at  least 
41,  and  there  is  not  much  reason  to  suppose  that  the  frequency  of  this 
result  will  be  much,  if  at  all,  diminished  in  the  future,  for  the  exciting 
cause — bruising,  pressure,  and  destruction  of  the  blood-supply  of  the 
astragalus — will  be  repeated.  It  is  important,  therefore,  to  determine 
the  proper  course  to  be  pursued  under  such  circumstances.  In  1884 
Dr.  McBurney,  of  New  York,  successfully  reduced  a  dislocation  for- 
ward and  inward  by  exposing  the  head  of  the  astragalus  through  an 
incision,  and  lifting  the  tendon  of  the  tibialis  anticus  which  tightly 
embraced  the  neck  of  the  bone  and  had  prevented  reduction;  other 
equally  good  results  have  since  been  obtained  by  the  same  means. 
Primary  removal  of  the  astragalus  is  recommended  by  Barwell  in  all 
cases  in  which  ''  certain  and  sufficient  but  not  too  persevering,  attempts 
at  reduction  "  have  failed,  and  the  facts  that  four-fifths  of  the  cases  left 
to  themselves  have  ended  in  suppuration  and  secondary  removal  of  the 
astragalus,  and  that  the  functional  result  after  removal  is  good,  will  be 
generally  accepted  as  a  justification  of  the  advice,  but  it  needs,  I  think, 
to  be  conditioned  upon  the  failure  of  reduction  by  arthrotomy. 

In  short,  the  plan  to  be  pursued  in  simple  cases  is  to  attempt  reduc- 
tion by  traction  upon  the  foot  with  the  hands  or  pulleys,  under  anaes- 
thesia, and  with  the  knee  flexed,  and  by  direct  pressure  so  applied  as 
first  to  correct  such  rotation  of  the  bone  as  may  exist,  and  then  to  force 
it  back  into  place.  This  failing,  expose  the  bone  by  incision,  and  seek 
to  remove  the  obstacle  to  reduction  and  then  to  reduce;  this  also  fail- 
ing, remove  the  astragalus.     In  cases  in  which  the  astragalus  is  not 


DISLOCATIONS  AT  OR  NEAR  THE  ANKLE.  807 

only  dislocated  but  also  broken,  I  think  primary  removal  is  the  safest 
plan,  even  in  cases  of  backward  dislocation  of  the  posterior  fragment, 
although  in  three  such  treated  without  removal  the  patients  recovered 
with  useful  limbs. 

In  compound  dislocations  reduction  is  to  be  sought  unless  the  astrag- 
alus is  entirely  detached  or  the  lacerations  are  so  extensive  that  suppu- 
ration is  unavoidable;  otherwise,  primary  removal  of  the  astragalus, 
or  amputation  if  clearly  indicated. 

Medio-tarsal  Dislocation. 

In  this  the  dislocation  takes  place  in  the  medio-tarsal  joint,  the 
scaphoid  and  cuboid  being  together  displaced  from  the  astragalus  and 
calcaneura  which  preserve  their  relations  to  each  other  and  to  the  bones 
of  the  leg.  Broca,  in  the  paper  above  quoted,  pointed  out  that  most 
dislocations  previously  reported  under  this  title  were  actually  sub- 
astragaloid.  Partial  dislocation  of  the  cuboid  from  the  calcancum 
appears  to  be  frequently  associated  with  subastragaloid  dislocations, 
but  the  cases  in  which  the  medio-tarsal  joint  alone  is  involved  are  few< 
Cases,  too  briefly  described  to  be  positively  accepted,  were  reported  by 
J.  L.  Petit,  Liston,  and  Cooper,  but  more  recently  four  cases  have 
been  placed  on  record  in  two  of  which  the  diagnosis  was  confirmed  at 
the  autopsy.  Thomas'  reported  a  case  in  the  service  of  Denonvilliers; 
the  patient's  foot  had  been  crushed  by  the  wheel  of  a  cart.  The  plan- 
tar surface  was  convex,  the  dorsum  so  swollen  that  the  bones  could  not 
be  felt;  the  foot  was  shortened,  and  its  anterior  portion  could  be 
moved  laterally,  but  the  movements  were  painful  and  accompanied  by 
crepitus.  The  diagnosis  of  fracture  of  the  head  or  neck  of  the  astrag- 
alus and  rupture  of  the  calcaneo-cuboid  ligaments  was  made.  The 
patient  died  of  erysipelas,  and  at  the  autopsy  the  tibio-tarsal  and  cal- 
caneo-astragaloid  joints  were  found  intact;  the  head  of  the  astragalus 
and  the  cuboid  surface  of  the  calcaneura  formed  a  very  marked  abnor- 
mal prominence  above  the  second  row  of  the  tarsus;  the  scaphoid  was 
fractured  antero-posteriorly,  and  its  outer  fragment  projected  on  the 
plantar  surface;  the  cuboid  was  still  in  contact  with  the  inferior  half 
of  the  anterior  end  of  the  calcaneura;  the  superior  medio-tarsal  liga- 
ments were  ruptured,  and  the  inferior  calcaneo-scaphoid  partly  detached; 
the  inferior  calcaneo-cuboid  was  unbroken. 

Anger's^  patient  was  injured  by  a  fall  from  a  height.  There  was 
slight  flattening  of  the  arch  of  the  foot,  without  deviation,  and  with 
considerable  ecchymotic  and  inflamraatory  swelling.  He  died  of  ery- 
sipelas. At  the  autopsy  the  head  of  the  astragalus  was  found  above 
and  in  front  of  the  scaphoid,  and  the  cuboid  facet  of  the  calcaneura 
upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  cuboid.  The  superior  calcaneo-scaphoid 
and  internal  calcaneo-cuboid  ligaments  were  ruptured  and  torn  from 
their  anterior  insertions.  It  was  difficult  to  reduce  the  dislocation  even 
after  dissection.  The  only  fracture  was  of  the  anterior  part  of  the 
scaphoid,  the  tubercle  of  which  was  almost  entirely  torn  away. 

1  Thomas  :  M6m.  de  la  Soc.  M6d.  d'Indre  et  Loire,  1887,  quoted  by  Duplay  and  Delorme. 

2  B.  Anger:  Trait6  iconographique,  p.  334. 


808  DISLOCATIONS. 

In  the  third  case,  Ward/  the  dislocation  was  old.  '^  The  foot  pre- 
sented a  remarkably  twisted  appearance,  the  anterior  part  being  directed 
considerably  inward,  and  the  inner  edge  somewhat  elevated."  The 
dorsum  was  shortened  one  inch.  The  anterior  ends  of  the  calcaneum 
and  astragalus  projected  distinctly  on  the  dorsum.  The  external  mal- 
leolus had  been  fractured. 

In  the  fourth,  Fuhr,^  the  dislocation  was  outward.  The  patient  was 
sixty-six  years  old  and  had  fallen  six  feet;  the  foot  was  slightly  pro- 
nated  and  the  projection  of  the  posterior  surfaces  of  the  scaphoid  and 
cuboid  could  be  distinctly  felt  in  front  of  the  external  malleolus. 

Congenital  Dislocations  of  the  Ankle-joint. 

Kraske^  exhibited  at  the  Ninth  Congress  of  the  German  Surgical 
Society  two  patients,  father  and  son,  with  congenital  dislocation  of 
both  ankles,  and  also  the  two  legs  of  another  child  of  the  same  father 
which  had  died  in  infancy  and  had  been  similarly  affected.  The 
abnormality  was  a  subluxation  outward  accompanied  by,  and  probiably 
due  to,  defective  development  of  the  fibula.  In  all  three  cases  the 
middle  and  upper  part  of  the  fibula  was  lacking,  but  in  the  specimen 
a  small  upper  epiphysis  existed.  In  the  father  the  lower  end  of  the 
fibula  was  only  four  centimetres  long  and  was  obliquely  placed,  the 
apex  directed  outward.  The  articular  surface  of  the  tibia  was  also 
oblique,  looking  downward  and  outward;  the  foot  was  flattened,  mark- 
edly abducted,  and  moderately  pronated.  The  legs,  compared  with 
the  thighs,  were  abnormally  short  and  slight. 

Resection  of  both  ankles  had  been  done  upon  the  son  to  correct  the 
faulty  position  of  the  foot:  on  the  right  side  the  internal  malleolus 
and  a  comparatively  large  part  of  the  astragalus  had  been  removed; 
on  the  left,  the  entire  lower  end  of  the  tibia  and  a  small  piece  of  the 
astragalus. 

Other  forms  of  congenital  subluxation  belong  to  the  subject  of 
clubfoot. 

1  Ward  :  Transactions  of  the  Pathological  Society  of  London ,  1849-50,  p.  254. 

2  Fuhr:  Munch,  med.  Woch.,  March  8,  1892. 

3  Kraske  :  Beilage  zum  Centralblatt  fur  Chir.,  1882,  No.  29,  p.  85. 


CHAPTEE    LVIII. 

DISLOCATIONS   OF   THE  TARSAL   AND   METATARSAL   BONES 
AND   OF   THE  TOES. 

In  addition  to  the  dislocations  described  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
the  bones  of  the  tarsus  may  be  dislocated  separately  and  in  various 
combinations.  None  of  the  different  kinds  has  occurred  with  suffi- 
cient frequency  to  permit  systematic  grouping  and  description,  and  in 
most  of  them  the  exact  nature  of  the  injury  cannot  be  said  to  have 
been  positively  established,  for  the  difficulties  of  the  diagnosis  upon 
the  living  are  usually  very  great  and  the  surgeon  is  limited  to  the 
recognition  of  the  more  prominent  features.  1  shall  confine  the 
account  of  them  mainly  to  the  enumeration  of  the  different  varieties 
that  have  been  observed,  with  bibliographical  references  for  the  con- 
venience of  those  who  may  desire  to  examine  the  reports  in  detail. 

Calcaneum.  Malgaigne  quotes  a  case  in  which  the  calcaneum  was 
bodily  displaced  to  the  outer  side,  but  apparently  was  not  entirely  sep- 
arated from  the  astragalus  and  scaphoid.  Reduction  was  easy.  Also 
a  second,  Canton,^  found  upon  the  cadaver,  in  which  the  calcaneum 
was  displaced  to  the  outer  side  together  with  the  external  malleolus; 
its  anterior  end  lay  between  the  cuboid  and  scaphoid,  almost  in  con- 
tact with  the  third  cuneiform;  and  the  astragalus  was  rotated  inward 
about  45  degrees. 

Scaphoid.  The  scaphoid  has  been  dislocated  forward  and  outward 
in  connection  with  the  astragalus,  the  dislocation  being  compound 
(Burnett),  forward  and  inward  (Rizzoli,  quoted  by  Poinsot),  upward 
and  backward  in  conjunction  with  the  first  and  second  cuneiforms  and 
the  first  two  metatarsals  and  with  dislocation  of  the  third  metatarsal 
and  fracture  of  the  cuboid  (Chassaignac^),  upward  and  inward  in  con- 
junction with  the  first  cuneiform  (Lonsdale'^),  or  with  the  middle  cunei- 
form (Clarke''),  or  outward,  upward,  or  inward  alone  (Piedagnel, 
Walker,  R.  \V.  Smith,  quoted  by  Malgaigne,  Bryant''),  or  from  the 
cuneiforms  only,  as  seen  by  Garland®  in  a  case  that  was  compound. 
In  a  case  reported  by  Enos''  the  cuneiform  bones  and  the  cuboid  were 
displaced  outward  from  the  scaphoid  and  calcaneum. 

Cuboid.  The  only  case  of  dislocation  of  the  cuboid  of  which  I  have 
knowledge,  except  in  connection  with  other  dislocations  as  above 
described,  is  one  reported  by  Bell,^  in  which  it  was  displaced  upward 
in  connection  with  the  fifth  metatarsal  by  inversion  and  adduction  of 
the  foot.      Reduction  was  made. 

1  Canton  :  Lancet,  1847,  vol.  i.  p.  505. 

-  Chassaignac  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1861,  vol.  i.  p.  307. 

3  Lonsdale  :  Lancet,  1857,  vol.  ii.  p.  192. 

4  Clarke  :  London  Medical  Times,  1851,  vol.  iii.  p.  2^3. 

5  Bryant :  Surgery,  3d  American  edition,  1881,  p.  813. 

6  Garland  ;  Lancet,  18.57,  vol.  ii.  p.  270. 

7  Enos  :  New  York  Journal  of  Medicine,  1857,  vol.  ii.  p.  98. 

8  Bell:  New  York  Journal  of  Mediciue,  1859,  vol.  vii.  p.  329. 


8  J  0  DISLOCA  TIONS. 

Cuneiform  Bones.  All  three  cuneiform  bones  and  the  second  and 
third  have  been  displaced  together,  and  the  first  and  second  have  been 
displaced  separately.  Isolated  dislocations  of  the  first  are  the  most 
frequent,  Leraoine^  collected  eleven  such  cases,  to  which  may  be  added 
two  observed  by  Bryantf  the  displacement  is  usually  upward  and 
inward,  in  only  one  case  downward  and  inward  (Fitzgibbon^);  some- 
times the  bone  is  displaced  from  all  the  three  with  which  it  is  normally 
in  contact,  sometimes  the  first  metatarsal  is  displaced  with  it.  The 
symptoms  are  flattening  of  the  arch  of  the  foot,  prominence  of  the 
displaced  bone,  and  a  depression  at  its  normal  site.  In  some  cases 
reduction  has  been  easily  made;  in  others  the  attempt  has  failed. 

The  second  cuneiform  has  been  separately  dislocated  upon  the 
dorsum  in  three  cases,  Foulker,*  Laugier,  and  Lagarde  (quoted  by 
Delorme^),  the  displacement  being  slight  in  one  and  nearly  complete 
in  the  others,  and  accompanied  in  one  by  other  serious  injuries  of  the 
foot,  and  followed  in  another  (Foulker)  by  sloughing  of  the  skin, 
grave  symptoms,  and  ultimate  recovery.  In  a  case  of  multiple  injuries 
of  the  foot  reported  by  Lagrange^  the  second  cuneiform  was  displaced 
upward  from  all  its  connections  except  that  with  the  scaphoid. 

The  second  and  third  cuneiforms  were  displaced  together  upon  the 
dorsum  in  a  case  reported  by  Key  (quoted  by  Malgaigne);  the  dislo- 
cation, which  was  incomplete,  was  caused  by  direct  violence  and  accom- 
panied by  extensive  laceration  of  the  skin.      The  patient  died. 

All  three  cuneiforms  have  been  reported  displaced  together  upon  the 
dorsum  in  several  cases,  but  it  does  not  appear  in  the  histories  whether 
or  not  they  were  separated  only  from  the  scaphoid  or  also  from  the 
cuboid  and  metatarsals;  in  one  of  them,  Bertherand,'^  they  were  accom- 
panied by  the  metatarsals  and  the  dislocation  could  not  be  reduced. 

Dislocations  of  the   Metatarsal  Bones  from  the  Tarsus  and  from  One 

•  Another. 

Malgaigne  collected  twenty-one  cases  of  the  various  dislocations,  and 
Hitzig^  collected  twenty-nine. 

The  first  metatarsal  is  much  more  frequently  dislocated  than  the 
others,  and  the  displacement  appears  always  to  have  been  upward 
except  in  one  case,  Demarquay,^  in  which  the  base  lay  under  that  of 
the  second  metatarsal;  in  this  latter  the  first  metatarso-phalangeal  joint 
was  also  dislocated,  compound,  and  Demarquay  removed  the  bone. 
A  frequent  cause  has  been  a  fall  while  on  a  horse,  the  pressure  of  the 
stirrup  against  the  inner  and  under  surface  of  the  bone  apparently 
causing  the  injury.  The  symptoms  frequently  indicate  the  coexistence 
of  a  sprain  of  neighboring  joints.  Reduction  has  always  been  easy 
by  traction  and  direct  pressure. 

1  Lemoine  :  Revue  de  Chirurgie,  18S3,  vol.  iii.  p.  118. 

2  Bryant:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  813. 

3  Pitzgibbon  :  Dublin  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  1877,  vol.  ii.  p.  271. 

4  Foulker :  Lancet,  1856,  vol.  ii.  p.  283. 

5  Delorme  :  Diet,  de  M6d.  et  Chir.  prat.,  vol.  xxvii.  art.  Pled. 
0  Lagrange  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1871,  p.  180. 

'  Bertherand  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1856-57,  vol.  vii.  p.  361. 

8  Hitzig  :  Berl.  klin.  Wochenschrift,  1865,  p.  393. 

9  Demarquay  :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1870,  vol.  x  p.  35. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  METATARSAL  BONES.  811 

Isolated  dislocation  of  the  second  metatarsal  upon  the  dorsum  has 
been  reported  in  one  case,  Brault  and  Belin,  quoted  by  Hitzig;  that  of 
the  third  downward  and  backward  in  one,  Tiifaell/  that  of  the  fourtli 
upon  the  dorsum  in  three,  Malgaigne,  Surmay,^  and  Gosselin.'^ 

The  fourth  and  fifth  metatarsals  have  been  together  dislocated  upward 
and  inward,  Monteggia,  and  upward  and  backward,  South;  both  quoted 
by  Malgaigue.  The  third  and  fourth,  Hartmann,  and  the  first  and 
second,  Marit,  have  been  together  displaced;  both  quoted  by  Delorme/ 
The  first,  second,  and  third  were  dislocated  together  upon  the  dorsum 
in  two  cases,  Laugier,  quoted  by  Malgaigne,  and  AVilms,  quoted  by 
Hitzig,  and  downward  into  the  sole  in  a  case  reported  by  Tufnell;^  in 
the  latter  case  the  injury  was  caused  by  the  fall  of  a  horse  and  was 
irreducible,  but  the  patient  recovered  good  use  of  the  limb;  the  later 
history  is  recorded  in  the  same  journal,  1855,  vol.  xx.  p.  302. 

Dislocation  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  together  upon  the  dor- 
sum was  seen  by  Malgaigne  once;  the  same  diagnosis  was  made  by 
him  in  another  case,  but  at  the  autopsy  it  was  found  that  the  fifth  was 
also  partly  dislocated  from  the  cuboid  and  that  the  first  together  with 
the  internal  cuneiform  was  displaced  inward.  A  case  is  reported  by 
Favier.^ 

Dislocation  of  the  first  four  metatarsals  has  been  reported  in  three 
cases,  Malgaigne,  Hitzig,  Demarquay;^  in  Malgaigne' s  the  first  three 
were  displaced  downward,  the  fourth  upward;  in  the  other  two  the 
displacement  was  upward.  Malgaigne  was  able  to  reduce  the  fourth, 
Demarquay  the  first,  and  Hitzig  all;  notwithstanding  the  persistence 
of  part  of  the  dislocation  the  two  patients  had  good  use  of  the  limb. 

All  the  metatarsal  hones  may  be  displaced  together  upward,  inward, 
downward,  or  outward;  of  the  latter  two  forms  only  one  example 
of  each  has  been  reported.  Smyly^  saw  all  five  bones  dislocated 
downward  by  the  fall  of  a  wagon  which  pressed  the  heel  forward 
while  the  toes  were  fixed;  reduction  was  made.  The  case  of  disloca- 
tion inward  is  Kirk's,  quoted  by  Malgaigne,  who  distrusts  the  diag- 
nosis. 

Of  dislocation  outward  five  cases  have  been  reported,  Laugier  and 
Lacombe,  quoted  by  Malgaigne,  Tutschek,  quoted  by  Hitzig,  Mlgnot- 
Danton,^  and  Despr^s.^"  The  interlocking  of  the  base  of  the  second 
metatarsal  between  the  first  and  third  cuneiform  bones  must  make  a 
lateral  dislocation  impossible  except  as  secondary  to  one  upward  or 
downward  or  unless  accompanied  by  fracture;  in  Laugier' s  and  Des- 
pres's  the  second  metatarsal  was  broken  at  its  upper  end,  and  in 
Mignot-Danton's  and  Lacombe' s  the  third  was  broken.  In  four  cases 
reduction  was  made. 

Dislocation  upward  may  be  complete  or  incomplete,  and  sometimes 

1  Tufnell  :  Dublin  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  1855,  p.  302. 

-  Surmay :  Ball,  de  la  Soc.  de  Chir.,  1876,  vol.  ii.  p.  579. 

'■'-■  Gosselin  :  Gaz.  des  HGpitaux,  1876,  p.  755. 

*  Delorme:  Diet,  de  Med.  et  Chir.  prat  ,  vol.  xxvii.,  art.  Pied. 

5  Tufnell :  Dublin  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  185i,  vol.  xvii.  p.  65. 

0  Favier ;  Arch,  de  M6d.  et  Pharra.  rail.,  November,  1888. 

1  Demarquay :  Gaz.  des  HOpitaux,  1865,  p.  5-i4. 

8  Smyly  :  Dublin  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  18.54,  vol.  xvii.  p.  317. 
''  Mignol-Danton  :  Arch.  gen.  de  Med.,  1866,  vol.  ii.  p.  405. 
I'J  Despres :  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Anatomique,  1878. 


812  DISL  0  CA  TI0N8. 

the  whole  or  part  of  the  first  cuneiform  remains  attached  to  the  first 
metatarsal  and  is  displaced  with  it.  Hitzig  collected  eleven  cases. 
The  most  frequent  cause  is  direct  violence,  but  in  two  cases  it  was  mus- 
cular action,  the  efforts  of  the  patients  to  avoid  falling  after  having 
slipped  while  carrying  heavy  bundles.  The  autopsies  and  the  com- 
pound cases  have  shown  rupture  of  the  dorsal  and  of  some  of  the 
palmar  ligaments,  rupture  and  laceration  of  some  of  the  interosseous 
ligaments  and  muscles,  fracture  of  some  of  the  metatarsal  bones  and 
occasionally  of  the  cuboid  and  first  cuneiform,  and  sometimes  separa- 
tion of  the  first  or  fifth  metatarsal  laterally  from  the  others.  The 
metatarsus  may  remain  in  line  with  the  rest  of  the  foot  or  be  deviated 
to  either  side,  and  the  bases  of  its  bones  form  a  transverse  ridge  either 
corresponding  exactly  to  the  line  of  the  joints  or  at  a  somewhat  higher 
point  upon  the  tarsus.  Reduction  was  made  more  or  less  completely 
in  some  of  the  cases;  in  others  it  failed,  but  the  patients  gradually 
recovered  the  use  of  the  limb;  in  one  compound  case,  Mazot,  primary 
amputation  was  done. 

Subluxation  of  the  Head  of  a  Metatarsal  Bone. 

In  the  severest  form  of  this  affection,  first  described  by  Dr.  T.  G, 
Morton,^  the  head  of  the  fourth  metatarsal — less  frequently  the  third 
— appears  to  be  displaced  from  its  normal  relations  with  the  adjoining 
one  on  each  side,  and  also  with  its  toe.  The  most  recent  paper  on  the 
subject,  one  which  contains  a  full  bibliography,  is  by  Jones  and 
Tubby  f  the  reader  is  referred  to  it  for  the  pathology,  symptoms,  and 
treatment.  It  seems  appropriate  here  to  refer  only  to  the  severe  form 
in  which  excision  of  the  head  of  the  metatarsal  bone  or  of  the  entire 
joint  is  occasionally  necessary  for  relief. 

Dislocations  of  the  Toes. 

1.  Metatarso-phalangeal  Dislocations. 

Dislocations  of  the  Great  Toe.  The  most  common  cause  is  a  fall 
upon  the  toes;  among  the  less  frequent  are  the  act  of  kicking,  receiv- 
ing the  weight  of  the  body  upon  the  toe  alone  in  going  upstairs,  and 
violence  received  upon  the  metatarsus.  The  injury  is  frequently  com- 
pound. The  dislocation  has  been  upward,  backward,  and  to  one  side, 
the  most  frequent  appearing  to  be  those  to  the  outer  side  and  back- 
ward, and  secondly  those  directly  backward;  the  former  of  these  two 
is  almost  always  compound  with  projection  of  the  head  of  the  meta- 
tarsal bone  through  the  wound  on  the  inner  and  lower  aspect  of  the 
joint.  Coexistent  sprain  or  subluxation  of  the  first  tarso-metatarsal 
joint  has  been  occasionally  noted. 

Of  14  simple  cases  collated  by  Delorme  reduction  was  easily  made 
in  8  and  failed  in  4;  of  the  compound  cases  the  head  of  the  metatarsal 
bone  was  excised  in  5,  and  the  entire  bone  removed  in  3;  of  14  com- 
pound cases  in  which  the  attempt  to  reduce  was  made  it  was  successful 

1  Morton  :  Amer.  Journ.  Med.  Sci.,  January,  1876. 

2  Jones  and  Tubby  :  Matatarsalgia  or  Morton's  Disease,  Annals  of  Surgery,  September,  1898. 


DISLOCATIONS  OF  THE  TOES.  813 

in  9.  The  means  employed  to  reduce  have  been  traction  and  direct 
pressure  upon  the  base  of  the  phalanx.  Probably  in  the  difficult  cases 
the  special  procedures  employed  in  the  corresponding  dislocations  of 
the  thumb  would  be  advantageous. 

Dislocations  of  the  Other  Toes.  Dislocation  of  the  four  outer,  the 
four  inner,  or  of  all  five  toes  together  has  been  reported  in  several 
cases,  the  direction  of  the  displacement  being  upward  and  backward 
or  directly  outward;  in  the  latter  the  head  of  the  metatarsal  projected 
through  a  wound  and  had  to  be  excised  before  reduction  could  be  made. 

2.  Dislocations  of  the  Phalanges. 

With  one  exception,  the  second  phalanx  of  the  third  toe,  in  all  the 
cases  that  have  been  reported  the  dislocation  was  of  the  terminal  pha- 
lanx of  the  great  toe.  In  one  case  reduction  could  not  be  made;  in 
anoth':i,  which  was  compound,  a  portion  of  the  bone  was  subsequently 
c-      off. 


INDEX  TO  FRACTURES. 


A  BSORPTION  of  bone  after  fracture,  58 
ii     Acetabulum,  295 

rim,  301 
Age,  influence  of,  on  frequency,  20 
Ambulatory  treatment,  99 
Amputation,  105 
Ankle,  372 
Arrest  of  growth,  29 
Arteries,  injuries  of,  66 
Astragalus,  384 

Asymmetry,  normal,  of  limbs,  49 
Atlas,  144 
Atrophy  of  limb,  76 

senile,  38 
Axis,  144 


BARTON'S  fracture  of  the  radius,  283 
Buck's  extension,  93 


pALCANEUM,  384 
yj     Callus,  exuberant,  60,  71 
formation  of,  55 
painful,  71 

retarding  influences  upon,  109 
weak,  74 
Cancer,  a  cause  of  fracture,  46 
Carpus,  286 

Cartilages,  fracture  of  costal,  182 
Causes  of  fracture,  38 

determining,  39 

muscular  action,  40 
predisposing,  38 

acquired  tendency,  38 
cancer,  46 

congenital  tendency,  38 
disease  of  nerve  centres,  45 
inherited  tendency,  38 
osteomyelitis,  47 
rachitis,  45 
syphilis,  45 
Clavicle,  186 

complications,  190,  195 
etiology,  192 
pathology,  186 

simultaneous  fracture  of  both,  193 
symptoms  and  course,  194 
treatment,  195 
Clinical  course,  62 
Coccyx,  298 
Colles's  fracture,  273 
Comminuted  fractures,  27 


Complications  of  fracture,  66 

early  local,  66 
general,  69 

late  local,  71 
Compound  fractures,  30 

treatment,  102 
Condyloid   process   of    inferior   maxilla, 

162 
Coronoid  process  of  inferior  maxilla,  162 

of  ulna,  260 
Crepitus,  51 


DEFORMITY,  a  symptom,  49 
Delirium,  71 
Depressions,  24 
Diagnosis,  49 
Displacements,  34 
Dressings,  permanent,  90 
temporary,  85 

EMBOLISM,  76 
fat,  70 
Epiphysis,  separation  of,  28 

repair,  61 
Epitrochlea,  239 
Etiology,  38 


FAILURE  of  union,  62,  108 
etiology,  109 
treatment.  111 
Femur,  303 

fractures  at  the  lower  end,  341 

intercondyloid,  341 
of  either  condyle,  346 
separation  of  the  epiphy- 
sis, 344 
at  the  upper  end,  303 

of  the  great  trochanter, 

332 
of  the  small  trochantei-, 

333 
of  the  head,  303 
of  the  neck,  304 
causes,  307 
classification,  306 
diagnosis,  323 
pathology,  308 
prognosis,  324 
repair,  313 
symptoms,  318 
treatment,  327 


816 


INDEX  TO  FRAGTUBES. 


Femur,  fractures  at  the  upper  end,  through 
the  great  trochanter  and  neck, 
331 
of  the  shaft,  333 
prognosis,  337 
symptoms,  336 
treatment,  337 

in  children,  340 
Fenestrated  splints,  92 
Fibula,  383 
Fingers,  288 
Fissures,  23 
Fixation,  direct,  96 
Foot,  384 
Forearm,  253 

at  the  shaft,  264 

at  the  upper  end,  253 

at  the  wrist,  273 


GANGKENE,  &S 
Green-stick  fractures,  23 
Growth,  arrest  of,  29,  281 

exaggeration  of,  75 
Gunshot  fractures,  32,  104 
Gunstock  deformity  of  elbow,  237 
Gutters,  wire,  87 


H^EMATOMYELIA,  142 
Hemorrhage,  67 
Hodgen's  splint,  94 
Humerus,  211 

lower  end,  232 

above  the  condyles,  234 
articular  process,  249 
capitellum,  250 
development    of    epiphysis, 

233,  247 
diagnosis,  251 
epitrochlea,  239 
external  condyle,  243 

epicondyle,  240 
intercondyloid  fracture,  245 
internal  condyle,  241 
separation  of  epiphysis,  247 
treatment,  252 
shaft,  229 
upper  end,  212 

anatomical  neck  and   tuber- 
osities, 212 
head,  212 

separation  of  epiphysis,  219 
surgical  neck,  222 
tuberosities,  217 
Hyoid  bone,  168 


TLIUM,  299 

1     Immobilization  of  joints,  101 
Incomplete  fractures,  23 
Inherited  tendency  to  fracture,  38 
Intra  articular  fracture,  29 

repair  of,  60 
Intra-uterine,  47 
Ischsemic  contraction,  68 


Ischium,  300 
Iterative  fracture,  75 


JOINTS,  management  of,  100 


T  AKYNX,  170 
1^     Leg,  fractures  of,  365 
fibula,  383 
lower  end,  372 

by  eversion,  374 
by  inversion,  381 
comminuted,  372 
separation  of  epiphysis,  373 
supramalleolar,  373 
shaft,  368 
upper  end,  364 

epiphysis,  367 
spine  of  tibia,  367 
tubercle  of  tibia,  367 
Longitudinal  fractures,  26 
Lung,  hernia  of,  180 

injured  in  fracture  of  clavicle,  192 
in  fracture  of  ribs,  178 


MALAE  bone,  157 
Malgaigne's  hooks,  358 
Massage,  98 
Maxilla,  inferior,  161 

condyloid  process,  162,  163,  167 
coronoid  process,  162 
treatment,  164 
superior,  158 
Metacarpal  bones,  287 
Metatarsal  bones,  388 
Mobility,  abnormal,  50 

return  of,  111 
Moulded  splints,  89 
Multiple  fractures,  30 
Muscles,  atrophy  of,  76 
degeneration  of,  68 
Muscular  action,  a  cause  of  fracture,  40 


NECKOSIS,  59 
Nerve  disease  a  cause  of  fracture,  45 
inclusion  in  callus,  74 
injury  of,  73 
Nose,  154 


OBLIQUE  fractures,  25 
Olecranon,  253 
Osteomyelitis,  a  cause,  47 


DARALYSIS,  a  result  of  fracture, 
1      its  effect  on  repair,  110 
Patella,  348 

causes,  348 

course  and  terminations,  352 

disability  after  fracture,  363 

pathology,  350 


INDEX  TO  FRACTURES. 


817 


Patella,  refracture,  364 

symptoms,  352 

treatment,  355 

non-operative,  356 
operative,  359 
Pathological  fractures,  43 
Pelvis,  291 

course,  296 

diagnosis,  296 

double  vertical  fracture,  293 

lateral  portion  of  ring,  293 

pubic  portion  of  ring,  293 

separation  in  front  and  behind,  292 
of  all  three  joints,  292 
of  pubic  symphysis,  291 
of  sacro-iliac  symphysis,  292 
Periosteal  bridge,  36,  56 
Periosteum,  extent  of  injury,  55 

share  in  repair,  56 
Plane,  double  inclined,  96 
Plaster  of  Paris,  89,  91 
Pneumonia,  71 
Pott's  fracture  at  ankle,  374 
Prognosis,  general,  116 
Pseudarthrosis,  108 

causes,  109 

symptoms,  HI 

treatment.  111 
Pubis,  301 


RADIUS,  Colles's  fracture,  273 
fractures  at  wrist  other  than  Colles's, 
282 
of  head  and  neck,  262 
of  shaft,  271 
styloid  process,  285 
Eeduction,  78 
Repair,  55 

of  cartilage,  60 
opposing  influences,  109 
Retention,  83 
Eibs,  177 


SACRUM,  transverse  fracture,  297 
vertical  fracture,  294 
Sarcoma  after  fracture,  73 
Scaphoid,  286 
Scapula,  202 

acromion,  206 

body,  202 

coracoid  process,  207 

glenoid  cavity,  209 

inferior  angle,  204 

neck,  208 

spine,  205 

upper  angle,  205 
Secondary  fracture,  75 
Separation  of  epiphysis,  28 
Septicsemia,  69 
Skull,  119 

mechanism  and  pathology,  120 

pathological  and  reparative  processes, 
128 

symptoms  and  treatment,  129 


Skull,  symptoms,  circumscribed  of  vault, 

129 
fissured,  with  brain  injury,  132 
internal  table,  134 
perforating  of  base,  135 
rupture    of    middle    meningeal, 
134 

Smith's  anterior  splint,  88 

Spine,  138.     [See  Vertebrae.) 

Spiral  fractures,  26 

Splinters,  vitality  of,  26 

Spontaneous  fractures,  43 

Statistics,  general,  19 

Sternum,  3  72 

Stiffness  of  joints,  75 

Stocking  splint,  90 

Suppuration  after  fracture,  69 

Supramalleolar  fracture,  373 

Suspended  splints,  88 

Suture  of  bones,  97 

Symptoms,  49 

Syphilis,  a  cause,  45 


nPETANUS,  71 
1      Thrombosis,  67,  76 
Tibia,  365.     (^e  Leg.) 
Toes,  389 
Trachea,  171 
Traction  by  suspension,  95 

by  weight  and  pulley,  95 

continuous,  93 
Transverse  fractures,  25 
Treatment,  75 

ambulatory,  99 

by  amputation,  105 

of  compound  fractures,  102 

of    compound     articular     fractures, 
106 

of  gunshot  fractures,  104 

of  pseudarthrosis.  111 

of  vicious  union,  114 


ULNA,  coronoid  process,  260 
olecranon,  253 
shaft,  270 
styloid  process,  285 
Union,  deformed  or  faulty,  113 
delayed,  or  failure  of,  108 
fibrous,  62,  108 


y-SHAPED  fractures,  26 
Y     Varieties,  22 

of  direction,  25 
of  seat,  28 
Vertebra?,  138 

course  and  terminations,  148 
etiology,  142 
pathology,  139 
arches,  140 
bodies,  139 
cord,  142 
processes,  141 
symptoms,  143 


52 


818 


INDEX  TO  FRACTURES. 


Vertebrse,  symptoms,  atlas  and  axis,  144 
lower  cervical  and  upper  dorsal, 

145 
lower  dorsal  and  upper  lumbar, 

147 
lower  lumbar,  148 
treatment,  151 
Vertical  suspension,  95 


Volkmann's  foot-rest,  94 
splint,  87 

WEED'S  splint,  95 
^YGOMA,  157 


INDEX   TO   DISLOCATIONS. 


A  CCIDENTS  during  reduction,  437 
-li-    Acetabulum,  fractilre  of  edge,  709 

floor,  737 
Acromion,  fracture  of,  579 
After-treatment,  435 
Ambi,  429 

Anaesthesia,  dangers  of,  427 
Ankle,  congenital  dislocations  of,  808 

dislocations  at  or  near,  787 
Anterior  oblique  dislocation  of  hip,  714 
Arteries,  injured  in  dislocation,  404 

in  reduction,  439 
Arthrotomy  to  reduce,  433 
Astragalus,  dislocation  of,  788 
"total"  dislocation  of,  799 
Atlas,  dislocation  of,  487 
Axillary  artery,  injured  in  dislocation,  405 
in  reduction,  440 


BIGELOW  on  reduction  of  hip,  716 
Bloodvessels    injured    during    reduc- 
tion, 439 
in  dislocation,  404 
Bone,  overgrowth  after  dislocation,  414 
Brachial    artery,   injured   in    dislocation, 
406 
in  reduction,  440 
plexus,  torn  in  reduction,  445 


pALCANEUM,  dislocation  of,  809 
yj     Carpal  bones,  dislocation  of,  671 
Carpo-metacarpal  dislocations,  676 
Causes,  determining,  398 

predisposing,  398 
Circumflex  artery,  injured  in  dislocation, 
440 
nerve,  injured  in  dislocation,  407 
Clavicle,  dislocations  of,  511 
acromial  end,  519 
both  ends,  527 
sternal  end,  512 
Coccyx,  dislocations  of,  691 
Complications    (see    also    special    disloca- 
tions), 403 
of  bloodvessels,  404 
of  bones,  403 
of  nerves,  406 
of  soft  parts  and  skin,  409 
of  viscera,  409 
Compound  dislocations,  459 
Congenital    dislocations    (see   also    special 
dislocations),  450 


Congenital  dislocations,  etiology,  452 

pathology  at  hip,  456 
at  shoulder,  589 

statistics,  450 

symptoms,  459 

treatment,  461 
Coracoid  process,  fracture  of,  579 
Coronoid  process  of  ulna,  fracture  of,  603 
Costal  cartilages,  dislocation  of,  507 
Crural  nerve,   pressed  on   in   dislocation, 

728 
Cuboid,  dislocation  of,  809 
Cuneiform  bones,  dislocation  of,  810 


DEFINITIONS,  393 
Despres,  method  of,  431 
Distention,  dislocation  by,  464 
Divergent  dislocation  of  radius  and  ulna, 

625 
Dorsal  dislocations  of  the  bip,  704 


ELBOW,  anatomy  of,  597 
dislocations  of   [see  also  Radius   and 
Ulna),  597 
backward  dislocations,  600 
after-treatment,  610 
complications,  603 
diagnosis,  605 
pathology,  602 
prognosis,  606 
symptoms,  604 
theories  of  production,  600 
treatment,  607 
classification,  599 
congenital  and  pathological,  655 
divergent    dislocation   of    radius 

and  ulna,  625 
forward  dislocations,  621 
fracture  during  reduction,  447 
frequency,  599 

injury   of   nerves   in,    407,    604, 
618 
of  vessels  in,  406 
isolated,  of  radius  and  ulna,  629 
lateral  dislocations,  610 

complete  outward,  617 
subepicondylar,  620 
supraepicondylar, 
620 
incomplete,  611 
inward,  612 
outward,  613 


820 


INDEX  TO  DISLOCATIONS. 


Elbow,  old  unreduced  dislocations,  treat- 
ment, 650 
relations  to  dislocations  of  shou  - 
der   and  fracture    of    clavicle, 
534 

Emphysema  during  reduction  of  shoulder, 
438 

Ensiform  process,  dislocation  of,  505 

Etiology,  398 

Everted  dorsal  dislocation  of  hip,  711 


FAT  embolism,  449       _ 
Femoral   artery,   injured   in   disloca- 
tions, 406 
Femur,  fracture  of  head,  708 
of  neck,  739 
of  shaft,  740 
Fibula,  dislocations  of,  783 
lower  end,  785 

spontaneous  and  pathological,  785 
upper  end,  783 
Fingers,  dislocations  of,  681 
distal  phalanges,  689 
metacarpo-phalangeal,  687 
of  middle  phalanges,  688 
Foot,  dislocations  of,  788 
congenita],  808 
Forearm,  avulsion  of,  439 
Fracture  as  a  complication,  404 
during  reduction,  447 


GANGEENE,  412,  448 
Glenoid  fossa,  fracture  of,  579 


HABITUAL  dislocations.  400,  435 
of  hip,  743 
of  shoulder,  584 
treatment,  435 
Hip,  anatomy  of,  694 
dislocations  of,  694 

accidents  in  reduction,  742 
after-treatment,  743 
backward  dislocations,  704 

anterior  oblique,  714 
dorsal,  704 

pathology,  706 
symptoms,  709 
everted  dorsal,  711 
treatment,  715 
classification,  700 
complications,  738 
compound,  698 
congenital,  456 
directly  upward,  731 
downward  and  inward,  720 
obturator,  720 
perineal,  725 
on  tuberosity  of  ischium,  735 
fracture  during  reduction,  742 
of  acetabulum,  737 
of  femur,  739,  740 
habitual  dislocations,  743 
ilio-pectineal,  726 


Hip,  dislocations  of,  infracotyloid,  735 
injury  of  nerves  in,  739 

of  vessels  in,  406,  738 
intrapelvic,  726 
labrumcartilagineum,  detachment 

of,  741 
old  dislocations,  treatment  of,  744 

arthrotomy,  745 

excision,  745 

osteotomy,  745 
paralytic  dislocations,  747 
pathological  dislocations,  747 
prognosis,  743 

simultaneous  of  both  hips,  741 
spontaneous  dislocations,  746 
statistics,  696 
subspinous,  731 
supracotyloidea,  731 
suprapubic,  726 

upward  and  forward  (suprapubic), 
726 


TLEO-PECTINEAL  dislocation  of  hip, 
l     726 

India  rubber,  traction  by,  432 
Infracotyloid  dislocation  of  hip,  735 
Internal  derangement  of  knee,  763 
Intracoracoid  dislocation  of  shoulder,  547 
Intrapelvic  dislocation  of  hip,  726 


J 


AW,  dislocation  of  lower,  467 

backward,  with  fracture,  467 
congenita],  474 
forward,  468 
outward,  468 
pathological,  47 
upward,  467 


KNEE,  dislocations  of,  749 
backward,  754 
by  rotation,  760 
congenital,  766 
forward,  751 

injuries  of  nerves  in,  752 
injuries  of  vessels  in,  405,  752 
lateral,  757 

inward,  759 
outward,  757 
spontaneous  and  pathological,  768 
internal  derangement,  763 
semilunar  cartilages,  763 
Kocher  on  reduction  of  hip,  717 
of  shoulder,  555 

LABRUM  cartilagineum,  detachment  of, 
741 
Luxatio  erecta,  563 


MANIPULATION,  reduction  by,  431 
at  hip,  715 
at  shoulder,  554 
McBurney's  hook,  579 


INDEX  TO  DISLOCATIONS. 


821 


Median  nerve,  injury  of,  407 
Medio-carpal  dislocations,  671 

-tarsal  dislocations,  807 
Metacarpal  bones,  676 
Metacarpo-phalangeal     dislocations     of 
fingers,  687 
of  thumb,  681 
Metatarsal  bones,  dislocations  of,  810 
Metatarso  phalangeal  dislocations,  812 
Muscles  torn  during  reduction,  438 
Muscular  action,  a  cause  of  dislocation,  399 


OBTURATOR  dislocation,  720 
Occiput,  dislocation  of,  486 
(Edema,  persistent,  449 
Olecranon,  fracture  of,  603,  621 
Os  magnum,  dislocation  of,  674,  676 


PARALYSIS  after  dislocation  of  shoul- 
der, 583 
Paralytic  dislocations,  465 
of  hip,  747 
of  shoulder,  595 
Patella,  dislocations  of,  770 

,    complete  reversal,  779 
congenital,  780 
edgewise  or  vertical,  776,  778 
habitual  or  pathological,  781 
inward,  777 
outward,  773 
Pathological  dislocations,  462 
Pathology  of  old  dislocations,  413 

of  recent  dislocations,  402 
Pelvis,  dislocations  of,  691 
Pendel-methode,  at  shoulder,  551 
Perineal  dislocation,  725 
halanges  of  foot,  dislocations  of,  812 
distal,  689 
of  hand,  dislocations  of,  681 
middle,  688 
proximal,  681,  687 
Pisiform,  dislocations  of,  674 
Pouteau   on   reduction    by   manipulation, 

430 
Prognosis,  423 


RADIO-CARPAL  dislocations,  660 
backward,  662 
congenital,  670 
forward,  664 
outward,  666 
pathological,  666 
spontaneous,  666 
-ulnar  joint,  lower,  658 
backward,  658 
forward,  659 
Radius,  isolated  dislocations  of,  633 
backward,  634 
by  elongation,  643 
forward,  639 
outward,  637 

pathological  and  congenital, 
655 


Radius,  isolated  dislocations  of,  with  frac- 
ture of  ulna,  647 
Recurrent  dislocations,  400 
Reduction,  425 

accidents  during,  437 

by  manipulation,  431 

consecutive,  425 

spontaneous,  425 
Repair,  410 

Rheumatism,  dislocation  in,  464 
Ribs,  dislocations  of,  506 


SCAPHOID,  dislocations  of  carpal,  673 
tarsal,  809 
Schinzinger,  reduction  of  shoulder,  557 
Sciatic  nerve,  pressure  upon,  739 
Semilunar  bone,  dislocation  of,  673 

cartilages,  dislocation  of,  763 
Shoulder,  anatomy  of,  529 
dislocations  of,  529  to  596 
anterior,  539 

after-treatment,  558,  582 
intra-coracoid,  547 
subcoracoid,  539 
pathology,  542 
symptoms,  545 
treatment,  549 

accidents  during,  437 
by  manipulation,  554 
Kocher,  555 
Schinzinger,  557 
direct  reposition,  551 
heel  in  axilla,  653 
traction  downward,  551 
upward,  552 
with  leverage,  553 
classification,  534 
complications,  576 

fracture  of  acromion,  579 
of  coracoid,  579 
of  glenoid  fossa,  579 
of  neck,  577 
of  shaft,  579 
of  tuberosity,  577 
injury  of  nerves,  580 
of  vessels,  405,  439 
compound  dislocations,  586 
congenital  dislocations,  589 
downward  dislocations,  560 
luxatio  erecta,  563 
subglenoid,  560 
subtricipital,  564 
habitual  dislocations,  584 
injury  of  nerves  in,  407,  445,  580 

of  vessels  in,  405,  439 
old  dislocations,  treatment,  587 
arthrotomy,  588 
excision,  589 
fracture,  589 
osteotomy,  589 
subcutaneous  section  587 
paralytic  dislocations,  595 
pathological,  594 
posterior  dislocations,  565 
symptoms,  569 


822 


INDEX  TO  DISLOCATIONS. 


Shoulder,  dislocations,  posterior  treatment, 
570 

prognosis,  583 

relation  to  other  injuries,  534 

simultaneous  of  both  shoulders, 
581 

upward  (supracoracoid),  571 
Skin  torn  during  reduction,  438 
Smith,  jSTathan,  on  manipulation,  431 
Spinal  column  (see  Vertebrae),  475 
Spontaneous  dislocations,  463 
Statistics,  general,  395 
Sternum,  dislocations  of,  500 
Subacromial  dislocation  of  clavicle,  524 

of  shoulder,  565 
Subastragaloid  dislocations,  793 
Subclavicular  dislocation,  547 
Subcoracoid  dislocation  of  clavicle,  526 

of  shoulder,  539 
Subepicondylar  dislocation,  620 
Subglenoid  dislocation,  560 
Subscapular  artery  torn,  441 
Subspinous  dislocation  of  hip,  731 

of  shoulder,  565 
Subtricipital  dislocation,  564 
Suppuration,  409,  448 
Supra-acromial  dislocation  of  clavicle,  520 
Supracoracoid  dislocation  of  shoulder,  571 
Supracotyloid  dislocation  of  hip,  731 
Supraepicondylar  dislocation,  620 
Suprapubic  dislocation,  726 
Sus-cotyloidienne  dislocation,  731 
Symptoms,  419 
Syncope,  449 


TAKSAL  bones,  dislocation  of, 
Thumb,  dislocations  of,  681 
distal  phalanx,  689 


Thumb,  dislocations,  proximal  phalanx,  681 
Thyroid  dislocation,  720 
Tibio-tarsal  dislocation,  788 
Toes,  dislocation  of,  812 
Trapezium,  dislocation  of,  675 
Trapezoid,  dislocation  of,  675,  676 
Treatment,  425 


ULNA,  fracture  with  dislocation  of  ra- 
dius, 647 
isolated  dislocation  of,  629 
Ulnar  nerve,  injured,  407,  604,  618 
Unciform,  dislocation  of,  674 


VERTEBRA,  dislocations  of,  475 
atlas,  487 

cervical  vertebrae,  491 

classification,  476 

dorsal  vertebrae,  497 

etiology,  481 

lumbar  vertebrae,  499 

occiput,  486 

pathology,  476 

prognosis,  484 

secondary  changes,  481 

symptoms,  482 

treatment,  485 
Viscera,  injury  to,  409 
Voluntary  dislocations,  465 


WRIST,  dislocations  at,  658 
pathological,  666 


-LIGAMENT, 

ossified,  721 


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EMINENT  AMERICAN  A  UTHORITIES.  In  two  octavo  volumes  of  600-800  pages 
each,  richly  illustrated  : 

PROSTHETIC  DENTISTRY.    Edited  by  Charles  J.  EsSig,  M.D.,  D.D.S., 

Professor  of  Mechanical  Dentistry  and  Metallurgy,  Department  of  Dentistry,  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia.    760  pages,  983  engravings.    Cloth,  $6  ;  leather,  |7.    Net, 

OPERATIVE  DENTISTRY.     Edited  by  Edward  C.  Kirk,  D.D.S.,  Professor 

of  Clinical  Dentistry,  Department  of  Dentistry,  University  of  Pennsylvania.  700  pages, 
751  engravings.     Cloth,  $5.50  ;  leather,  $6.50.     Net. 


AMERICAN  SYSTEMS  OF  GYNECOLOGY  AND  OBSTETRICS.  In  treatises 
by  the  most  eminent  American  specialists.  Gynecology  edited  by  Matthew  D.  Mann, 
A.M.,  M.D.,  and  Obstetrics  edited  by  Barton  C.  Hirst,  M.D.  In  four  large  octavo 
volumes  comprising  3612  pages,  with  1092  engravings,  and  8  colored  plates.  Per  volume, 
cloth,  $5 ;  leather,  $6  ;  half  Kussia,  $7.     For  sale  by  subscription  only.     Prospectus  free. 

ASHHURST  (JOHN,  JR.).  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  SUR- 
GER  Y.  For  the  use  of  Students  and  Practitioners.  Sixth  and  revised  edition.  In  one 
large  and  handsome  8vo.  volume  of  1161  pages,  with  656  engi-avings.  Cloth,  $6  ;  leather,  $7. 

A  SYSTEM  OF  PRACTICAL  MEDICINE  BY  AMERICAN  AUTHORS.  Edited 
by  William  Pepper,  M.D.,  LL.D.  In  five  large  octavo  volumes,  containing  5573  pages 
and  198  illustrations.  Price  per  volume,  cloth,  $5 ;  leather,  $6 ;  half  Russia,  $7.  Sold 
by  subscription  only.     Prospectus  free  on  application  to  the  Publishers. 

A  PRACTICE  OF  OBSTETRICS  BY  AMERICAN  AUTHORS.  See  Jewett, 
page  9. 

ATTFIELD  (JOHN).  CHEMISTRY ;  GENERAL,  MEDICAL  AND  PHAR- 
MACEUTICAL. Fourteenth  edition,  specially  revised  by  the  Author  for  America. 
In  one  handsome  12mo.  volume  of  794  pages,  with  88  illustrations.  Cloth,  $2.75; 
leather,  $3.25. 

BALL  (CHARLES  B.).  THE  RECTUM  AND  ANUS,  THEIR  DISEASES 
AND  TREATMENT.  New  (2d)  edition.  In  one  12mo.  volume  of  453  pages,  with 
60  engravings  and  4  colored  plates.    Cloth,  $2.25.    See  Series  of  Clinical  Manuals,  page  13. 


Philadelphia,  706.  708  and  710  Sansom  St. — fifew  York,  111  Fifth  Avenue. 


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BARNES  (ROBERT  AND  FANCOURT).  A  SYSTEM  OF  OBSTETRIC  MED- 
ICINE AND  SURGERY,  THEORETICAL  AND  CLINICAL.  The  Section  on 
Embryology  by  Prop.  Milnes  Makshall.  In  one  large  octavo  volume  of  872  pages 
with  231  illustrations.     Cloth,  $5  ;  leather,  |6. 

BACON   (GORHAM)   AND  BLAKE   (CLARENCE  J.).     ON  THE  EAR.     One 

12mo.  volume,  398  pages,  with  109  engravings  and  one  colored  plate.  Just  Ready. 
Cloth,  $2,  net. 

BARTHOLO W  ( ROBERTS ) .  CHOLERA  ;  ITS  CA  USA  TION,  PRE  VENTION 
AND  TREATMENT.  In  one  12mo.  volume  of  127  pages,  with  9  illustrations. 
Cloth,  $1.25. 

BARTHOLOW  (ROBERTS).  MEDICAL  ELECTRICITY.  A  PRACTICAL 
TREATISE  ON  THE  APPLICATIONS  OF  ELECTRICITY  TO  MEDICINE 
AND  SURGERY.  Third  edition.  In  one  octavo  volume  of  308  pages,  with  110  illus- 
trations. 

BELL  (F.  JEFFREY).  COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 
In  one  12mo.  volume  of  561  pages,  with  229  engravings.  Cloth,  |2.  See  Students'  Series 
of  Manuals,  p.  14. 

BERRY  ( GEORGE  A. ) .  DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE;  A  PR  A  CTICA  L  TREA  T- 
ISE  FOR  STUDENTS  OF  OPHTHALMOLOGY.  Second  edition.  Very  hand- 
some octavo  volume  of  745  pages,  with  197  original  illustrations  in  the  text^  of  which  87 
are  exquisitely  colored.     Cloth,  |8. 

BILLINGS  (JOHN  S.).  THE  NATIONAL  MEDICAL  DICTIONARY.  Includ- 
ing in  one  alphabet  English,  French,  German,  Italian  and  Latin  Technical  Terms  used  in 
Medicine  and  the  Collateral  Sciences.  In  two  very  handsome  imperial  octavo  volumes, 
containing  1574  pages  and  two  colored  plates.  Per  volume,  cloth,  $6 ;  leather,  %1 ;  half 
Morocco,  $8.50.     For  sale  by  subscription  only.     Specimen  pages  on  application. 

BLACK  (D.  CAMPBELL).  THE  URINE  IN  HEALTH  AND  DISEASE, 
AND  URINARY  ANALYSIS,  PHYSIOLOGICALLY  AND  PATHOLOGI- 
CALLY CONSIDERED.  In  one  12mo.  volume  of  256  pages,  with  73  engravings. 
Cloth,  $2.75. 

BLOXAM  (C.  L.).  CHEMISTRY,  INORGANIC^  AND  ORGANIC.  With 
Experiments.  New  American  from  the  fifth  London  edition.  In  one  handsome  octavo 
volume  of  727  pages,  with  292  illustrations.     Cloth,  $2 ;  leather,  $3. 

BRICKNER  (SAMUEL  M.)     ON  THE  SURGICAL  PATIENT.     Preparing. 

BROADBENT  (W.  H.).  THE  PULSE.  In  one  12mo.  volume  of  317  pages,  with 
59  engravings.     Cloth,  $1.75.     See  Series  of  Clinical  Manuals,  page  13. 

BROWNE  ( LENNOX ) .  THE  THR OAT  AND  NOSE  AND  THEIR  DISEASES. 
New  (4th)  and  enlarged  edition.  In  one  imperial  octavo  volume  of  751  pages,  with  235 
engravings  and  120  illustrations  in  color.     Cloth,  $6.50. 

KOCH'S   REMEDY   IN   RELATION   ESPECIALLY    TO    THROAT 

CONSUMPTION.  In  one  octavo  volume  of  121  pages,  with  45  illustrations,  4  of 
which  are  colored,  and  17  charts.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

BRUCE    (J.    MITCHELL).     MATERIA    MEDIC  A    AND    THERAPEUTICS. 

New  (6th)  edtion.  In  one  12mo.  volume  of  600  pages.  Shortly,  See  Students'  Series  of 
Manuals,  page  14. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  TREATMENT.     In  one  octavo  volume.     Preparing. 

BRUNTON  (T.  LAUDER).  A  MANUAL  OF  PHARMACOLOGY,  THERA- 
PEUTICS AND  MATERIA  MEDIC  A  ;  including  the  Pharmacy,  the  Physiological 
Action  and  the  Therapeutical  Uses  of  Drugs.     In  one  octavo  volume. 

BRYANT  (THOMAS).  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SURGERY.  Fourth  American 
from  the  fourth  English  edition.  In  one  imperial  octavo  volume  of  1040  pages,  with  727 
illustrations.     Cloth,  $6.50 ;  leather,  $7.50. 

BUMSTEAD  (F.  J.)  AND  TAYLOR  (R.  W.).  THE  PATHOLOGY  AND 
TREATMENT  OF  VENEREAL  DISEASES.  See  Taylor  on  Venereal  Diseases, 
page  15. 

BURCH ARD  ( HENRY  H. ) .  DENTAL  PA THOL OGY  AND  THERA PE UTICS, 
INCLUDING  PHARMACOLOGY.  Handsome  octavo,  575  pages,  with  400  illus- 
trations.    Just  ready.     Cloth,  $5  ;  leather,  $6.     (Net.) 


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BURNETT  (CHARLES  H.).  THE  EAR:  ITS  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY 
AND  DISEASES.  A  Practical  Treatise  for  tlie  Use  of  Students  and  Practitioners. 
Second  edition.  In  one  8vo.  volume  of  580  pages,  with  107  illustrations.  Cloth,  $4 ; 
leather,  %b. 

BUTLIN  (HENRY  T.).  DISEASES  OF  THE  TONGUE.  In  one  pocket-size 
12mo.  volume  of  456  pages,  with  8  colored  plates  and  3  engravings.     Limp  cloth,  $3.50. 

See  Sei'ies  of  Clinical  Manuals,  page  13. 

CARTER  (R.  BRUDENELL)  AND  FROST  (W.  ADAMS).  OPHTHALMIC 
SURGERY.  In  one  pocket-size  12mo.  volume  of  559  pages,  with  91  engravings  and 
one  plate.     Cloth,  $2.25.     See  Series  of  Clinical  Manuals,  page  13. 

OASPARI  (CHARLES,  JR.).  A  TREATISE  ON  PHARMACY.  For  Students 
and  Pharmacists.  In  one  handsome  octavo  volume  of  680  pages,  with  288  illustrations. 
Cloth,  $4.50. 

CHAPMAN  (HENRY  C).    A  TREATISE  ON  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY.    In 

one  octavo  volume  of  925  pages,  with  605  illustrations.     Cloth,  $5.50 ;  leather,  $6.50. 

CHARLES  (T.  CRANSTOUN).  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL 
AND  PATHOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY.  In  one  handsome  octavo  volume  of  451 
pages,  with  38  engi-avings  and  1  colored  plate.     Cloth,  $3.50. 

OHEYNE  (W.  WATSON).  THE  TREATMENT  OF  WOUNDS,  ULCERS 
AND  ABSCESSES.     In  one  12mo.  volume  of  207  pages.     Cloth,  $1.25. 

CHURCHILL   (FLEETWOOD).     ESSAYS  ON  THE  PUERPERAL  FEVER. 

In  one  octavo  volume  of  464  pages.     Cloth,  $2.50. 

CLARKE  (W.  B.)  AND  LOCKWOOD  (C.  B.).     THE  DISSECTOR'S  MANUAL. 

In  one  12mo.  volume  of  396  pages,  with  49  engravings.     Cloth,  $1.50.     See  Students'  Series 
<3f  Manuals,  page  14. 

CLELAND  (JOHN).  A  DIRECTORY  FOR  THE  DISSECTION  OF  THE 
HUMAN  BODY.     In  one  12mo.  volume  of  178  pages.     Cloth,  $1.25. 

CLINICAL  MANUALS.     See  ASerie.s  of  Clinical  Manuals,  page  13. 

CLOUSTON  (THOMAS  S.).  CLINICAL  LECTURES  ON  MENTAL  DIS- 
EASES.  New  (5th)  edition.     Crown  8vo.,  of  736  pages  with  19  colored  plates.     Cloth, 

c§4. 25,  net.     Just  Ready. 

.S^^  Folsom's  Abstract  of  Laws  of  U.S.  on  Custody  of  Insane,  octavo,  $1.50,  is  sold  in 
conjunction  with  Clouston  on  Mental  Diseases  for  $5.00,  net,  for  the  two  works. 

tJLOWES    (FRANK).  AN  ELEMENTARY    TREATISE    ON  PRACTICAL 

CHEMISTRY  AND  QUALITATIVE  INORGANIC  ANALYSIS.    From  the 

fourth  English  edition.  In  one  handsome  12mo.  volume  of  387  pages,  with  55  engrav- 
ings.    Cloth,  $2.50. 

COAKLEY  (CORNELIUS  G.).  THE  DIAGNOSIS  AND  TREATMENT  OF 
DISEASES  OF  THE  NOSE,  THROAT,  NASO-PHARYNX  AND  TRACHEA. 
lu  one  12mo.  volume  of  about  400  pages,  fully  illustrated.     Preparing. 

COATS  (JOSEPH).  A  TREATISE  ON  PATHOLOGY.  In  one  volume  of  829 
pages,  with  339  engravings.     Cloth,  $5.50 ;  leather,  $6.50. 

COLEMAN  (ALFRED).  A  MANUAL  OF  DENTAL  SURGERY  AND  PATH- 
OL OGY.  V\  ith  Notes  and  Additions  to  adapt  it  to  American  Practice.  By  Thos.  C. 
.'Stelltvagen,  M.A.,  M.D.,  D.D.S.  In  one  handsome  octavo  volume  of  412  pages,  with 
:331  engravings.     Cloth,  $3.25. 

tJONDIE  (D.  FRANCIS).  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  DISEASES 
OF  CHILDREN.  Sixth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  In  one  large  8vo.  volume  of 
719  pages.     Cloth,  $5.25  ;  leather,  $6.25. 

CORNIL  (V.).  SYPHILIS:  ITS  MORBID  ANATOMY,  DIAGNOSIS  AND 
TREATMENT.  Translated,  with  Notes  and  Additions,  by  J.  Henry  C.  Simes,  M.D., 
and  J.  William  White,  M.D.  In  one  8vo.  volume  of  461  pages,  with  84  illustrations. 
■Cloth,  $3.75. 

CULBRETH  ( DAVID  M.  R. ) .    MA  TERIA  MEDIC  A  AND  PHARMA  OOLOGY. 

In  one  handsome  octavo  volume  of  812  pages,  with  445  engravings.     Cloth,  $4.75. 


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CULVER  (E.  M.)  AND  HAYDEN  (J.  R.).     MANUAL  OF  VENEREAL  DIS- 
EASES.    In  one  12mo.  volume  of  289  pages,  with  33  engravingh;.     Clotli,  81.75. 

DALTON   (JOHN   C).    A  TREATISE  ON  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY.    Seventh 
edition,  thoroughly  revised.  Octavo  of  722  pages, with  252  engi-avings.  Cloth,  §5;  ]eather,56. 

DOCTRINES  OF  THE  CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD.    In  one  hand- 


some 12mo.  volume  of  293  pages.     Cloth,  $2. 

DAVENPORT  (F.  H.).  DISEASES  OF  WOMEN.  A  Manual  of  Gynecology. 
For  the  use  of  Students  and  General  Practitioners.  New  (3d)  edition.  In  one  hand- 
some 12mo.  volume,  387  pages  and  150  engravings.     Cloth,  §1.75,  net.     Just  Ready. 

DAVIS  (F.H.).  LECTURES  ON  CLINICAL  MEDICINE.  Second  edition.  In 
one  12mo.  volume  of  287  pages.     Cloth,  $1.75. 

DAVIS  (EDWARD  P.).  A  TREATISE  ON  OBSTETRICS.  For  Students  and 
Practitioners.  In  one  very  handsome  octavo  volume  of  546  pages,  with  217  engravings, 
and  30  full-page  plates  in  colors  and  monochrome.     Cloth,  $5 ;  leather,  $6. 

DE  LA  HECHE'S  GEOLOGICAL  OBSER  VER.  In  one  large  octavo  volume  of  700 
pages,  with  300  engravings.     Cloth,  $4. 

DENNIS  (FREDERIC  S.)  AND  BILLINGS  (JOHN  S,).  A  SYSTEM  OF 
SURGERY.  In  Contributions  by  American  Authors.  In  four  very  handsome  octavo 
volumes,  containing  3652  pages,  with  1585  engravings,  and  45  full-page  plates  in  colors 
and  monochrome.  Complete  work  just  ready.  Per  volume,  cloth,  §6 ;  leather,  $7 ;  half 
Morocco,  gilt  back  and  top,  $8.50.     For  sale  by  subscription  only.     Full  prospectus  free. 

DERCUM  (FRANCIS  X.),  Editor.  A  TEXT-BOOK  ON  NERVOUS  DIS- 
EASES. By  American  Authors.  In  one  handsome  octavo  volume  of  1054  pages,  with 
341  engravings  and  7  colored  plates.     Cloth,  $6 ;  leather,  |7.     {Net. ) 

DE  SCHWEINITZ  (GEORGE  E.).  THE  TOXIC  AMBLYOPIAS ,■  THEIR 
CLASSIFICATION,  HISTORY,  SYMPTOMS,  PATHOLOGY  AND  TREAT- 
MENT. Very  handsome  octavo,  240  pages,  46  engravings,  and  9  full-page  plates  in 
colors.     Limited  edition,  de  luxe  binding,  $4.     {Net.) 

DRAPER  (JOHN  C).  MEDICAL  PHYSICS.  A  Text-book  for  Students  and  Prac- 
titioners of  Medicine.     Octavo  of  734  pages,  with  376  engravings.     Cloth,  $4. 

DRUITT  (ROBERT).  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  MODERN 
SURGERY.  A  new  American,  from  the  twelfth  London  edition,  edited  by  Stajstley 
Boyd,  F.R.C.S.     Large  octavo,  965  pages,  with  373  engravings.     Cloth,  $4 ;  leather,  $5. 

DUANE  (ALEXANDER ) .  THE  STUDENT'S  DICTIONAR  Y  OF  MEDICINE 
AND  THE  ALLIED  SCIENCES.  Comprising  the  Pronunciation,  Derivation  and 
Full  Explanation  of  Medical  Terms.  Together  with  much  Collateral  Descriptive  Matter, 
Numerous  Tables,  etc.  New  edition.  With  Appendix.  Square  octavo  volume  of  690  pages. 
Cloth,  $3 ;  half  leather,  $3.25  ;  full  sheep,  $3.75.     Thumb-letter  Index,  50  cents  extra. 

DUDLEY  (E.  C).  A  TREATISE  ON  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACIICE 
OF  GYNECOLOGY.  For  Students  and  Practitioners.  In  one  very  handsome  octavo 
volume  of  652  pages,  with  422  engravings,  of  which  47  are  colored,  and  2  full  page 
plates  in  colors  and  monochrome.     Cloth,  $5.00,  net;  leather,  $6.00,  net. 

DUNCAN  (J.  MATTHEWS).  CLINICAL  LECTURES  ON  THE  DISEASES 
OF  WOMEN.  Delivered  in  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital.  In  one  octavo  volume  of 
175  pages.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

DUNGLISON  (ROBLEY).  A  DICTIONARY  OF  MEDICAL  SCIENCE.  Con- 
taining a  full  Explanation  of  the  Various  Subjects  and  Terras  of  Anatomy,  Physiology, 
Medical  Chemistry,  Pharmacy,  Pharmacology,  Therapeutics,  Medicine,  Hygiene,  Dietetics, 
Pathology,  Surgery,  Ophthalmology,  Otology,  Laryngology,  Dermatology,  Gynecology, 
Obstetrics,  Pediatrics,  Medical  Jurisprudence,  Dentistry,  etc.,  etc.  By  Eobley  Dtjngli- 
SON,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  late  Professor  of  Institutes  of  Medicine  in  the  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
lege of  Philadelphia.  Edited  by  Kichaed  J.  Dttnglison,  A.M.,  M.D.  Twenty-first 
edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  greatly  enlarged  and  improved,  with  the  Pronunciation. 
Accentuation  and  Derivation  of  the  Terms.  With  Appendix.  Imperial  octavo  of  1225 
pages.     Cloth,  $7  ;  leather,  $8.     Thumb-letter  Index,  75  cents  extra. 

DUNHAM  (EDWARD  K.).  MORBID  AND  NORMAL  HISTOLOGY.  Octavo, 
450  pages,  with  360  illustrations.     Cloth,  $3.25,  net.     Jmt  Ready. 


Philadelphia,  706,  708  and  710  Sansom  St — IVew  York,  111  Fifth  Avenue. 


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EDES  (ROBERT  T.).  TEXT-BOOK  OF  THERAPEUTICS  AND  MATESIA 
MEDIC  A.     In  one  8vo.  volume  of  544  pages.     Cloth,  $3.50;  leather,  $4.50. 

EDIS  (ARTHUR  W.).  DISEASES  OF  WOMEN.  A  Manual  for  Students  and 
Practitioners.  In  one  handsome  8vo.  volume  of  576  pages,  with  148  engravings. 
Cloth,  $3 ;  leather,  $4. 

EGBERT  (SENECA).  HYGIENE  AND  SANITATION.  In  one  12mo.  volume  of 
359  pages,  with  63  illustrations.     Just  ready.     Cloth,  $2.25,  net. 

ELLIS  (GEORGE  VINER).  DEMONSTRATIONS  IN  ANATOMY.  Being  a 
Guide  to  the  Knowledge  of  the  Human  Body  by  Dissection.  From  the  eighth  and  revised 
English  edition.     Octavo,  716  pages,  with  249  engravings.     Cloth,  $4.25 ;  leather,  $5.25. 

EMMET  (THOMAS  ADDIS).  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF 
G  YNJECOL  OOY.  For  the  use  of  Students  and  Practitioners.  Third  edition,  enlarged 
and  revised.     8vo.  of  880  pages,  with  150  original  engravings.     Cloth,  $5  ;  leather,  $6. 

ERICHSEN  (JOHN  E.l.  THE  SCIENCE^  AND  ART  OF  SURGERY.  A  new 
American  from  the  eighth  enlarged  and  revised  London  edition.  In  two  large  octavo 
volumes  containing  2316  pages,  with  984  engravings.     Cloth,  $9  ;  leather,  $11. 

ESSIG  (CHARLES  J.).  PROSTHETIC  DENTISTRY.  See  Amencan  Text-books 
of  Dentistry,  page  2. 

FARQUH ARSON  (ROBERT).  A  GUIDE  TO  THERAPEUTICS.  Fourth 
American  from  fourth  English  edition,  revised  by  Frank  Woodbury,  M.D.  In  one 
12mo.  volume  of  581  pages.     Cloth,  $2.50. 

FIELD    (GEORGE   P.).    A  MANUAL  OF  DISEASES  OF  THE  EAR.    Fourth 

edition.     Octavo,  391  pages,  with  73  engravings  and  21  colored  plates.     Cloth,  $3.75. 

FLINT  (AUSTIN).  A  TREATISE  ON  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE 
OF  MEDICINE.  New  (7th)  edition,  thoroughly  revised  by  Frederick  P.  Henry, 
M.D.     In  one  large  8vo.  volume  of  1143  pages,  with  engravings.     Cloth,  $5 ;  leather,  $6. 

A  MANUAL  OF  AUSCULTATION  AND  PERCUSSION ;  of  the  Physi- 
cal Diagnosis  of  Diseases  of  the  Lungs  and  Heart,  and  of  Thoracic  Aneurism.  Fifth 
edition,  revised  by  Jajvies  C.  Wilson,  M.D.  In  one  handsome  12mo.  volume  of  274 
pages,  with  12  engravings. 

A   PRACTICAL    TREATISE   ON  THE  DIAGNOSIS  AND    TREAT- 


MENT OF  DISEASES  OF   THE  HEART.    Second  edition,  enlarged.     In  one 
octavo  volume  of  550  pages.     Cloth,  $4. 

A   PRACTICAL   TREATISE  ON  THE  PHYSICAL  EXPLORATION 


OF  THE  CHEST,  AND  THE  DIAGNOSIS  OF  DISEASES  AFFECTING 
THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS.  Second  and  revised  edition.  In  one  octavo  vol- 
ume of  591  pages.     Cloth,  $4.50. 

MEDICAL  ESSA  YS.     In  one  12mo.  volume  of  210  pages.     Cloth,  $1.38. 

ON  PHTHISIS:  ITS  MORBID  ANATOMY,  ETIOLOGY,  ETC.    A  Series 


of  Clinical  Lectures.     In  one  8vo.  volume  of  442  pages.     Cloth,  $3.50. 

FOLSOM  (C.  F.).  AN  ABSTRACT  OF  STATUTES  OF  U.  S.  ON  CUSTODY 
OF  THE  INSANE.  In  one  8vo.  volume  of  108  pages.  Cloth,  $1.50.  With  Qouston 
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FOSTER  (MICHAEL).  A  TEXT-BOOK  OF  PHYSIOLOGY.  New  (6th)  and 
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pages,  with  257  illustrations.     Cloth,  $4.50 ;  leather,  $5.50. 

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FULLER  (EUGENE).  DISORDERS  OF  THE  SEXUAL  ORGANS  IN  THE 
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GROSS  (SAMUEL  D.).  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  DISEASES, 
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THE  PROSTATE  GLAND  AND  THE  URETHRA.  Third  edition,  revised  by 
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HABERSHON  (S.  0.).  ON  THE  DISEASES  OF  THE  ABDOMEN,  comprising 
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HODGE  (HUGH  L.).  ON  DISEASES  PECULIAR  TO  WOMEN,  INCLUDING 
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8vo.  volume  of  519  pages,  with  illustrations.     Cloth,  $4.50. 

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HOLDEN  (LUTHER).  LANDMARKS,  MEDICAL  AND  SURGICAL.  From 
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HUDSON  (A.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  STUDY  OF  FEVER.  In  one  octavo 
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MULLER  (J.).  PRINCIPLES  OF  PHYSIOS  AND  METEOROLOGY.  In  one 
large  8vo.  volume  of  623  pages,  with  538  engravings.     Cloth,  $4.50. 

MUSSER  (JOHN  H.).  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  MEDICAL  DIAG- 
NOSIS, for  Students  and  Physicians.  New  (2d)  edition.  In  one  octavo  volume  of 
931  pages,  illustrated  with  177  engravings  and  11  full-page  colored  plates.  Cloth,  $5 ; 
leather,  $6. 

NATIONAL  DISPENSATORY.     See  Stille,  Maisch  &  Caspari,  page  14. 

NATIONAL  FORMULARY.  See  Stille,  Maisch  &  Caspari's  National  Dispematory, 
page  14. 

NATIONAL  MEDICAL  DICTIONARY.     See  Billings,  page  3. 

NETTLESHIP  (E.).  DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE.  New  (5th)  American  from  sixth 
English  edition.  Thoroughly  revised.  In  one  12mo.  volume  of  521  pages,  with  161 
engravings,  2  colored  plates,  test-types,  formulae  and  color-blindness  test.     Cloth,  -52.25. 

Jtist  ready. 

NORRIS  (WM.  F.)  AND  OLIVER  (CHAS.  A.).  TEXT-BOOK  OF  OPHTHAL- 
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plates.     Cloth,  |5  ;  leather,  $6. 

OWEN  (EDMUND).     SURGICAL  DISEASES  OF  CHILDREN.     In  one  12mo. 

volume  of  525  pages,  with  85  engravings  and  4  colored  plates.     Cloth,  $2.     See  Series  of 
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PARK  (ROSWELL),  Editor.  A  TREATISE  ON  SURGERY,  by  American  Authors. 
For  Students  and  Practitioners  of  Surgery  and  Medicine.  In  two  magnificent  octavo 
volumes.  Vol.  I.,  General  Surgery,  799  pages,  with  356  engravings  and  21  full-page  plates 
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PARRY  (JOHN  S.).  EXTRA-UTERINE  PREGNANCY,  ITS  CLINICAL 
HISTORY,  DIAGNOSIS,  PROGNOSIS  AND  TREATMENT.  In  one  octavo 
volume  of  272  pages.     Cloth,  $2.50. 

PARVIN  (THEOPHILUS).     THE  SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  OBSTETRICS. 

Third  edition      In  one  handsome  octavo  volume  of  677  pages,  mth  267  engravings  and 
2  colored  plates.     Cloth,  $4.25;  leather,  $5  25. 

PAYNE  (JOSEPH  FRANK).  A  MANUAL  OF  GENERAL  PATHOLOGY. 
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pages,  with  153  engravings  and  1  colored  plate. 

PEPPER'S  SYSTEM  OF  MEDICINE.    See  page  2. 

PEPPER  (A.  J.).     SURGICAL  PATHOLOGY.     In  one  12mo  volume  of  511  pages, 

with  81  engravings.     Cloth,  $2.     See  Students^  Series  of  Manuals,  page  14. 

PICK  (T.  PICKERING).     FRACTURES  AND  DISLOCATIONS.    In  one  12mo. 

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PLAYFAIR   (W.  S.).    A  TREATISE  ON  THE  SCIENCE  AND  PRACTICE 
OF  MIDWIFERY.     New  (7th)  American  from  the  Ninth  English  edition.     In  one 
octavo  volume  of  700  pages,  with  207  engravings  and  7  full  page  plates.     Cloth,  $3.75,  net; 
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POCKET  FORMULARY.     See  page  1. 


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Translated  by  Oscar  Dodd,  M.D  ,  and  edited  by  Sir  William  Dalby,  F.R.C.S.  In 
one  octavo  volume  of  748  pages,  with  330  original  engravings. 

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PROGRESSIVE  MEDICINE.    See  page  1. 

PURDY  (CHARLES  W.).  BRIGHT'S  DISEASE  AND  ALLIED  AFFEC- 
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QUIZ  SERIES.     See  Students'  Quiz  Series,  page  14. 

RALFE  (CHARLES  H.).  CLINICAL  CHEMISTRY.  In  one  12mo.  volume  of 
314  pages,  with  16  engravings.     Cloth,  $1.50.     See  Students'  Series  of  Manuxils, 'page  14. 

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640  pages,  with  64  plates  and  numerous  engi'avings  in  the  text.  Strongly  bound  in 
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REMSEN    (IRA).     THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  THEORETICAL    CHEMISTRY. 

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ROBERTS  (SIR  WILLIAM).  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  URINARY 
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ROBERTSON  (J.  McGREGOR).    PHYSIOLOGICAL  PHYSICS.    In  one  12mo 

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SAVAGE  (GEORGE  H.).  INSANITY  AND  ALLIED  NEUROSES,  PRACTI- 
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551  pages,  with  18  typical  engravings.   Cloth,  $2.    See  Series  of  Clinical  Manuals,  page  13. 

SCHAFER  ( EDWARD  A. ) .  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  HISTOL OGY,  DESCRIP- 
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SCHREIBER  (JOSEPH).  A  MANUAL  OF  TREATMENT  BY  MASSAGE 
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TAIT  (L AWSON ) .  DISEASES  OF  WOMEN  AND  ABD  OMINAL  S UR GER  Y. 
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TANNER  (THOMAS  HAWKES).  ON  THE  SIGNS  AND  DISEASES  OF 
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TAYLOR  (ROBERT  W.).  THE  PATHOLOGY  AND  TREATMENT  OF 
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THOMAS  (T.  GAILLARD)  AND  MUNDE  (PAUL  F.).  ^  PRACTICAL 
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THOMPSON  (SIR  HENRY).  CLINICAL  LECTURES  ON  DISEASES  OF 
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203  pages,  with  25  engravings.     Cloth,  $2.25. 

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THOMSON  (JOHN).  A  GUIDE  TO  THE  CLINICAL  EXAMINATION  AND 
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TREVES  (FREDERICK).  OPERATIVE  SURGERY.  In  two  8vo.  volumes  con- 
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A  SYSTEM  OF  SURGERY.  In  Contributions  by  Twenty-five  English  Sur- 
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THE  STUDENTS'  HANDBOOK  OF  SURGICAL  OPERATIONS.    In 


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SURGICAL  APPLIED  ANATOMY.    In  one  12mo.  volume  of  583  pages 


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INTESTINAL  OBSTRUCTION.    In  one  12mo.  volume  of  522  pages,  with  60 


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TUKE  (DANIEL  HACK).  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  MIND  UPON  TEE 
BODY  IN  HEALTH  AND  DISEASE.  Second  edition.  In  one  8vo.  volume  of 
467  pages,  with  2  colored  plates.     Cloth,  $3. 

VAUGHAN  (VICTOR  C.)  AND  NOVY  (FREDERICK  G.).  PTO MAINS, 
LEUCO MAINS,  TOXINS  AND  ANTITOXINS,  or  the  Chemical  Factors  in  the 
Causation  of  Disease.     Third  edition.     In  one  12mo.  volume  of  603  pages.     Cloth,  $3. 


Philadelphia,  706,  708  and  710  Sansom  St.— New  York,  111  Fifth  Avenue. 


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VISITING  LIST.  THE  MEDICAL  NEWS  VISITING  LIST  for  1899.  Four 
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WATSON  (THOMAS).  LECTURES  ON  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRAC- 
TICE OF  PHYSIC.  A  new  American  from  the  fifth  and  enlarged  English  edition, 
with  additions  by  H.  Hartshorne,  M.D.  In  two  large  8vo.  volumes  of  1840  pages,  with 
190  engravings.     Cloth,  $9 ;  leather,  |11. 

WEST  (CHARLES).  LECTURES  ON  THE  DISEASES  PECULIAR  TO 
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ON  SOME  DISORDERS  OF   THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  IN  CHILD- 


HOOD.    In  'one  small  12mo.  volume  of  127  pages.     Cloth,  $1. 

WHARTON  (HENRY  R.).  MINOR  SURGERY  AND  BANDAGING.  Third 
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YEAR  BOOK  OF  TREATMENT  FOR  1899.  A  Critical  Eeview  for  Practitioners  of 
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YEO  (I.  BURNEY).    FOOD  IN  HEALTH  AND  DISEASE.    New  (2d)  edition. 

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